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Okeyo FA, Nyang'echi E, Guyah B. Determinants of diarrheal disease in children undergoing complementary feeding in a low-income urban setting in Kenya. Trop Med Int Health 2024; 29:813-819. [PMID: 38993128 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.14035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to identify and characterise the determinants influencing the occurrence of diarrheal diseases in children aged 6-24 months undergoing complementary feeding within a low-income urban community in Kenya. METHODS This study followed a cross-sectional design and recruited caregivers of children aged 6-24 months from 302 households. The dependent variable was the 2-week diarrhoea prevalence among children, with independent variables including sociodemographic characteristics, child immunisation and feeding status, and water and sanitation facilities. Data analysis was performed using SPSS. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analyses were used to assess associations between independent variables and the occurrence of diarrheal diseases. RESULTS The majority of caregivers were female (n = 282, 93.4%), aged 25-34 years (n = 156, 51.7%), had attained secondary school education (n = 154, 51%), were unemployed (n = 162, 53.6%), and earned Ksh 10,000 (USD 100) or less. 296 (98%) indexed children were fully vaccinated against rotavirus. Most households used improved drinking water sources (n = 272, 90.1%). Most caregivers did not regularly wash their hands with soap and water (n = 225, 74.5%). The 2-week diarrhoea prevalence among children was 34.1% (103/302), with 69.9% (72/103) of these cases seeking care at a healthcare facility. Logistic regression analysis revealed that children of caregivers earning Ksh 20,000 and below (aOR = 2.9[1.3-6.5], p = 0.01), and those from households using unimproved sanitation facilities (aOR = 1.9 [CI 1-3.4], p = 0.042), had significantly higher odds of having diarrhoea. CONCLUSION The study found a high prevalence of diarrhoea in Kenyan children aged 6-24 months, with caregiver income and household sanitation facilities significantly impacting the occurrence of the disease. The study suggests integrated approaches, including education, income generation, hygiene, and improved nutrition, to address the burden of diarrheal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Bernard Guyah
- School of Public Health, Maseno University, Kisumu, Kenya
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Adhikari S, Anthony S, Baleinamau P, Coriakula J, Daurewa T, Devi R, Gavidi S, Horwitz P, Hunter EC, Jenkins A, Jupiter S, Lalamacuata M, Mailautoka K, Mangubhai S, Naivalu K, Naivalulevu T, Naivalulevu V, Nasim N, Naucunivanua S, Negin J, van Nimwegen P, Ratu A, Ravoka M, Tukana A, van de Vossenberg J, Wilson D, Thomas J. An assessment of latrine front-end characteristics and associated surface E. coli indicated faecal contamination in rural Fiji. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:52948-52962. [PMID: 39164561 PMCID: PMC11379791 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-34668-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 08/22/2024]
Abstract
In Fiji, 90% of the population has access to basic sanitation; however, there are still persistent health risks from endemic faecal-oral diseases such as typhoid fever. There is a need to assess the contribution of existing sanitation facilities in the faecal pathogen transmission pathway. This study was conducted as part of a larger planetary health study across 29 rural communities within five river catchments. This specific research aimed to characterise latrine front-ends, both infrastructure and usage behaviour, and to assess the faecal contamination levels on various frequently contacted latrine surfaces in rural Fiji. A sanitation survey, along with observation and latrine swab sampling, was conducted in households over three phases: baseline (n = 311) (Aug-Dec 2019), endline (n = 262) (Jun-Sep 2022) and an in-depth front-end study (n = 12) (Oct-Nov 2022). Of 311 households, almost all had pedestal-type latrines, predominately cistern-flush (83%), followed by pour-flush (13%), and then hole-type (pit) latrines (4%). Washable latrine floors had significantly higher E. coli densities (6.7 × 102 CFU/25 cm2) compared to non-washable floors (1.3 × 102 CFU/25 cm2) (p = 0.05), despite washable floors indicating improved latrines. The in-depth front-end analysis found that moist latrine surfaces had significantly elevated E. coli densities (1.2 × 103 CFU/25 cm2) compared to the dry ones (14.3 CFU/25 cm2) (p < 0.001), highlighting the importance of maintaining dry latrine surfaces. Latrine floors and mid-walls were the most frequently contaminated surfaces, emphasising the need to clean and disinfect these surfaces. Only 46% of the households reported always using soap for handwashing after defecation, exacerbating the risk of transmitting faecal pathogens. This study highlights that latrine cleanliness and hygiene are as crucial as latrine infrastructures for the effective disruption of faecal pathogens transmission during latrine use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabita Adhikari
- School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Darlington, NSW, 2006, Australia.
| | - Shylett Anthony
- Fiji Institute of Pacific Health Research, College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Fiji National University, Hoodless House, Suva, Fiji
| | - Ponipate Baleinamau
- Fiji Institute of Pacific Health Research, College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Fiji National University, Hoodless House, Suva, Fiji
| | - Jeremaia Coriakula
- Fiji Institute of Pacific Health Research, College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Fiji National University, Hoodless House, Suva, Fiji
| | - Thompson Daurewa
- Fiji Institute of Pacific Health Research, College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Fiji National University, Hoodless House, Suva, Fiji
| | - Rachel Devi
- Fiji Institute of Pacific Health Research, College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Fiji National University, Hoodless House, Suva, Fiji
| | - Sikeli Gavidi
- Fiji Institute of Pacific Health Research, College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Fiji National University, Hoodless House, Suva, Fiji
| | - Pierre Horwitz
- Centre for People, Place, and Planet, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Erin C Hunter
- Department of Public Health Sciences, College of Behavioural, Social and Health Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, USA
| | - Aaron Jenkins
- Centre for People, Place, and Planet, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Stacy Jupiter
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Melanesia Program, Suva, Fiji
| | - Maria Lalamacuata
- Fiji Institute of Pacific Health Research, College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Fiji National University, Hoodless House, Suva, Fiji
| | - Kinikoto Mailautoka
- Fiji Institute of Pacific Health Research, College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Fiji National University, Hoodless House, Suva, Fiji
| | - Sangeeta Mangubhai
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Fiji Program, Suva, Fiji
- Talanoa Consulting, 42 Knollys Street, Suva, Fiji
| | - Kelera Naivalu
- Fiji Institute of Pacific Health Research, College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Fiji National University, Hoodless House, Suva, Fiji
| | - Timoci Naivalulevu
- Fiji Institute of Pacific Health Research, College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Fiji National University, Hoodless House, Suva, Fiji
| | - Vilisi Naivalulevu
- Fiji Institute of Pacific Health Research, College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Fiji National University, Hoodless House, Suva, Fiji
| | - Nabeela Nasim
- School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Darlington, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | | | - Joel Negin
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | | | - Anaseini Ratu
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Mereia Ravoka
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Fiji Program, Suva, Fiji
| | - Andrew Tukana
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Fiji Program, Suva, Fiji
| | - Jack van de Vossenberg
- Water Supply, Sanitation and Environmental Engineering Department, IHE Delft Institute of Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Donald Wilson
- Fiji Institute of Pacific Health Research, College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Fiji National University, Hoodless House, Suva, Fiji
| | - Jacqueline Thomas
- School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Darlington, NSW, 2006, Australia
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Nalugya A, Ssempebwa JC, Muleme J, Wafula ST, Tamale BN, Tigaiza A, Nakalembe D, Kansiime WK, Isunju JB, Ssekamatte T, Mugambe RK. Exposure behaviour to Escherichia coli among households in Imvepi refugee settlement, Terego district Uganda. BMC Public Health 2024; 24:2041. [PMID: 39080627 PMCID: PMC11290189 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-024-19525-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Exposure to Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a risk factor for diarrhoeal diseases, which pose a significant problem in refugee settlements. Refugee populations are exposed to faecal microorganisms through multiple pathways including sub-optimal sanitary facilities, contaminated drinking water, produce and food, flood water, bathing water, and soil among others. While these pathways are well-documented, specific exposure behaviours remain underexplored. We assessed exposure behaviour to E. coli among households in Imvepi refugee settlement, Uganda, and provided evidence-based recommendations for the design of interventions to reduce excreta-related disease in refugee settlements. METHODS Guided by the Sanitation Safety Planning approach, we surveyed 426 households in Imvepi refugee settlement, Uganda, using a digitized questionnaire and an observation checklist. We collected data on the background characteristics and exposure behaviour of women and emancipated girls (minors living on their own, having borne a child, married, or pregnant). The outcome variable, E. coli exposure behaviour, was measured using a five-point Likert scale, assessing behaviours that increase the risk of exposure. Data were cleaned in Microsoft Excel and analyzed in Stata version 17. Descriptive statistics were performed to summarize the data. We used modified Poisson regression to determine the factors associated with the outcome. RESULTS Over 59.4% (253) exhibited high-risk exposure behaviour. Residing in compound homes (Adjusted Prevalence Ratio (APR) = 0.72, 95% Confidence interval (CI): 0.58-0.90), being aged 35-49 years (APR = 0.76, 95% CI: 0.60-0.97), having household heads with post-primary education (APR = 0.54, 95% CI: 0.38-0.77), high knowledge (APR = 0.69, 95% CI: 0.59-0.80), and high-risk perceptions regarding exposure to E. coli (APR = 0.75, 95% CI: 0.64-0.88) were associated with a lower prevalence of high-risk E. coli exposure behaviours. Conversely, having sanitary facilities with excreta overflowing from the squat hole (APR = 1.26, 95% CI: 1.08-1.48) was associated with a higher prevalence of high-risk exposure behaviours. CONCLUSION The study indicates a substantial prevalence of high-risk E. coli exposure behaviours in the refugee settlement.. There's a need to implement behaviour change interventions targeted at preventing or minimizing exposure, especially among households whose heads have low education attainment, those with young caretakers and those with limited knowledge and low-risk perceptions regarding exposure to E. coli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aisha Nalugya
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University, P.O Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda.
- SWEEM Health Consult Limited, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - John C Ssempebwa
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University, P.O Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
| | - James Muleme
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University, P.O Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Solomon T Wafula
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University, P.O Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Bridget Nagawa Tamale
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University, P.O Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
- SWEEM Health Consult Limited, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Arnold Tigaiza
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University, P.O Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Doreen Nakalembe
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University, P.O Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
- SWEEM Health Consult Limited, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Winnifred K Kansiime
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University, P.O Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
| | - John Bosco Isunju
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University, P.O Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Tonny Ssekamatte
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University, P.O Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
- SWEEM Health Consult Limited, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Richard K Mugambe
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University, P.O Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
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Xu C, Lu S, Cidan Y, Wang H, Sun G, Saleem MU, Ataya FS, Zhu Y, Wangdui-Basang, Li K. Microbiome analysis reveals alteration in water microbial communities due to livestock activities. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:47298-47314. [PMID: 38995335 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-34334-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 07/04/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
The Baihe River, a tributary of the Yellow River located in the Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture in Northern Sichuan, is surrounded by natural resources suitable for animal development. However, the impact of livestock activities water microbiome in this area remains unexplored. This study collected water samples from areas with captive yaks and sheep (NS and YS) and compared them with water samples from Hongyuan Baihe River. Through amplicon sequencing, we investigated the impact of livestock activities on aquatic microorganisms. Diversity analysis, significance analysis, and microbial phenotype prediction indicated a significant decrease in microbial community diversity and function in the NS and YS groups. Pathogenic microorganisms such as Bacteroidales and Thelebolaceae and antibiotic-resistant bacteria genes such as Flavobacteriales and Burkholderiaceae were significantly higher in livestock breeding areas. Additionally, bacteria adapted to acidification, hypoxia, and eutrophication (e.g., Acidobacteria, Flavobacteriales, Deltaproteobacteria, Rhodobacterales) were more abundant in these areas. Our results demonstrate that livestock activities significantly alter the structure and function of microbial communities in surrounding water bodies, deteriorating water quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, People's Republic of China
| | - Sijia Lu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, People's Republic of China
| | - Yangji Cidan
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Tibet Academy of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Science, Lhasa, 850009, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongzhuang Wang
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Tibet Academy of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Science, Lhasa, 850009, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangming Sun
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Tibet Academy of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Science, Lhasa, 850009, People's Republic of China
| | - Muhammad Usman Saleem
- Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, 6000, Pakistan
| | - Farid Shokry Ataya
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, PO Box 2455, 11451, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Yanbin Zhu
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Tibet Academy of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Science, Lhasa, 850009, People's Republic of China
| | - Wangdui-Basang
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Tibet Academy of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Science, Lhasa, 850009, People's Republic of China
| | - Kun Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, People's Republic of China.
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Swarthout J, Mureithi M, Mboya J, Arnold BF, Wolfe MK, Dentz HN, Lin A, Arnold CD, Rao G, Stewart CP, Clasen T, Colford JM, Null C, Pickering AJ. Addressing Fecal Contamination in Rural Kenyan Households: The Roles of Environmental Interventions and Animal Ownership. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:9500-9514. [PMID: 38760010 PMCID: PMC11155254 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c09419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
Combined water, sanitation, and handwashing (WSH) interventions could reduce fecal contamination along more transmission pathways than single interventions alone. We measured Escherichia coli levels in 3909 drinking water samples, 2691 child hand rinses, and 2422 toy ball rinses collected from households enrolled in a 2-year cluster-randomized controlled trial evaluating single and combined WSH interventions. Water treatment with chlorine reduced E. coli in drinking water. A combined WSH intervention improved water quality by the same magnitude but did not affect E. coli levels on hands or toys. One potential explanation for the limited impact of the sanitation intervention (upgraded latrines) is failure to address dog and livestock fecal contamination. Small ruminant (goat or sheep) ownership was associated with increased E. coli levels in stored water and on child hands. Cattle and poultry ownership was protective against child stunting, and domesticated animal ownership was not associated with child diarrhea. Our findings do not support restricting household animal ownership to prevent child diarrheal disease or stunting but do support calls for WSH infrastructure that can more effectively reduce household fecal contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna
M. Swarthout
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | | | - John Mboya
- Innovations
for Poverty Action, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Benjamin F. Arnold
- Francis
I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology and Institute for
Global Health Sciences, University of California,
San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Marlene K. Wolfe
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Emory
University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Holly N. Dentz
- Institute
for Global Nutrition, University of California,
Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Audrie Lin
- Department
of Microbiology and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California 95064, United States
| | - Charles D. Arnold
- Institute
for Global Nutrition, University of California,
Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Gouthami Rao
- Department
of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Christine P. Stewart
- Institute
for Global Nutrition, University of California,
Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Thomas Clasen
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Emory
University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - John M. Colford
- School
of Public Health, Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Clair Null
- Mathematica, Washington, District of
Columbia 20002, United States
| | - Amy J. Pickering
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Chan
Zuckerberg Biohub San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
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Gnimadi CJI, Gawou K, Aboah M, Owiredu EO, Adusei-Gyamfi J. Assessing the Influence of Hand-Dug Well Features and Management on Water Quality. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH INSIGHTS 2024; 18:11786302241249844. [PMID: 38751904 PMCID: PMC11095203 DOI: 10.1177/11786302241249844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Underground water quality can be affected by natural or human-made influences. This study investigates how the management and characteristics of hand-dug wells impact water quality in 3 suburbs of Kumasi, Ghana, using a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods. Descriptive analysis, including frequency and percentages, depicted the demographic profiles of respondents. Box plot diagrams illustrated the distribution of physicochemical parameters (Total Dissolved Solid [TDS], Electrical Conductivity [EC], Turbidity, Dissolved Oxygen [DO], and Temperature). Factor analysis evaluated dominant factors among these parameters. Cluster analysis (hierarchical clustering) utilized sampling points as variables to establish spatial variations in water physicochemical parameters. Cramer's V correlation test explored relationships between demographic variables and individual perceptions of water management. One-way ANOVA verified significant mean differences among the physicochemical parameters. Logistic regression models assessed the influence of selected well features (e.g., cover and apron) on TDS, pH, Temperature, Turbidity, and DO. The findings revealed that proximity to human settlements affects water quality, and increasing turbidity is associated with unmaintained covers, significantly impacting water quality (P < .05). Over 80% of wells were located within 10 to 30 m of pollution sources, with 65.63% situated in lower ground and 87.5% being unmaintained. Other significant contamination sources included plastic bucket/rope usage (87.50%), defective linings (75%), and apron fissures (59.37%). Presence of E. coli, Total coliform, and Faecal coliform rendered the wells unpotable. Factor analysis attributed 90.85% of time-based and spatial differences to organic particle decomposition factors. However, Cramer's V correlation analysis found establishing association between demographic factor associations with individual perceptions of hand-dug well management difficult. It is encouraged to promote hand-dug well construction and maintenance standards to ensure that wells are properly built and protected from contamination sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Julien Isac Gnimadi
- Department of Environmental Science, College of Science, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
| | - Kokoutse Gawou
- Industrial Chemistry Section, Department of Chemistry, College of Agricultural and Natural Science, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Michael Aboah
- Department of Environmental Science, School of Biological Science, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Emmanuel Odame Owiredu
- Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, College of Science, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
| | - Junias Adusei-Gyamfi
- Department of Environmental Science, College of Science, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
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Uprety S, Ngo I, Maggos M, Dangol B, Sherchan SP, Shisler JL, Amarasiri M, Sano D, Nguyen TH. Multiple pathogen contamination of water, hands, and fomites in rural Nepal and the effect of WaSH interventions. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2024; 257:114341. [PMID: 38442666 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2024.114341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WaSH) interventions are the most effective in reducing diarrheal disease severity and prevalence. However, very few studies have investigated the effectiveness of WaSH intervention in reducing pathogen presence and concentration. In this study, we employed a microfluidic PCR approach to quantify twenty bacterial pathogens in water (n = 360), hands (n = 180), and fomite (n = 540) samples collected in rural households of Nepal to assess the pathogen exposures and the effect of WaSH intervention on contamination and exposure rates. The pathogen load and the exposure pathways for each pathogen in intervention and control villages were compared to understand the effects of WaSH intervention. Pathogens were detected in higher frequency and concentration from fomites samples, toilet handle (21.42%; 5.4,0 95%CI: mean log10 of 4.69, 5.96), utensils (23.5%; 5.47, 95%CI: mean log10 of 4.77, 6.77), and water vessels (22.42%; 5.53, 95%CI: mean log10 of 4.79, 6.60) as compared to cleaning water (14.36%; 5.05, 95%CI: mean log10 of 4.36, 5.89), drinking water (14.26%; 4.37, 85%CI: mean log10 of 4.37, 5.87), and hand rinse samples (16.92%; 5.49, 95%CI: mean log10 of 4.77, 6.39). There was no clear evidence that WaSH intervention reduced overall pathogen contamination in any tested pathway. However, we observed a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in the prevalence, but not concentration, of some target pathogens, including Enterococcus spp. in the intervention village compared to the control village for water and hands rinse samples. Conversely, no significant reduction in target pathogen concentration was observed for water and hand rinse samples. In swab samples, there was a reduction mostly in pathogen concentration rather than pathogen prevalence, highlighting that a reduction in pathogen prevalence was not always accompanied by a reduction in pathogen concentration. This study provides an understanding of WaSH intervention on microbe concentrations. Such data could help with better planning of intervention activities in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sital Uprety
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Department of Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec), Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Dübendorf, Zurich, Switzerland; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tohoku University Sendai, Japan.
| | - Isaac Ngo
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Marika Maggos
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Bipin Dangol
- Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO), Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Samendra P Sherchan
- Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO), Kathmandu, Nepal; Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA; BioEnvironmental Science Program Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD, 21251, USA
| | - Joanna L Shisler
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Institute of Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Mohan Amarasiri
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Japan
| | - Daisuke Sano
- Department of Frontier Sciences for Advanced Environment, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tohoku University Sendai, Japan
| | - Thanh H Nguyen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Institute of Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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8
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Mertens A, Arnold BF, Benjamin-Chung J, Boehm AB, Brown J, Capone D, Clasen T, Fuhrmeister ER, Grembi JA, Holcomb D, Knee J, Kwong LH, Lin A, Luby SP, Nala R, Nelson K, Njenga SM, Null C, Pickering AJ, Rahman M, Reese HE, Steinbaum L, Stewart JR, Thilakaratne R, Cumming O, Colford JM, Ercumen A. Is detection of enteropathogens and human or animal faecal markers in the environment associated with subsequent child enteric infections and growth: an individual participant data meta-analysis. Lancet Glob Health 2024; 12:e433-e444. [PMID: 38365415 PMCID: PMC10882208 DOI: 10.1016/s2214-109x(23)00563-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Quantifying contributions of environmental faecal contamination to child diarrhoea and growth faltering can illuminate causal mechanisms behind modest health benefits in recent water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) trials. We aimed to assess associations between environmental detection of enteropathogens and human or animal microbial source tracking markers (MSTM) and subsequent child health outcomes. METHODS In this individual participant data meta-analysis we searched we searched PubMed, Embase, CAB Direct Global Health, Agricultural and Environmental Science Database, Web of Science, and Scopus for WASH intervention studies with a prospective design and concurrent control that measured enteropathogens or MSTM in environmental samples, or both, and subsequently measured enteric infections, diarrhoea, or height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ) in children younger than 5 years. We excluded studies that only measured faecal indicator bacteria. The initial search was done on Jan 19, 2021, and updated on March 22, 2023. One reviewer (AM) screened abstracts, and two independent reviewers (AM and RT) examined the full texts of short-listed articles. All included studies include at least one author that also contributed as an author to the present Article. Our primary outcomes were the 7-day prevalence of caregiver-reported diarrhoea and HAZ in children. For specific enteropathogens in the environment, primary outcomes also included subsequent child infection with the same pathogen ascertained by stool testing. We estimated associations using covariate-adjusted regressions and pooled estimates across studies. FINDINGS Data from nine published reports from five interventions studies, which included 8603 children (4302 girls and 4301 boys), were included in the meta-analysis. Environmental pathogen detection was associated with increased infection prevalence with the same pathogen and lower HAZ (ΔHAZ -0·09 [95% CI -0·17 to -0·01]) but not diarrhoea (prevalence ratio 1·22 [95% CI 0·95 to 1·58]), except during wet seasons. Detection of MSTM was not associated with diarrhoea (no pooled estimate) or HAZ (ΔHAZ -0·01 [-0·13 to 0·11] for human markers and ΔHAZ -0·02 [-0·24 to 0·21] for animal markers). Soil, children's hands, and stored drinking water were major transmission pathways. INTERPRETATION Our findings support a causal chain from pathogens in the environment to infection to growth faltering, indicating that the lack of WASH intervention effects on child growth might stem from insufficient reductions in environmental pathogen prevalence. Studies measuring enteropathogens in the environment should subsequently measure the same pathogens in stool to further examine theories of change between WASH, faecal contamination, and health. Given that environmental pathogen detection was predictive of infection, programmes targeting specific pathogens (eg, vaccinations and elimination efforts) can environmentally monitor the pathogens of interest for population-level surveillance instead of collecting individual biospecimens. FUNDING The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Development Office.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Mertens
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA; Division of Biostatistics, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
| | - Benjamin F Arnold
- Francis I Proctor Foundation and Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jade Benjamin-Chung
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Alexandria B Boehm
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Joe Brown
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, University of North Carolina, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Michael Hooker Research Center, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Drew Capone
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Thomas Clasen
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Erica R Fuhrmeister
- Department of Environmental & Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - David Holcomb
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, University of North Carolina, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Michael Hooker Research Center, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Jackie Knee
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, London, UK
| | - Laura H Kwong
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Audrie Lin
- Department of Microbiology and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Stephen P Luby
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Rassul Nala
- Ministério da Saúde, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Kara Nelson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Amy J Pickering
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Mahbubur Rahman
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Diseases Division, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Heather E Reese
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Lauren Steinbaum
- California Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Jill R Stewart
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, University of North Carolina, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Michael Hooker Research Center, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | | | - Oliver Cumming
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, London, UK
| | - John M Colford
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Ayse Ercumen
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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Gu Y, Zhou W, Zheng T, Huang F. Health effects and externalities of the popularization of sanitary toilets: evidence from Rural China. BMC Public Health 2023; 23:2225. [PMID: 37951864 PMCID: PMC10640730 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-023-17192-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study aimed to assess the impact of the increased prevalence of sanitary toilets in rural areas on the health of rural residents, and whether the popularity thereof has a positive externality. This study investigates whether the broader use of sanitary toilets has had a positive effect on the health of people who do not have access to them. METHODS Data from the China Family Panel Studies from 2012 to 2014 and a two-way fixed effect model were used to investigate the relationship between the prevalence of village sanitary toilets and the health of rural residents of all ages. RESULTS The results showed that: (1) the increase in the prevalence of sanitary toilets in villages is conducive to improving the health level of rural residents; (2) the widespread adoption of sanitary toilets in rural areas has improved the health of not only residents with access to these toilets but also residents without access; (3) the health of children is more sensitive to improvements in sanitary conditions of toilets; and (4) there are significant regional differences in the impact of the popularity of sanitary toilets on the health of rural residents. CONCLUSIONS This study found that the popularity of sanitary toilets has externalities, improving not only the health of residents who use them but also the health of other residents. This study enriches the literature in the field of health effects of sanitation improvement, while providing a reference for developing countries to further enhance the living environment in rural areas. In the future, the popularization of sanitary toilets should be vigorously promoted to reduce the incidence of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingwen Gu
- College of Humanities, Hubei University of Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Shizhen Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Wanli Zhou
- School of Finance and Public Administration, Hubei University of Economics, Wuhan, China.
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Medical Insurance Reform, Hubei University of Economics, Wuhan, China.
| | - Tan Zheng
- School of Public Administration, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, Wuhan, China
| | - Fang Huang
- Tongji Medical College, The Central Hospital of Wuhan, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
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10
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Adhikari S, Hunter E, Vossenberg JVD, Thomas J. A review of latrine front-end characteristics associated with microbial infection risk; reveals a lack of pathogen density data. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2023; 254:114261. [PMID: 37734133 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2023.114261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/09/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Unsafe sanitation accounts for an estimated 898,000 global deaths annually. The faecal pathogen transmission pathway is complex with several possible routes. Latrine front-end characteristics and usage behaviours are one key transmission pathway for microbial pathogens, however, there has not yet been a synthesis of the available research. This review aims to compare the microbial infection risks with latrine front-end components including any quantified microbial densities within the household latrines. This review was conducted with no restriction on the geographical location of the research. Of 118 studies reviewed, only ten (8%) have quantified the microbial density inside the household latrines compared to 109 (92%) measuring the infection risks. The reported risks were most frequent for specific bacterial (n = 34), and helminths infections (n = 32) compared to diarrhoea (n = 23), combined (n = 15), protozoan (n = 4), and viral (n = 4) infections. The infections risk decreased for using latrines lying at a higher position on the sanitation ladder (for example flush latrines) compared to those lying lower (for example pit latrines). The trend was similar for using floor materials that were easier to clean and less favourable for pathogen survival inside the latrines (for example, concrete as opposed to earth). Faecal coliforms were reported highest on the surface of the squat pan (743 CFU/cm2) of pour-flush latrines and helminths on earth floors of pit latrines (1.5 eggs and larvae per gram of soil). Irrespective of latrine type and its position on the sanitation ladder, a dirty latrine, evidenced by a visible lack of cleanliness, significantly increased the risk for all infections. This study recommends that effective microbial infection risk reduction in latrines can be gained efficiently by ensuring washable surfaces and consistent cleaning practices. Future studies should include more rigorous measurements of microbial densities in various latrine types incorporating the different front-end components and usage behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabita Adhikari
- School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Australia.
| | - Erin Hunter
- Department of Public Health Sciences, College of Behavioural, Social and Health Sciences, Clemson University, United States.
| | - Jack van de Vossenberg
- Water Supply, Sanitation and Environmental Engineering Department, IHE Delft Institute of Water Education, the Netherlands.
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11
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Daniels ME, Pradhan A, Odagiri M, Jenkins MW. Waterborne exposure during non-consumptive domestic use of surface water: a population study across WASH service levels in rural India. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2023; 21:751-762. [PMID: 37387340 PMCID: wh_2023_309 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2023.309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/01/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to pathogens from domestic use of surface water is understudied. In many low- and middle-income countries, surface water is used for hygiene, sanitation, amenity, and recreational purposes. In this study, self-reported use of and structured observations at community ponds were collected to measure waterborne exposure across water and sanitation service levels in a rural population of Khorda District, India. Overall, 86% of households (n = 200) reported using ponds on a regular basis. Among observed people (n = 765), 82% put water into their mouth at least once, with a median frequency of five occurrences per visit. Reported and observation data were combined to estimate the proportion (p) of the population that put water in their mouth at least once per day, and their mean daily rate of oral exposure (OE). These were highest for individuals with neither safely managed water nor basic sanitation access (p = 93%, OE = 14 day-1), but still high among those with both (p = 67%, OE = 6 day-1). The results suggest widespread exposure to waterborne pathogens in settings where non-potable surface water bodies continue to be used for domestic purposes, even among households with access to safely managed drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miles E Daniels
- Institute of Marine Sciences, Fisheries Collaborative Program, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA E-mail:
| | - Ashirbad Pradhan
- Regional Resource Centre for RMNCH + A, Saheed Laxman Nayak Medical College and Hospital, Koraput, Odisha, India; United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
| | | | - Marion W Jenkins
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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12
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Ballard AM, Laramee N, Haardörfer R, Freeman MC, Levy K, Caruso BA. Measurement in the study of human exposure to animal feces: A systematic review and audit. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2023; 249:114146. [PMID: 36868140 PMCID: PMC10044406 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2023.114146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human exposure to animal feces is increasingly recognized as an important transmission route of enteric pathogens. Yet, there are no consistent or standardized approaches to measurement of this exposure, limiting assessment of the human health effects and scope of the issue. OBJECTIVE To inform and improve approaches to the measurement of human exposure to animal feces, we audited existing measurement in low- and middle-income countries. METHODS We systematically searched peer-reviewed and gray literature databases for studies with quantitative measures of human exposure to animal feces and we classified measures in two ways. First, using a novel conceptual model, we categorized measures into three 'Exposure Components' identified a priori (i.e., Animal, Environmental, Human Behavioral); one additional Component (Evidence of Exposure) inductively emerged. Second, using the exposure science conceptual framework, we determined where measures fell along the source-to-outcome continuum. RESULTS We identified 1,428 measures across 184 included studies. Although studies overwhelmingly included more than one single-item measure, the majority only captured one Exposure Component. For example, many studies used several single-item measures to capture the same attribute for different animals, all of which were classified as the same Component. Most measures captured information about the source (e.g. animal presence) and contaminant (e.g. animal-sourced pathogens), which are most distal from exposure on the source-to-outcome continuum. DISCUSSION We found that measurement of human exposure to animal feces is diverse and largely distal from exposure. To facilitate better assessment of the human health effects of exposure and scope of the issue, rigorous and consistent measures are needed. We recommend a list of key factors from the Animal, Environmental, and Human Behavioral Exposure Components to measure. We also propose using the exposure science conceptual framework to identify proximal measurement approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- April M Ballard
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Nicholas Laramee
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Regine Haardörfer
- Department of Behavioral, Social and Health Education Sciences, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Matthew C Freeman
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Karen Levy
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington School of Public Health, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Bethany A Caruso
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, GA, USA; Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, GA, USA
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13
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Mertens A, Arnold BF, Benjamin-Chung J, Boehm AB, Brown J, Capone D, Clasen T, Fuhrmeister E, Grembi JA, Holcomb D, Knee J, Kwong LH, Lin A, Luby SP, Nala R, Nelson K, Njenga SM, Null C, Pickering AJ, Rahman M, Reese HE, Steinbaum L, Stewart J, Thilakaratne R, Cumming O, Colford JM, Ercumen A. Effects of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions on detection of enteropathogens and host-specific faecal markers in the environment: a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis. Lancet Planet Health 2023; 7:e197-e208. [PMID: 36889861 PMCID: PMC10009758 DOI: 10.1016/s2542-5196(23)00028-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) improvements are promoted to reduce diarrhoea in low-income countries. However, trials from the past 5 years have found mixed effects of household-level and community-level WASH interventions on child health. Measuring pathogens and host-specific faecal markers in the environment can help investigate causal pathways between WASH and health by quantifying whether and by how much interventions reduce environmental exposure to enteric pathogens and faecal contamination from human and different animal sources. We aimed to assess the effects of WASH interventions on enteropathogens and microbial source tracking (MST) markers in environmental samples. METHODS We did a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis, which included searches from Jan 1, 2000, to Jan 5, 2023, from PubMed, Embase, CAB Direct Global Health, Agricultural and Environmental Science Database, Web of Science, and Scopus, of prospective studies with water, sanitation, or hygiene interventions and concurrent control group that measured pathogens or MST markers in environmental samples and measured child anthropometry, diarrhoea, or pathogen-specific infections. We used covariate-adjusted regression models with robust standard errors to estimate study-specific intervention effects and pooled effect estimates across studies using random-effects models. FINDINGS Few trials have measured the effect of sanitation interventions on pathogens and MST markers in the environment and they mostly focused on onsite sanitation. We extracted individual participant data on nine environmental assessments from five eligible trials. Environmental sampling included drinking water, hand rinses, soil, and flies. Interventions were consistently associated with reduced pathogen detection in the environment but effect estimates in most individual studies could not be distinguished from chance. Pooled across studies, we found a small reduction in the prevalence of any pathogen in any sample type (pooled prevalence ratio [PR] 0·94 [95% CI 0·90-0·99]). Interventions had no effect on the prevalence of MST markers from humans (pooled PR 1·00 [95% CI 0·88-1·13]) or animals (pooled PR 1·00 [95% CI 0·97-1·03]). INTERPRETATION The small effect of these sanitation interventions on pathogen detection and absence of effects on human or animal faecal markers are consistent with the small or null health effects previously reported in these trials. Our findings suggest that the basic sanitation interventions implemented in these studies did not contain human waste and did not adequately reduce exposure to enteropathogens in the environment. FUNDING Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Development Office.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Mertens
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
| | - Benjamin F Arnold
- Francis I Proctor Foundation and Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jade Benjamin-Chung
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Alexandria B Boehm
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Joe Brown
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Michael Hooker Research Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Drew Capone
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Thomas Clasen
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, NE, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Erica Fuhrmeister
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - David Holcomb
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Michael Hooker Research Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Jackie Knee
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, London, UK
| | - Laura H Kwong
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Audrie Lin
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, Pennsylvania State University, PA, USA
| | - Stephen P Luby
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Rassul Nala
- Ministério da Saúde, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Kara Nelson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Amy J Pickering
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Mahbubur Rahman
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Diseases Division, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Heather E Reese
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, NE, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Lauren Steinbaum
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Jill Stewart
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Michael Hooker Research Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Ruwan Thilakaratne
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Oliver Cumming
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, London, UK
| | - John M Colford
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Ayse Ercumen
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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14
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Huang Q, Huang S, Li B, Xiong Y, Kuang W, Xiao S, Yi J, Zhao F, Xiao G. Spatially explicit model of the Cryptosporidium and Giardia disease burden from surface and ground waters in urban and rural areas of the Three Gorges Reservoir watershed in Chongqing, China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:37127-37142. [PMID: 36571686 PMCID: PMC10039849 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-24690-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium and Giardia (major causes of diarrhea) are widely distributed in Chinese source waters and threaten human health. A new spatially explicit GloWPa-TGR-Crypt-Giar C1 model is presented to simultaneously estimate mean monthly (oo)cyst concentrations in surface and ground waters in the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) watershed. A quantitative risk assessment of protozoal infections considered different source waters, transmission pathways, regions, susceptible subpopulations, and drinking water treatments. Monthly mean Cryptosporidium oocyst and Giardia cyst concentrations ranged between 0.5-19.3 oocysts/10 L and 0.2-5.0 cysts/10 L in surface water, respectively, and 0.007-0.3 oocysts/10 L and 0.002-0. 2 cysts/10 L in groundwater. The cumulative disease burdens attributable to cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis were, respectively, 5.77×10-5 DALYs (disability-adjusted life years/person/year) and 4.63×10-6 DALYs in urban areas, and 6.35×10-4 DALYs and 8.84×10-5 DALYs in rural areas, which were much higher than the reference risk level recommended by the World Health Organization ([Formula: see text] DALYs). The annual burden associated with consuming surface water was calculated to be 3.84×10-4 DALYs for Cryptosporidium and [Formula: see text] DALYs for Giardia, whereas consuming groundwater entailed the lower burdens (1.26×10-5 and 3.50×10-6 DALYs, respectively). Most DALYs were a consequence of consumption of directly supplied surface water. Fifty percent of the health burden was carried by immunodeficiency with HIV. Children (0-4 years) were more likely to have an individual disease burden than adults (15-64 years). Males were more susceptible than females. Improving sanitation through adequate ozone and microfiltration treatment should be considered when attempting to reduce disease burden. Sensitivity analysis highlighted the importance of reducing (oo)cyst loads to protect the watershed. The methodology and results described will help in evaluating and reducing the burden of protozoal infection associated with surface and ground waters in the TGR and similar watersheds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Huang
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Wanzhou, 404130, China
| | - Shan Huang
- College of Grassland Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Bo Li
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Wanzhou, 404130, China
| | - Yanhong Xiong
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Wanzhou, 404130, China
| | - Weijie Kuang
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Wanzhou, 404130, China
| | - Shunxin Xiao
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Wanzhou, 404130, China
| | - Jianghui Yi
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Wanzhou, 404130, China
| | - Feng Zhao
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Wanzhou, 404130, China
| | - Guosheng Xiao
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Wanzhou, 404130, China.
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15
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Chen B, Jin F, Zhu Y. The impact of access to sanitary toilets on rural adult residents' health: Evidence from the China family panel survey. Front Public Health 2022; 10:1026714. [PMID: 36568759 PMCID: PMC9780489 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1026714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Toilet sanitation is related to public health and environmental protection. In the context of the toilet revolution in rural China, an ordered probit regression analysis was conducted to evaluate the impact of access to sanitary toilets on rural residents' health. Using data from the China Family Panel Study (CFPS) in 2014, we found that access to sanitary toilets in rural households significantly improved residents' health, and this finding remained robust across a series of checks. Meanwhile, results of the mechanism analysis showed that preventing feces from contaminating water sources was an important mechanism behind the positive effects of sanitary toilet use on health. We also found that the impact of access to sanitary toilets was more pronounced among female, middle-aged, and low-income people. Toilet revolution plays an important role in ensuring residents' health and protecting water sources, thereby underscoring the need for governments in developing countries to invest in sanitary toilets. In addition, the existing policies and sanitation programs in China need to be improved to promote public health.
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16
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Swarthout JM, Chan EMG, Garcia D, Nadimpalli ML, Pickering AJ. Human Colonization with Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria from Nonoccupational Exposure to Domesticated Animals in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Critical Review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:14875-14890. [PMID: 35947446 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c01494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Data on community-acquired antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections are particularly sparse in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Limited surveillance and oversight of antibiotic use in food-producing animals, inadequate access to safe drinking water, and insufficient sanitation and hygiene infrastructure in LMICs could exacerbate the risk of zoonotic antibiotic resistance transmission. This critical review compiles evidence of zoonotic exchange of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) or antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) within households and backyard farms in LMICs, as well as assesses transmission mechanisms, risk factors, and environmental transmission pathways. Overall, substantial evidence exists for exchange of antibiotic resistance between domesticated animals and in-contact humans. Whole bacteria transmission and horizontal gene transfer between humans and animals were demonstrated within and between households and backyard farms. Further, we identified water, soil, and animal food products as environmental transmission pathways for exchange of ARB and ARGs between animals and humans, although directionality of transmission is poorly understood. Herein we propose study designs, methods, and topical considerations for priority incorporation into future One Health research to inform effective interventions and policies to disrupt zoonotic antibiotic resistance exchange in low-income communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna M Swarthout
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Elana M G Chan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Denise Garcia
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Maya L Nadimpalli
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
- Stuart B. Levy Center for Integrated Management of Antimicrobial Resistance, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts 02111, United States
| | - Amy J Pickering
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Stuart B. Levy Center for Integrated Management of Antimicrobial Resistance, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts 02111, United States
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Andrade L, Boudou M, Hynds P, Chique C, Weatherill J, O'Dwyer J. Spatiotemporal dynamics of Escherichia coli presence and magnitude across a national groundwater monitoring network, Republic of Ireland, 2011-2020. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 840:156311. [PMID: 35636550 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Groundwater is a vital drinking water resource and its protection from microbiological contamination is paramount to safeguard public health. The Republic of Ireland (RoI) is characterised by the highest incidence of verocytotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC) enteritis in the European Union (EU), linked to high reliance on unregulated groundwater sources (~16% of the population). Yet, the spatio-temporal factors influencing the frequency and magnitude of microbial contamination remain largely unknown, with past studies typically constrained to spatio-temporally 'limited' sampling campaigns. Accordingly, the current investigation sought to analyse an extensive spatially distributed time-series (2011-2020) of groundwater monitoring data in the RoI. The dataset, compiled by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), showed 'high' contamination rates, with 66.7% (88/132) of supplies testing positive for E. coli, and 29.5% (39/132) exceeding concentrations of 10MPN/100 ml (i.e. gross contamination) at least once during the 10-year monitoring period. Seasonal decomposition analyses indicate that E. coli detection rates peak during late autumn/early winter, coinciding with increases in annual rainfall, while gross contamination peaks in spring (May) and late-summer (August), likely reflecting seasonal shifts in agricultural practices. Mixed effects logistic regression modelling indicates that monitoring sources located in karst limestone are statistically associated with E. coli presence (OR = 2.76, p = 0.03) and gross contamination (OR = 2.54, p = 0.037) when compared to poorly productive aquifers (i.e., transmissivity below 10m2/d). Moreover, 5-day and 30-day antecedent rainfall increased the likelihood of E. coli contamination (OR = 1.027, p < 0.001 and OR = 1.005, p = 0.016, respectively), with the former also being associated with gross contamination (OR = 1.042, p < 0.001). As such, it is inferred that preferential flow and direct ingress of surface runoff are the most likely ingress mechanisms associated with E. coli groundwater supply contamination. The results presented are expected to inform policy change around groundwater source protection and provide insight for the development of groundwater monitoring programmes in geologically heterogeneous regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Andrade
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Irish Centre for Research in Applied Geosciences, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Martin Boudou
- Environmental Sustainability and Health Institute, Technological University Dublin, Dublin 7, Ireland
| | - Paul Hynds
- Irish Centre for Research in Applied Geosciences, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; Environmental Sustainability and Health Institute, Technological University Dublin, Dublin 7, Ireland.
| | - Carlos Chique
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - John Weatherill
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Irish Centre for Research in Applied Geosciences, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Jean O'Dwyer
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Irish Centre for Research in Applied Geosciences, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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Halla FF, Massawa SM, Joseph EK, Acharya K, Sabai SM, Mgana SM, Werner D. Attenuation of bacterial hazard indicators in the subsurface of an informal settlement and their application in quantitative microbial risk assessment. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 167:107429. [PMID: 35914337 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Pit latrines provide essential onsite sanitation services to over a billion people, but there are concerns about their role in infectious disease transmission, and impacts on groundwater resources. We conducted fieldwork in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam, where cholera is endemic. We combined plate counting with portable MinION sequencing and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) methods for characterization of bacteria in pit latrine sludge, leachate, shallow and deep groundwater resources. Pit latrine sludge was characterized by log10 marker gene concentrations per 100 mL of 11.2 ± 0.2, 9.9 ± 0.9, 6.0 ± 0.3, and 4.4 ± 0.8, for total bacteria (16S rRNA), E. coli (rodA), human-host-associated Bacteroides (HF183), and Vibrio cholerae (ompW), respectively. The ompW gene observations suggested 5 % asymptomatic Vibrio cholerae carriers amongst pit latrine users. Pit leachate percolation through one-meter-thick sand beds attenuated bacterial hazard indicators by 1 to 4 log10 units. But first-order removal rates derived from these data substantially overestimated the longer-range hazard attenuation in the sand aquifers. Cooccurrence of human sewage marker gene HF183 in all shallow groundwater samples testing positive for ompW genes demonstrated the human origin of Vibrio cholerae hazards in the subsurface. All borehole water samples tested negative for ompW and HF183 genes, but 16S rRNA gene sequencing data suggested ingress of faecal pollution into boreholes at the peak of the "long rainy season". Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) predicted a gastrointestinal disease burden of 0.05 DALY per person per year for the community, well above WHO targets of 10-4-10-6 DALY for disease related to drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franella Francos Halla
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Ardhi University, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Said Maneno Massawa
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Ardhi University, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Elihaika Kengalo Joseph
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Ardhi University, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Kishor Acharya
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Shadrack Mwita Sabai
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Ardhi University, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Shaaban Mrisho Mgana
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Ardhi University, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
| | - David Werner
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK.
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Contreras JD, Islam M, Mertens A, Pickering AJ, Kwong LH, Arnold BF, Benjamin-Chung J, Hubbard AE, Alam M, Sen D, Islam S, Rahman M, Unicomb L, Luby SP, Colford JM, Ercumen A. Influence of community-level sanitation coverage and population density on environmental fecal contamination and child health in a longitudinal cohort in rural Bangladesh. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2022; 245:114031. [PMID: 36058111 PMCID: PMC9489923 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.114031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Household-level sanitation interventions have had limited effects on child health or environmental contamination, potentially due to low community coverage. Higher community-level coverage with safely managed sanitation can reduce opportunities for disease transmission. METHODS We estimated associations between community sanitation coverage, environmental fecal contamination, and child health among 360 compounds in the control arm of the WASH Benefits trial in rural Bangladesh (NCT01590095). In each compound, we enumerated E. coli in environmental samples and recorded the 7-day prevalence of caregiver-reported diarrheal disease and acute respiratory infections (ARI) in children under five. We observed indicators of latrine access and quality among all neighboring compounds within 100 m of study compounds. We defined community coverage as the proportion of neighboring compounds with (1) at least one latrine, and (2) exclusively hygienic latrines (improved facility observed to safely contain feces), within both 50 m and 100 m of study compounds. We assessed effect modification by population density and season. RESULTS Adjusted for confounders, study compounds surrounded by 100% coverage of at least one latrine per compound within 50 m had slightly lower log10E. coli counts in stored water (Δlog = -0.13, 95% CI -0.26, -0.01), child hand rinses (Δlog = -0.13, 95% CI -0.24, -0.02), and caregiver hand rinses (Δlog = -0.16, 95% CI -0.29, -0.03) and marginally lower prevalence of diarrheal disease (prevalence ratio [PR] = 0.82, 95% CI 0.64, 1.04) and ARI (PR = 0.84, 95% CI 0.69, 1.03) compared to compounds surrounded by <100% coverage. Effects were similar but less pronounced at 100 m. At higher population densities, community latrine coverage was associated with larger reductions in E. coli on child and caregiver hands and prevalence of diarrheal disease. Coverage with exclusively hygienic latrines was not associated with any outcome. CONCLUSION Higher community sanitation coverage was associated with reduced fecal contamination and improved child health, with stronger effects at highly local scales (50m) and at high population densities. Our findings indicate that the relationship between community sanitation coverage, environmental contamination, and child health varies by definition of coverage, distance, and population density. This work highlights significant uncertainty around how to best measure sanitation coverage and the expected health effects of increasing sanitation coverage using a specific metric. Better understanding of community-level sanitation access is needed to inform policy for implementing sanitation systems that effectively protect community health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse D Contreras
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, 27695, United States
| | - Mahfuza Islam
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Andrew Mertens
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States
| | - Amy J Pickering
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States
| | - Laura H Kwong
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States
| | - Benjamin F Arnold
- Francis I. Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, 94158, United States
| | - Jade Benjamin-Chung
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, 94304, United States
| | - Alan E Hubbard
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States
| | - Mahfuja Alam
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Debashis Sen
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Sharmin Islam
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Mahbubur Rahman
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Leanne Unicomb
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Stephen P Luby
- Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305, United States
| | - John M Colford
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States
| | - Ayse Ercumen
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, 27695, United States.
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20
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Differential Overlap in Human and Animal Fecal Microbiomes and Resistomes in Rural versus Urban Bangladesh. Appl Environ Microbiol 2022; 88:e0075922. [DOI: 10.1128/aem.00759-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
While the development of antibiotic resistance in animal gut microbiomes and subsequent transmission to humans has been demonstrated in intensive farming environments and high-income countries, evidence of zoonotic exchange of antibiotic resistance in LMIC communities is lacking. This research provides genomic evidence of overlap of antibiotic resistance genes between humans and animals, especially in urban communities, and highlights chickens as important reservoirs of antibiotic resistance.
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21
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An Overview of Microbial Source Tracking Using Host-Specific Genetic Markers to Identify Origins of Fecal Contamination in Different Water Environments. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14111809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Fecal contamination of water constitutes a serious health risk to humans and environmental ecosystems. This is mainly due to the fact that fecal material carries a variety of enteropathogens, which can enter and circulate in water bodies through fecal pollution. In this respect, the prompt identification of the polluting source(s) is pivotal to guiding appropriate target-specific remediation actions. Notably, microbial source tracking (MST) is widely applied to determine the host origin(s) contributing to fecal water pollution through the identification of zoogenic and/or anthropogenic sources of fecal environmental DNA (eDNA). A wide array of host-associated molecular markers have been developed and exploited for polluting source attribution in various aquatic ecosystems. This review is intended to provide the most up-to-date overview of genetic marker-based MST studies carried out in different water types, such as freshwaters (including surface and groundwaters) and seawaters (from coasts, beaches, lagoons, and estuaries), as well as drinking water systems. Focusing on the latest scientific progress/achievements, this work aims to gain updated knowledge on the applicability and robustness of using MST for water quality surveillance. Moreover, it also provides a future perspective on advancing MST applications for environmental research.
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22
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Wu S, Zhang Y, He BJ. Public Willingness to Pay for and Participate in Sanitation Infrastructure Improvement in Western China's Rural Areas. Front Public Health 2022; 9:788922. [PMID: 35071170 PMCID: PMC8774769 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.788922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The suitability and feasibility of public-private partnership (PPP) patterns in a rural context have not been well-documented and understood. To address this research gap and practical plight, this study aims to analyze the rural resident's willingness to pay for and participate in the improvement of rural sanitation facilities, and further explore the drivers and barriers affecting their decisions. This study was performed in rural areas of three western provinces, including Shaanxi, Ningxia, and Inner Mongolia, of western China's rural areas by conducting a survey on 1,248 rural residents. In Inner Mongolia, the proportion of respondents who were willing to pay was highest, while the proportion of respondents who may provide labor was lowest among the three provinces. Respondents from Ningxia had the least willing to pay, and respondents from Shaanxi had the highest willingness to participate. Overall, respondents' rural (living) duration time, personal interest in local government notice, and the latest time when the sanitation facilities were improved could significantly affect their willingness. In Inner Mongolia, occupation and water availability could significantly influence respondents' willingness, and both gender and health conditions had significant impacts. In Ningxia, respondents' personal interest in local government notice had a notable impact on willingness, and low-income respondents showed a more notable willingness to pay and participate. In Shaanxi, occupation and water availability could significantly influence respondents' willingness. Respondents' personal interest in local government notice had a notable impact on their willingness. This study is of significant importance to understand rural resident's participation in sanitation infrastructure improvement to support relevant PPP projects, and is important to solve poverty-caused dilemmas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simei Wu
- School of Management, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, China.,Centre for Climate-Resilient and Low-Carbon Cities, School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China.,Key Laboratory of New Technology for Construction of Cities in Mountain Area, Ministry of Education, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- School of Management, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, China
| | - Bao-Jie He
- Centre for Climate-Resilient and Low-Carbon Cities, School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China.,Key Laboratory of New Technology for Construction of Cities in Mountain Area, Ministry of Education, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
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23
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Amato HK, Hemlock C, Andrejko KL, Smith AR, Hejazi NS, Hubbard AE, Verma SC, Adhikari RK, Pokhrel D, Smith K, Graham JP, Pokhrel A. Biodigester Cookstove Interventions and Child Diarrhea in Semirural Nepal: A Causal Analysis of Daily Observations. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2022; 130:17002. [PMID: 34985305 PMCID: PMC8729225 DOI: 10.1289/ehp9468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hundreds of thousands of biodigesters have been constructed in Nepal. These household-level systems use human and animal waste to produce clean-burning biogas used for cooking, which can reduce household air pollution from woodburning cookstoves and prevent respiratory illnesses. The biodigesters, typically operated by female caregivers, require the handling of animal waste, which may increase domestic fecal contamination, exposure to diarrheal pathogens, and the risk of enteric infections, especially among young children. OBJECTIVE We estimated the effect of daily reported biogas cookstove use on incident diarrhea among children < 5 y old in the Kavrepalanchok District of Nepal. Secondarily, we assessed effect measure modification and statistical interaction of individual- and household-level covariates (child sex, child age, birth order, exclusive breastfeeding, proof of vaccination, roof type, sanitation, drinking water treatment, food insecurity) as well as recent 14-d acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI) and season. METHODS We analyzed 300,133 person-days for 539 children in an observational prospective cohort study to estimate the average effect of biogas stove use on incident diarrhea using cross-validated targeted maximum likelihood estimation (CV-TMLE). RESULTS Households reported using biogas cookstoves in the past 3 d for 23% of observed person-days. The adjusted relative risk of diarrhea for children exposed to biogas cookstove use was 1.31 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.00, 1.71) compared to unexposed children. The estimated effect of biogas stove use on diarrhea was stronger among breastfed children (2.09; 95% CI: 1.35, 3.25) than for nonbreastfed children and stronger during the dry season (2.03; 95% CI: 1.17, 3.53) than in the wet season. Among children exposed to biogas cookstove use, those with a recent ALRI had the highest mean risk of diarrhea, estimated at 4.53 events (95% CI: 1.03, 8.04) per 1,000 person-days. DISCUSSION This analysis provides new evidence that child diarrhea may be an unintended health risk of biogas cookstove use. Additional studies are needed to identify exposure pathways of fecal pathogen contamination associated with biodigesters to improve the safety of these widely distributed public health interventions. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP9468.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather K. Amato
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Caitlin Hemlock
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Kristin L. Andrejko
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Anna R. Smith
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Nima S. Hejazi
- Division of Biostatistics, University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Alan E. Hubbard
- Division of Biostatistics, University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, California, USA
| | | | - Ramesh K. Adhikari
- Tribhuvan University, Institute of Medicine, Maharajgunj Medical Campus, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Dhiraj Pokhrel
- Society for Legal and Environmental Analysis and Development Research (LEADERS), Nepal
| | - Kirk Smith
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Jay P. Graham
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Amod Pokhrel
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, California, USA
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Espira L, Aung T, Han K, Jagger P, Eisenberg JNS. Determinants of Pathogen Contamination of the Environment in the Greater Yangon Area, Myanmar. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:16465-16476. [PMID: 34792323 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c02887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Recent results from water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions highlight the need to better understand environmental influences on enteropathogen transmission. We quantified a range of viral, bacterial, and protozoal pathogens and one indicator, Enterococcus faecalis in soil and water from urban and rural sites in and around Yangon, Myanmar. We found that environmental characteristics associated with contamination differed by pathogens and substrates. In soil, bacterial pathogen gene counts were associated with elevation and drainage ditches (compared to stagnant water) (RR = 0.96, 95% CI 0.93, 0.99 and RR = 1.70, 95% CI 1.18, 2.45, respectively), while viral gene counts were associated with the presence of sanitation facilities within 50 m of the collection point (RR = 3.99, 95% CI 1.12, 14.24). In water, E. faecalis, total pathogen, and bacterial pathogen gene counts were associated with drainage ditches (RR = 1.86, 95% CI 1.27, 2.72, RR = 1.38 95% CI 1.09, 1.74, and RR = 1.38 95% CI 1.07, 1.77, respectively). E. faecalis, total pathogen, bacterial pathogen, and viral gene counts were associated with the presence of uncollected garbage within 50 m of the collection point (RR = 1.57, 95% CI 1.00, 2.47, RR = 1.52, 95% CI 1.16, 2.00, RR = 1.52, 95% CI 1.13, 2.06, and RR = 1.75, 95% CI 1.17, 2.61 respectively). Measuring the environment provides added specificity toward identifying important environmental pathways that require mitigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon Espira
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Ther Aung
- Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27516, United States
| | - Khin Han
- Department of Geography, West Yangon University, Yangon 13393, Myanmar
| | - Pamela Jagger
- School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Joseph N S Eisenberg
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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Chirgwin H, Cairncross S, Zehra D, Sharma Waddington H. Interventions promoting uptake of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) technologies in low- and middle-income countries: An evidence and gap map of effectiveness studies. CAMPBELL SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS 2021; 17:e1194. [PMID: 36951806 PMCID: PMC8988822 DOI: 10.1002/cl2.1194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Background Lack of access to and use of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) cause 1.6 million deaths every year, of which 1.2 million are due to gastrointestinal illnesses like diarrhoea and acute respiratory infections like pneumonia. Poor WASH access and use also diminish nutrition and educational attainment, and cause danger and stress for vulnerable populations, especially for women and girls. The hardest hit regions are sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 calls for the end of open defecation, and universal access to safely managed water and sanitation facilities, and basic hand hygiene, by 2030. WASH access and use also underpin progress in other areas such as SDG1 poverty targets, SDG3 health and SDG4 education targets. Meeting the SDG equity agenda to "leave none behind" will require WASH providers prioritise the hardest to reach including those living remotely and people who are disadvantaged. Objectives Decision makers need access to high-quality evidence on what works in WASH promotion in different contexts, and for different groups of people, to reach the most disadvantaged populations and thereby achieve universal targets. The WASH evidence map is envisioned as a tool for commissioners and researchers to identify existing studies to fill synthesis gaps, as well as helping to prioritise new studies where there are gaps in knowledge. It also supports policymakers and practitioners to navigate the evidence base, including presenting critically appraised findings from existing systematic reviews. Methods This evidence map presents impact evaluations and systematic reviews from the WASH sector, organised according to the types of intervention mechanisms, WASH technologies promoted, and outcomes measured. It is based on a framework of intervention mechanisms (e.g., behaviour change triggering or microloans) and outcomes along the causal pathway, specifically behavioural outcomes (e.g., handwashing and food hygiene practices), ill-health outcomes (e.g., diarrhoeal morbidity and mortality), nutrition and socioeconomic outcomes (e.g., school absenteeism and household income). The map also provides filters to examine the evidence for a particular WASH technology (e.g., latrines), place of use (e.g., home, school or health facility), location (e.g., global region, country, rural and urban) and group (e.g., people living with disability). Systematic searches for published and unpublished literature and trial registries were conducted of studies in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Searches were conducted in March 2018, and searches for completed trials were done in May 2020. Coding of information for the map was done by two authors working independently. Impact evaluations were critically appraised according to methods of conduct and reporting. Systematic reviews were critically appraised using a new approach to assess theory-based, mixed-methods evidence synthesis. Results There has been an enormous growth in impact evaluations and systematic reviews of WASH interventions since the International Year of Sanitation, 2008. There are now at least 367 completed or ongoing rigorous impact evaluations in LMICs, nearly three-quarters of which have been conducted since 2008, plus 43 systematic reviews. Studies have been done in 83 LMICs, with a high concentration in Bangladesh, India, and Kenya. WASH sector programming has increasingly shifted in focus from what technology to supply (e.g., a handwashing station or child's potty), to the best way in which to do so to promote demand. Research also covers a broader set of intervention mechanisms. For example, there has been increased interest in behaviour change communication using psychosocial "triggering", such as social marketing and community-led total sanitation. These studies report primarily on behavioural outcomes. With the advent of large-scale funding, in particular by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, there has been a substantial increase in the number of studies on sanitation technologies, particularly latrines. Sustaining behaviour is fundamental for sustaining health and other quality of life improvements. However, few studies have been done of intervention mechanisms for, or measuring outcomes on sustained adoption of latrines to stop open defaecation. There has also been some increase in the number of studies looking at outcomes and interventions that disproportionately affect women and girls, who quite literally carry most of the burden of poor water and sanitation access. However, most studies do not report sex disaggregated outcomes, let alone integrate gender analysis into their framework. Other vulnerable populations are even less addressed; no studies eligible for inclusion in the map were done of interventions targeting, or reporting on outcomes for, people living with disabilities. We were only able to find a single controlled evaluation of WASH interventions in a health care facility, in spite of the importance of WASH in health facilities in global policy debates. The quality of impact evaluations has improved, such as the use of controlled designs as standard, attention to addressing reporting biases, and adequate cluster sample size. However, there remain important concerns about quality of reporting. The quality and usefulness of systematic reviews for policy is also improving, which draw clearer distinctions between intervention mechanisms and synthesise the evidence on outcomes along the causal pathway. Adopting mixed-methods approaches also provides information for programmes on barriers and enablers affecting implementation. Conclusion Ensuring everyone has access to appropriate water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities is one of the most fundamental of challenges for poverty elimination. Researchers and funders need to consider carefully where there is the need for new primary evidence, and new syntheses of that evidence. This study suggests the following priority areas:Impact evaluations incorporating understudied outcomes, such as sustainability and slippage, of WASH provision in understudied places of use, such as health care facilities, and of interventions targeting, or presenting disaggregated data for, vulnerable populations, particularly over the life-course and for people living with a disability;Improved reporting in impact evaluations, including presentation of participant flow diagrams; andSynthesis studies and updates in areas with sufficient existing and planned impact evaluations, such as for diarrhoea mortality, ARIs, WASH in schools and decentralisation. These studies will preferably be conducted as mixed-methods systematic reviews that are able to answer questions about programme targeting, implementation, effectiveness and cost-effectiveness, and compare alternative intervention mechanisms to achieve and sustain outcomes in particular contexts, preferably using network meta-analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Chirgwin
- International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie)London International Development CentreLondonUK
| | | | | | - Hugh Sharma Waddington
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie)London International Development CentreLondonUK
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Chen D, Mechlowitz K, Li X, Schaefer N, Havelaar AH, McKune SL. Benefits and Risks of Smallholder Livestock Production on Child Nutrition in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Front Nutr 2021; 8:751686. [PMID: 34778344 PMCID: PMC8579112 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2021.751686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Livestock production may improve nutritional outcomes of pregnant women and children by increasing household income, availability of nutrient-dense foods, and women's empowerment. Nevertheless, the relationship is complex, and the nutritional status of children may be impaired by presence of or proximity to livestock and their pathogens. In this paper, we review the benefits and risks of livestock production on child nutrition. Evidence supports the nutritional benefits of livestock farming through income, production, and women's empowerment. Increasing animal source food consumption requires a combination of efforts, including improved animal management so that herd size is adequate to meet household income needs and consumption and addressing sociocultural and gendered norms. Evidence supports the inclusion of behavior change communication strategies into livestock production interventions to facilitate the sustainability of nutritional benefits over time, particularly interventions that engage women and foster dimensions of women's empowerment. In evaluating the risks of livestock production, evidence indicates that a broad range of enteric pathogens may chronically infect the intestines of children and, in combination with dietary deficits, may cause environmental enteric dysfunction (EED), a chronic inflammation of the gut. Some of the most important pathogens associated with EED are zoonotic in nature with livestock as their main reservoir. Very few studies have aimed to understand which livestock species contribute most to colonization with these pathogens, or how to reduce transmission. Control at the point of exposure has been investigated in a few studies, but much less effort has been spent on improving animal husbandry practices, which may have additional benefits. There is an urgent need for dedicated and long-term research to understand which livestock species contribute most to exposure of young children to zoonotic enteric pathogens, to test the potential of a wide range of intervention methods, to assess their effectiveness in randomized trials, and to assure their broad adaptation and sustainability. This review highlights the benefits and risks of livestock production on child nutrition. In addition to identifying research gaps, findings support inclusion of poor gut health as an immediate determinant of child undernutrition, expanding the established UNICEF framework which includes only inadequate diet and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dehao Chen
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Karah Mechlowitz
- Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Xiaolong Li
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Nancy Schaefer
- Health Science Center Libraries, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Arie H. Havelaar
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- Institute for Sustainable Food Systems, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Sarah L. McKune
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- Center for African Studies, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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Zhou W, Gu Y, Wang X. Access to sanitary toilets and health outcomes: A panel data analysis using two-way fixed effects model. MATHEMATICAL BIOSCIENCES AND ENGINEERING : MBE 2021; 18:8815-8830. [PMID: 34814324 DOI: 10.3934/mbe.2021435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
Based on the data regarding the renovation of the toilets of 30 provinces (municipalities) in rural China from 2005 to 2017, this study utilized a two-way fixed effect model to empirically test the impact of access to sanitary toilets on health, which include intestinal infectious diseases (consisting of hepatitis A, dysentery, and typhoid) and child mortality (consisting of perinatal mortality, infant mortality, and the mortality rate of children under 5). This study attempted to assess the health outcomes of the "toilet revolution" in rural China. The results showed that: (1) Access to sanitary toilets effectively reduced the incidence of hepatitis A and dysentery. For every 1% increase in the rate of access to sanitary toilets, the incidence of hepatitis A was reduced by 5.6%, and the incidence of dysentery was reduced by 36.5%. (2) Access to sanitary toilets does not significantly reduce child mortality. (3) There are obviously regional differences in the impact of access to sanitary toilets on the health outcomes. The renovation of sanitary toilets has shown the most significant effect on reducing the incidence of intestinal infectious diseases in the central region as well as the effect on reducing child mortality in the western region. It is implied that the health outcomes of China's "toilet revolution" may provide supporting evidence and experience for other developing countries and regions in implementing toilet renovation projects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanli Zhou
- School of Public Administration, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, Wuhan 430073, P.R. China
| | - Yingwen Gu
- School of Public Administration, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, Wuhan 430073, P.R. China
| | - Xiulin Wang
- School of Public Administration, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, Wuhan 430073, P.R. China
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Holcomb DA, Knee J, Capone D, Sumner T, Adriano Z, Nalá R, Cumming O, Brown J, Stewart JR. Impacts of an Urban Sanitation Intervention on Fecal Indicators and the Prevalence of Human Fecal Contamination in Mozambique. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:11667-11679. [PMID: 34382777 PMCID: PMC8429117 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Fecal source tracking (FST) may be useful to assess pathways of fecal contamination in domestic environments and to estimate the impacts of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions in low-income settings. We measured two nonspecific and two human-associated fecal indicators in water, soil, and surfaces before and after a shared latrine intervention from low-income households in Maputo, Mozambique, participating in the Maputo Sanitation (MapSan) trial. Up to a quarter of households were impacted by human fecal contamination, but trends were unaffected by improvements to shared sanitation facilities. The intervention reduced Escherichia coli gene concentrations in soil but did not impact culturable E. coli or the prevalence of human FST markers in a difference-in-differences analysis. Using a novel Bayesian hierarchical modeling approach to account for human marker diagnostic sensitivity and specificity, we revealed a high amount of uncertainty associated with human FST measurements and intervention effect estimates. The field of microbial source tracking would benefit from adding measures of diagnostic accuracy to better interpret findings, particularly when FST analyses convey insufficient information for robust inference. With improved measures, FST could help identify dominant pathways of human and animal fecal contamination in communities and guide the implementation of effective interventions to safeguard health.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Holcomb
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States of America
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States of America
| | - Jackie Knee
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States of America
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, United Kingdom
| | - Drew Capone
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States of America
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States of America
| | - Trent Sumner
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States of America
| | | | - Rassul Nalá
- Instituto Nacional de Saúde, Ministério da Saúde, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Oliver Cumming
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, United Kingdom
| | - Joe Brown
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States of America
| | - Jill R. Stewart
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States of America
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Capone D, Berendes D, Cumming O, Holcomb D, Knee J, Konstantinidis KT, Levy K, Nalá R, Risk BB, Stewart J, Brown J. Impact of an Urban Sanitation Intervention on Enteric Pathogen Detection in Soils. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:9989-10000. [PMID: 34236178 PMCID: PMC8327413 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c02168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Environmental fecal contamination is common in many low-income cities, contributing to a high burden of enteric infections and associated negative sequelae. To evaluate the impact of a shared onsite sanitation intervention in Maputo, Mozambique on enteric pathogens in the domestic environment, we collected 179 soil samples at shared latrine entrances from intervention (n = 49) and control (n = 51) compounds during baseline (preintervention) and after 24 months (postintervention) as part of the Maputo Sanitation Trial. We tested soils for the presence of nucleic acids associated with 18 enteric pathogens using a multiplex reverse transcription qPCR platform. We detected at least one pathogen-associated gene target in 91% (163/179) of soils and a median of 3 (IQR = 1, 5) pathogens. Using a difference-in-difference analysis and adjusting for compound population, visibly wet soil, sun exposure, wealth, temperature, animal presence, and visible feces, we estimate the intervention reduced the probability of detecting ≥1 pathogen gene by 15% (adjusted prevalence ratio, aPR = 0.85; 95% CI: 0.70, 1.0) and the total number of pathogens by 35% (aPR = 0.65; 0.44, 0.95) in soil 24 months following the intervention. These results suggest that the intervention reduced the presence of some fecal contamination in the domestic environment, but pathogen detection remained prevalent 24 months following the introduction of new latrines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew Capone
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - David Berendes
- Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Oliver Cumming
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - David Holcomb
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Jackie Knee
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Konstantinos T. Konstantinidis
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Karen Levy
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, 2980 15th Ave NE, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Rassul Nalá
- Ministério da Saúde, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Benjamin B. Risk
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Jill Stewart
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Joe Brown
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
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Kapoor R, Ebdon J, Wadhwa A, Chowdhury G, Wang Y, Raj SJ, Siesel C, Durry SE, Mairinger W, Mukhopadhyay AK, Kanungo S, Dutta S, Moe CL. Evaluation of Low-Cost Phage-Based Microbial Source Tracking Tools for Elucidating Human Fecal Contamination Pathways in Kolkata, India. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:673604. [PMID: 34093494 PMCID: PMC8173070 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.673604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Phages, such as those infecting Bacteroides spp., have been proven to be reliable indicators of human fecal contamination in microbial source tracking (MST) studies, and the efficacy of these MST markers found to vary geographically. This study reports the application and evaluation of candidate MST methods (phages infecting previously isolated B. fragilis strain GB-124, newly isolated Bacteroides strains (K10, K29, and K33) and recently isolated Kluyvera intermedia strain ASH-08), along with non-source specific somatic coliphages (SOMCPH infecting strain WG-5) and indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli) for identifying fecal contamination pathways in Kolkata, India. Source specificity of the phage-based methods was first tested using 60 known non-human fecal samples from common animals, before being evaluated with 56 known human samples (municipal sewage) collected during both the rainy and dry season. SOMCPH were present in 40-90% of samples from different animal species and in 100% of sewage samples. Phages infecting Bacteroides strain GB-124 were not detected from the majority (95%) of animal samples (except in three porcine samples) and were present in 93 and 71% of the sewage samples in the rainy and dry season (Mean = 1.42 and 1.83 log10PFU/100mL, respectively), though at lower levels than SOMCPH (Mean = 3.27 and 3.02 log10PFU/100mL, respectively). Phages infecting strain ASH-08 were detected in 89 and 96% of the sewage samples in the rainy and dry season, respectively, but were also present in all animal samples tested (except goats). Strains K10, K29, and K30 were not found to be useful MST markers due to low levels of phages and/or co-presence in non-human sources. GB-124 and SOMCPH were subsequently deployed within two low-income neighborhoods to determine the levels and origin of fecal contamination in 110 environmental samples. E. coli, SOMCPH, and phages of GB-124 were detected in 68, 42, and 28% of the samples, respectively. Analyses of 166 wastewater samples from shared community toilets and 21 samples from sewage pumping stations from the same districts showed that SOMCPH were present in 100% and GB-124 phages in 31% of shared toilet samples (Median = 5.59 and <1 log10 PFU/100 mL, respectively), and both SOMCPH and GB-124 phages were detected in 95% of pumping station samples (Median = 5.82 and 4.04 log10 PFU/100 mL, respectively). Our findings suggest that GB-124 and SOMCPH have utility as low-cost fecal indicator tools which can facilitate environmental surveillance of enteric organisms, elucidate human and non-human fecal exposure pathways, and inform interventions to mitigate exposure to fecal contamination in the residential environment of Kolkata, India.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renuka Kapoor
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - James Ebdon
- Environment and Public Health Research and Enterprise Group (EPHREG), University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Ashutosh Wadhwa
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Goutam Chowdhury
- ICMR – National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (NICED), Kolkata, India
| | - Yuke Wang
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Suraja J. Raj
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Casey Siesel
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Sarah E. Durry
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Wolfgang Mairinger
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | | | - Suman Kanungo
- ICMR – National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (NICED), Kolkata, India
| | - Shanta Dutta
- ICMR – National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (NICED), Kolkata, India
| | - Christine L. Moe
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
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31
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Dasgupta S, Agarwal N, Mukherjee A. Moving up the On-Site Sanitation ladder in urban India through better systems and standards. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 280:111656. [PMID: 33303251 PMCID: PMC7816121 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater management predominantly takes the form of On-Site Sanitation (OSS) in low- and lower-middle-income countries (LMICs). In India, households construct and operate OSS systems in the absence of regulatory oversight and seldom in compliance with the national technical standards - posing a risk to water sources and public health. The present paper reviews novel evidence on the quality of these systems from a multi-state survey of 3000 households in India to identify policy and practice interventions for creating sustainable urban sanitation futures. The paper argues for local and national governments to unlock the potential of OSS as a safe and long-term wastewater management solution through (1) re-envisioning the system design to simultaneously meet household and environmental needs, (2) fostering prefabrication of systems as a means to distribute the compliance responsibility optimally, and (3) updating technical standards for facilitating such a paradigm shift.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shubhagato Dasgupta
- Scaling City Institutions for India, Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi, India.
| | - Neha Agarwal
- Scaling City Institutions for India, Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi, India.
| | - Anindita Mukherjee
- Scaling City Institutions for India, Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi, India
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32
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Schiaffino F, Rengifo Trigoso D, Colston JM, Paredes Olortegui M, Shapiama Lopez WV, Garcia Bardales PF, Pisanic N, Davis MF, Penataro Yori P, Kosek MN. Associations among Household Animal Ownership, Infrastructure, and Hygiene Characteristics with Source Attribution of Household Fecal Contamination in Peri-Urban Communities of Iquitos, Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2021; 104:372-381. [PMID: 33146117 PMCID: PMC7790101 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Using previously validated microbial source tracking markers, we detected and quantified fecal contamination from avian species and avian exposure, dogs, and humans on household cooking tables and floors. The association among contamination, infrastructure, and socioeconomic covariates was assessed using simple and multiple ordinal logistic regressions. The presence of Campylobacter spp. in surface samples was linked to avian markers. Using molecular methods, animal feces were detected in 75.0% and human feces in 20.2% of 104 households. Floors were more contaminated than tables as detected by the avian marker Av4143, dog marker Bactcan, and human marker Bachum. Wood tables were consistently more contaminated than non-wood surfaces, specifically with the mitochondrial avian markers ND5 and CytB, fecal marker Av4143, and canine marker Bactcan. Final multivariable models with socioeconomic and infrastructure characteristics included as covariates indicate that detection of avian feces and avian exposure was associated with the presence of chickens, maternal age, and length of tenancy, whereas detection of human markers was associated with unimproved water source. Detection of Campylobacter in surface samples was associated with the avian fecal marker Av4143. We highlight the critical need to detect and measure the burden of animal fecal waste when evaluating household water, hygiene, and sanitation interventions, and the possibility of decreasing risk of exposure through the modification of surfaces to permit more effective household disinfection practices. Animals may be a more important source of household fecal contamination than humans in many low-resource settings, although interventions have historically focused almost exclusively on managing human waste.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Schiaffino
- 1Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland.,2Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | | | - Josh M Colston
- 4Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | | | | | | | - Nora Pisanic
- 5Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Meghan F Davis
- 5Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland.,6Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Medicine, Baltimore Maryland
| | - Pablo Penataro Yori
- 3Asociacion Benefica Prisma, Iquitos, Peru.,4Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Margaret N Kosek
- 3Asociacion Benefica Prisma, Iquitos, Peru.,4Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia
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33
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Dongzagla A, Jewitt S, O'Hara S. Seasonality in faecal contamination of drinking water sources in the Jirapa and Kassena-Nankana Municipalities of Ghana. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 752:141846. [PMID: 32892045 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This paper examines seasonal variations in faecal contamination of drinking water sources in the Jirapa and Kassena-Nankana Municipalities of Ghana. Data collection involved a survey of 568 households, testing of faecal coliform concentrations in drinking water source samples (141 in the rainy season, 128 in the dry season), in-depth interviews with key water stakeholders, and field observation to identify sources of faecal contamination. From the water quality testing, faecal coliforms were detected in all source types, including 'treated' pipe-borne water. Contamination was significantly higher in the rainy season than in the dry season (P < 0.05) with 51.8% of water samples in the rainy season and 27.3% in the dry season failing to meet the World Health Organisation and Ghana Standard Authority guideline on faecal coliform concentrations in drinking water sources. The proportion of population at risk of faecal contamination in the rainy season was 41.5% compared to 33.1% in the dry season. We argue that in Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa at large, water surveillance agencies risk underestimating population exposed to faecal contamination through drinking water sources if monitoring is only done in the dry season. To avoid this, we recommend seasonal monitoring of faecal concentration in drinking water sources. However, in periods of limited resources, monitoring is most appropriate in the rainy season when the risk of contamination is high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfred Dongzagla
- Department of Planning, Faculty of Planning and Land Management, University for Development Studies, Tamale, Ghana.
| | - Sarah Jewitt
- School of Geography, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD Nottingham, United Kingdom.
| | - Sarah O'Hara
- School of Geography, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD Nottingham, United Kingdom. sarah.o'
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34
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Nadimpalli ML, Bourke CD, Robertson RC, Delarocque-Astagneau E, Manges AR, Pickering AJ. Can breastfeeding protect against antimicrobial resistance? BMC Med 2020; 18:392. [PMID: 33317529 PMCID: PMC7737306 DOI: 10.1186/s12916-020-01862-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The proportion of infections among young children that are antimicrobial-resistant is increasing across the globe. Newborns may be colonized with enteric antimicrobial-resistant pathogens early in life, which is a risk factor for infection-related morbidity and mortality. Breastfeeding is actively promoted worldwide for its beneficial impacts on newborn health and gut health. However, the role of breastfeeding and human milk components in mitigating young children's carriage of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens and antibiotic resistance genes has not been comprehensively explored. MAIN BODY Here, we review how the act of breastfeeding, early breastfeeding, and/or human milk components, such as the milk microbiota, secretory IgA, human milk oligosaccharides, antimicrobial peptides, and microRNA -bearing extracellular vesicles, could play a role in preventing the establishment of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens in young children's developing gut microbiomes. We describe findings from recent human studies that support this concept. CONCLUSION Given the projected rise in global morbidity and mortality that will stem from antimicrobial-resistant infections, identifying behavioral or nutritional interventions that could decrease children's susceptibility to colonization with antimicrobial-resistant pathogens may be one strategy for protecting their health. We suggest that breastfeeding and human milk supplements deserve greater attention as potential preventive measures in the global effort to combat antimicrobial resistance, particularly in low- and middle-income settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya L Nadimpalli
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Science & Engineering Complex, Anderson Hall, Room 204, 200 College Avenue, Medford, MA, USA. .,Stuart B. Levy Center for Integrated Management of Antimicrobial Resistance (Levy CIMAR), Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Claire D Bourke
- Centre for Genomics and Child Health, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 2AT, UK.,Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Ruairi C Robertson
- Centre for Genomics and Child Health, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 2AT, UK
| | - Elisabeth Delarocque-Astagneau
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, Inserm, CESP, Team Anti-infective Evasion and Pharmacoepidemiology, 78180 Montigny, France.,AP-HP, GHU Paris Saclay University, Raymond Poincaré Hospital, Epidemiology and Public Health Department, 92380 Garches, France
| | - Amee R Manges
- School of Population and Public Health, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Amy J Pickering
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Science & Engineering Complex, Anderson Hall, Room 204, 200 College Avenue, Medford, MA, USA.,Stuart B. Levy Center for Integrated Management of Antimicrobial Resistance (Levy CIMAR), Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA
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35
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Fuhrmeister ER, Ercumen A, Grembi JA, Islam M, Pickering AJ, Nelson KL. Shared bacterial communities between soil, stored drinking water, and hands in rural Bangladeshi households. WATER RESEARCH X 2020; 9:100056. [PMID: 32529181 PMCID: PMC7276488 DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2020.100056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Understanding household-level transmission pathways of fecal pathogens can provide insight for developing effective strategies to reduce diarrheal illness in low- and middle-income countries. We applied whole bacterial community analysis to investigate pathways of bacterial transmission in 50 rural Bangladeshi households. SourceTracker was used to quantify the shared microbial community in household reservoirs (stored drinking water, soil, and hands) and estimate the percentage of fecal-associated bacteria from child and mothers' feces in these reservoirs. Among the reservoirs studied, most bacterial transfer occurred between mothers' and children's hands and between mothers' hands and stored water. The relative percentage of human fecal-associated bacteria in all household reservoirs was low. We also quantified the number of identical amplicon sequence variants within and between individual households to assess bacterial community exchange in the domestic environment. Intra-household sharing of bacteria between mothers' and children's hands and between hands and soil was significantly greater than inter-household sharing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica R. Fuhrmeister
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, United States
| | - Ayse Ercumen
- School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, United States
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27607, United States
| | - Jessica A. Grembi
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
| | - Mahfuza Islam
- Environmental Intervention Unit, Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Amy J. Pickering
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA, 02153, United States
| | - Kara L. Nelson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, United States
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36
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Goddard FB, Ban R, Barr DB, Brown J, Cannon J, Colford JM, Eisenberg JNS, Ercumen A, Petach H, Freeman MC, Levy K, Luby SP, Moe C, Pickering AJ, Sarnat JA, Stewart J, Thomas E, Taniuchi M, Clasen T. Measuring Environmental Exposure to Enteric Pathogens in Low-Income Settings: Review and Recommendations of an Interdisciplinary Working Group. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:11673-11691. [PMID: 32813503 PMCID: PMC7547864 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Infections with enteric pathogens impose a heavy disease burden, especially among young children in low-income countries. Recent findings from randomized controlled trials of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions have raised questions about current methods for assessing environmental exposure to enteric pathogens. Approaches for estimating sources and doses of exposure suffer from a number of shortcomings, including reliance on imperfect indicators of fecal contamination instead of actual pathogens and estimating exposure indirectly from imprecise measurements of pathogens in the environment and human interaction therewith. These shortcomings limit the potential for effective surveillance of exposures, identification of important sources and modes of transmission, and evaluation of the effectiveness of interventions. In this review, we summarize current and emerging approaches used to characterize enteric pathogen hazards in different environmental media as well as human interaction with those media (external measures of exposure), and review methods that measure human infection with enteric pathogens as a proxy for past exposure (internal measures of exposure). We draw from lessons learned in other areas of environmental health to highlight how external and internal measures of exposure can be used to more comprehensively assess exposure. We conclude by recommending strategies for advancing enteric pathogen exposure assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick
G. B. Goddard
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Radu Ban
- Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, Washington 98109, United States
| | - Dana Boyd Barr
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Joe Brown
- School of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Jennifer Cannon
- Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention Foundation, Atlanta, Georgia 30308, United States
| | - John M. Colford
- Division
of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California−Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Joseph N. S. Eisenberg
- Department
of Epidemiology, University of Michigan
School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Ayse Ercumen
- Department
of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Helen Petach
- U.S. Agency
for International Development, Washington, DC 20004, United States
| | - Matthew C. Freeman
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Karen Levy
- Department
of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, United States
| | - Stephen P. Luby
- Division
of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University, California 94305, United States
| | - Christine Moe
- Center
for
Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public
Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Amy J. Pickering
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Jeremy A. Sarnat
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Jill Stewart
- Department
of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global
Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Evan Thomas
- Mortenson
Center in Global Engineering, University
of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
| | - Mami Taniuchi
- Division
of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, United States
| | - Thomas Clasen
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
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37
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Holcomb DA, Stewart JR. Microbial Indicators of Fecal Pollution: Recent Progress and Challenges in Assessing Water Quality. Curr Environ Health Rep 2020; 7:311-324. [PMID: 32542574 PMCID: PMC7458903 DOI: 10.1007/s40572-020-00278-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Fecal contamination of water is a major public health concern. This review summarizes recent developments and advancements in water quality indicators of fecal contamination. RECENT FINDINGS This review highlights a number of trends. First, fecal indicators continue to be a valuable tool to assess water quality and have expanded to include indicators able to detect sources of fecal contamination in water. Second, molecular methods, particularly PCR-based methods, have advanced considerably in their selected targets and rigor, but have added complexity that may prohibit adoption for routine monitoring activities at this time. Third, risk modeling is beginning to better connect indicators and human health risks, with the accuracy of assessments currently tied to the timing and conditions where risk is measured. Research has advanced although challenges remain for the effective use of both traditional and alternative fecal indicators for risk characterization, source attribution and apportionment, and impact evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Holcomb
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 135 Dauer Dr., Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7435, USA
| | - Jill R Stewart
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 135 Dauer Dr., Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7431, USA.
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38
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Escherichia coli as a Tool for Disease Risk Assessment of Drinking Water Sources. Int J Microbiol 2020; 2020:2534130. [PMID: 32612658 PMCID: PMC7313150 DOI: 10.1155/2020/2534130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Many diseases have been associated with poor drinking water quality including diseases caused by diarrheagenic pathogens, especially in developing countries where access to a consistent water supply is a problem. The objective of the study was to evaluate the health risks associated with the sources of drinking water in the Dangme West District of Ghana using E. coli as a measurement tool, aiming at ascertaining the paths leading to contamination of the water sources. A total of 464 water samples were obtained for analysis. Sampling covered a year across the dry and wet seasons in Ghana. Water samples were obtained from groundwater and surface water sources. E. coli counts were determined using the most probable number method (MPN). Disease risk assessment was carried out using the WHO drinking water risk assessment guidelines. Generally, the study revealed significantly higher E. coli counts in the wet season than in the dry season. Among the water samples analyzed, surface water, especially from the dams, was found to pose the highest disease risk as compared to the other water sources. Samples from groundwater sources, especially boreholes, posed the lowest disease risk. In conclusion, observations from the study implied that most water sources in the study district are highly polluted with bacteria pathogens beyond recommended safety guidelines. The main causes of faecal contamination in these water sources were purported to be anthropogenic. Therefore, there is a need to formulate a policy aimed at managing and improving rural water sources.
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39
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Shrivastava AK, Mohakud NK, Panda S, Patra SD, Kumar S, Sahu PS. Major enteropathogens in humans, domestic animals, and environmental soil samples from the same locality: prevalence and transmission considerations in coastal Odisha, India. Epidemiol Health 2020; 42:e2020034. [PMID: 32512665 PMCID: PMC7644938 DOI: 10.4178/epih.e2020034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Regions with limited sanitation facilities have higher rates of infections with various enteric pathogens. It is therefore important to identify different hosts and their relative contribution to pathogen shedding into the environment, and to assess the subsequent health risks to humans.
METHODS In this study, human faecal (n=310), animal faecal (n=150), and environmental (soil) samples (n=40) were collected from the same locality and screened for selected enteric pathogens by immunochromatography and/or polymerase chain reaction.
RESULTS At least 1 microbial agent was detected in 49.0%, 44.7%, and 40.0% of the samples from human, animals, and soil, respectively. Among humans, rotavirus was predominantly detected (17.4%) followed by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) (15.4%), Shigella (13.8), and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) (9.7%). Among animals, STEC was detected most frequently (28.0%), and EPEC was the major enteric pathogen detected in soil (30.0%). The detection rate of rotavirus was higher among younger children (≤2 years) than among older children. Single infections were more commonly detected than multiple infections in humans (p<0.01), unlike the observations in animal and soil samples. For diarrhoeagenic E. coli and Shigella, most of the human and animal isolates showed close relatedness, suggesting possible cross-infection between humans and domesticated animals in the area studied.
CONCLUSIONS The present study provides an improved understanding of the distribution of major enteric pathogens coexisting in humans and animals in the region, thereby suggesting a high potential for possible transmission among livestock and communities residing in the studied locality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpit Kumar Shrivastava
- Infection Biology Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Nirmal Kumar Mohakud
- Kalinga Institute of Medical Sciences, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) University, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Swagatika Panda
- Infection Biology Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Saumya Darshana Patra
- Infection Biology Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Subrat Kumar
- Infection Biology Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Priyadarshi Soumyaranjan Sahu
- Infection Biology Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of the Americas, Nevis, West Indies
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40
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Chique C, Hynds PD, Andrade L, Burke L, Morris D, Ryan MP, O'Dwyer J. Cryptosporidium spp. in groundwater supplies intended for human consumption - A descriptive review of global prevalence, risk factors and knowledge gaps. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 176:115726. [PMID: 32247994 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.115726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidiosis is one of the leading causes of diarrhoeal illness and mortality induced by protozoan pathogens worldwide. As a largely waterborne disease, emphasis has been given to the study of Cryptosporidium spp. in surface waters, readily susceptible to pathogenic contamination. Conversely, the status of Cryptosporidium in potable groundwater sources, generally regarded as a pristine and "safe" drinking-water supply owing to (sub)-soil protection, remains largely unknown. As such, this investigation presents the first literature review aimed to ascertain the global prevalence of Cryptosporidium in groundwater supply sources intended for human consumption. Thirty-seven peer-reviewed studies were identified and included in the review. Groundwater sample and supply detection rates (estimated 10-20%) indicate Cryptosporidium is frequently present in domestic groundwater sources, representing a latent health concern for groundwater consumers. Specifically, sample (10.4%) and source (19.1%) detection rates deriving from comprehensive "temporal" investigations are put forward as representative of a contamination 'baseline' for Cryptosporidium in 'domestic' groundwater supplies. Proposed 'baseline' prevalence figures are largely applicable in preventive risk-based catchment and groundwater quality management including the formulation of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA). Notwithstanding, a large geographical disparity in available investigations and lack of standardized reporting restrict the transferability of research findings. Overall, the mechanisms responsible for Cryptosporidium transport and ingress into groundwater supplies remain ambiguous, representing a critical knowledge gap, and denoting a distinctive lack of integration between groundwater and public-health sub-disciplines among investigations. Key recommendations and guidelines are provided for prospective studies directed at more integrative and multi-disciplinary research.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Chique
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Science (BEES), University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - P D Hynds
- Irish Centre for Research in Applied Geosciences, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; Environmental Sustainability and Health Institute (ESIH), Technological University Dublin, Ireland.
| | - L Andrade
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Science (BEES), University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Irish Centre for Research in Applied Geosciences, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - L Burke
- Antimicrobial Resistance and Microbial Ecology Group, School of Medicine and Centre for Health from Environment, Ryan Institute, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - D Morris
- Antimicrobial Resistance and Microbial Ecology Group, School of Medicine and Centre for Health from Environment, Ryan Institute, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - M P Ryan
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
| | - J O'Dwyer
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Science (BEES), University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Irish Centre for Research in Applied Geosciences, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
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41
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Mooney S, McDowell CP, O'Dwyer J, Hynds PD. Knowledge and behavioural interventions to reduce human health risk from private groundwater systems: A global review and pooled analysis based on development status. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 716:135338. [PMID: 31839297 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Groundwater contamination constitutes a significant health risk for private well users residing in rural areas. As the responsibility to safeguard rural private domestic groundwater typically rests with non-expert homeowners, interventions promoting risk mitigation and awareness represent the most viable means of preventing supply contamination. However, no global review or pooled analyses of these interventions has been undertaken to date. The current study sought to identify and quantify the performance of private well interventions from 1990 to 2018 via a global systematised review and pooled analysis. The PICO (Population-Intervention-Comparison-Outcome) approach was employed for literature identification. Relevant studies were statistically analysed across two quantitative outcome (performance) types, namely knowledge and behaviour, controlling for intervention characteristics and country development status. Mean behavioural and knowledge attainment across interventions was 53% and 48%, respectively, with interventions in economically developed regions exhibiting higher behavioural outcomes (56% vs. 45%) than those in developing regions. Geographically, interventions were located in southern or southeast Asia (n = 23), North America (n = 15), Central America (n = 1) and Africa (n = 1), with none identified in Australia/Oceania, Europe, or South America. Behavioural outcomes were significantly associated with presence of educational/research coordinator (p = 0.023), with these interventions attaining higher levels of efficacy (+74%) than those implemented by other coordinator types. Findings indicate that instructor-led, practical interventions allied with both large- and local-scale awareness-raising campaigns represent an optimum approach for future private well risk interventions. Subsequent adoption of such interventions may lead to increased levels of private well maintenance and provide a point of reference for myriad water and health communication contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Mooney
- Environmental Sustainability & Health Institute, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - C P McDowell
- School of Architecture, Planning and Environmental Policy, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - J O'Dwyer
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University of Cork, Cork, Ireland; Irish Centre for Research in Applied Geosciences (iCRAG), University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - P D Hynds
- Environmental Sustainability & Health Institute, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; Irish Centre for Research in Applied Geosciences (iCRAG), University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
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42
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Holcomb DA, Knee J, Sumner T, Adriano Z, de Bruijn E, Nalá R, Cumming O, Brown J, Stewart JR. Human fecal contamination of water, soil, and surfaces in households sharing poor-quality sanitation facilities in Maputo, Mozambique. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2020; 226:113496. [PMID: 32135507 PMCID: PMC7174141 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 02/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Identifying the origin of fecal contamination can support more effective interventions to interrupt enteric pathogen transmission. Microbial source tracking (MST) assays may help to identify environmental routes of pathogen transmission although these assays have performed poorly in highly contaminated domestic settings, highlighting the importance of both diagnostic validation and understanding the context-specific ecological, physical, and sociodemographic factors driving the spread of fecal contamination. We assessed fecal contamination of compounds (clusters of 2-10 households that share sanitation facilities) in low-income neighborhoods of urban Maputo, Mozambique, using a set of MST assays that were validated with animal stool and latrine sludge from study compounds. We sampled five environmental compartments involved in fecal microbe transmission and exposure: compound water source, household stored water and food preparation surfaces, and soil from the entrance to the compound latrine and the entrances to each household. Each sample was analyzed by culture for the general fecal indicator Escherichia coli (cEC) and by real-time PCR for the E. coli molecular marker EC23S857, human-associated markers HF183/BacR287 and Mnif, and GFD, an avian-associated marker. We collected 366 samples from 94 households in 58 compounds. At least one microbial target (indicator organism or marker gene) was detected in 96% of samples (353/366), with both E. coli targets present in the majority of samples (78%). Human targets were frequently detected in soils (59%) and occasionally in stored water (17%) but seldom in source water or on food surfaces. The avian target GFD was rarely detected in any sample type but was most common in soils (4%). To identify risk factors of fecal contamination, we estimated associations with sociodemographic, meteorological, and physical sample characteristics for each microbial target and sample type combination using Bayesian censored regression for target concentration responses and Bayesian logistic regression for target detection status. Associations with risk factors were generally weak and often differed in direction between different targets and sample types, though relationships were somewhat more consistent for physical sample characteristics. Wet soils were associated with elevated concentrations of cEC and EC23S857 and odds of detecting HF183. Water storage container characteristics that expose the contents to potential contact with hands and other objects were weakly associated with human target detection. Our results describe a setting impacted by pervasive domestic fecal contamination, including from human sources, that was largely disconnected from the observed variation in socioeconomic and sanitary conditions. This pattern suggests that in such highly contaminated settings, transformational changes to the community environment may be required before meaningful impacts on fecal contamination can be realized.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Holcomb
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Jackie Knee
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Trent Sumner
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Zaida Adriano
- We Consult, Maputo, Mozambique; Departamento de Geografia, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
| | | | - Rassul Nalá
- Instituto Nacional de Saúde, Ministério da Saúde, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Oliver Cumming
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Joe Brown
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Jill R Stewart
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States.
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43
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Fuhrmeister E, Ercumen A, Pickering AJ, Jeanis KM, Crider Y, Ahmed M, Brown S, Alam M, Sen D, Islam S, Kabir MH, Islam M, Rahman M, Kwong LH, Arnold BF, Luby SP, Colford JM, Nelson KL. Effect of Sanitation Improvements on Pathogens and Microbial Source Tracking Markers in the Rural Bangladeshi Household Environment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:4316-4326. [PMID: 32167305 PMCID: PMC7144219 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b04835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Diarrheal illnesses from enteric pathogens are a leading cause of death in children under five in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Sanitation is one way to reduce the spread of enteric pathogens in the environment; however, few studies have investigated the effectiveness of sanitation in rural LMICs in reducing pathogens in the environment. In this study, we measured the impact of a sanitation intervention (dual-pit latrines, sani-scoops, child potties delivered as part of a randomized control trial, WASH Benefits) in rural Bangladeshi household compounds by assessing prevalence ratios, differences, and changes in the concentration of pathogen genes and host-specific fecal markers. We found no difference in the prevalence of pathogenic Escherichia coli, norovirus, or Giardia genes in the domestic environment in the sanitation and control arms. The prevalence of the human fecal marker was lower on child hands and the concentration of animal fecal marker was lower on mother hands in the sanitation arm in adjusted models, but these associations were not significant after correcting for multiple comparisons. In the subset of households with ≥10 individuals per compound, the prevalence of enterotoxigenic E. coli genes on child hands was lower in the sanitation arm. Incomplete removal of child and animal feces or the compound (versus community-wide) scale of intervention could explain the limited impacts of improved sanitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica
R. Fuhrmeister
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Ayse Ercumen
- School
of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Department
of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Amy J. Pickering
- Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02153, United States
| | - Kaitlyn M. Jeanis
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Yoshika Crider
- Energy
and Resources Group, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Mahaa Ahmed
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Sara Brown
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Mahfuja Alam
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Debashis Sen
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Sharmin Islam
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Mir Himayet Kabir
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Mahfuza Islam
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Mahbubur Rahman
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Laura H. Kwong
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Benjamin F. Arnold
- School
of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Stephen P. Luby
- Woods
Institute for the Environment, Stanford
University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - John M. Colford
- School
of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Kara L. Nelson
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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44
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Chard AN, Levy K, Baker KK, Tsai K, Chang HH, Thongpaseuth V, Sistrunk JR, Freeman MC. Environmental and spatial determinants of enteric pathogen infection in rural Lao People's Democratic Republic: A cross-sectional study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008180. [PMID: 32267881 PMCID: PMC7170279 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2019] [Revised: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
TRIAL REGISTRATION clinicaltrials.gov (NCT02342860).
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna N. Chard
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Karen Levy
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Kelly K. Baker
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, College of Public Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Kevin Tsai
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, College of Public Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Howard H. Chang
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Vonethalom Thongpaseuth
- Laboratory and Treatment Unit, Center for Malariology, Parasitology, and Entomology, Ministry of Health, Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | - Jeticia R. Sistrunk
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Matthew C. Freeman
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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Assessing Drinking Water Quality at the Point of Collection and within Household Storage Containers in the Hilly Rural Areas of Mid and Far-Western Nepal. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17072172. [PMID: 32218157 PMCID: PMC7178164 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17072172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Accurate assessments of drinking water quality, household hygenic practices, and the mindset of the consumers are critical for developing effective water intervention strategies. This paper presents a microbial quality assessment of 512 samples from household water storage containers and 167 samples from points of collection (POC) in remote rural communities in the hilly area of western Nepal. We found that 81% of the stored drinking water samples (mean log10 of all samples = 1.16 colony-forming units (CFU)/100 mL, standard deviation (SD) = 0.84) and 68% of the POC samples (mean log10 of all samples = 0.57 CFU/100 mL, SD = 0.86) had detectable E. coli. The quality of stored water was significantly correlated with the quality at the POC, with the majority (63%) of paired samples showing a deterioration in quality post-collection. Locally applied household water treatment (HWT) methods did not effectively improve microbial water quality. Among all household sanitary inspection questions, only the presence of livestock near the water storage container was significantly correlated with its microbial contamination. Households' perceptions of their drinking water quality were mostly influenced by the water's visual appearance, and these perceptions in general motivated their use of HWT. Improving water quality within the distribution network and promoting safer water handling practices are proposed to reduce the health risk due to consumption of contaminated water in this setting.
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Exum NG, Gorin EM, Sadhu G, Khanna A, Schwab KJ. Evaluating the declarations of open defecation free status under the Swachh Bharat (‘Clean India’) Mission: repeated cross-sectional surveys in Rajasthan, India. BMJ Glob Health 2020. [PMCID: PMC7245378 DOI: 10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BackgroundThe most ambitious sanitation campaign to end open defecation (OD) in India came to a close on 2 October 2019 and there are limited independent, robust data to measure its success. We aimed to evaluate Rajasthan’s claim of open defecation free status in March 2018 under the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) or ‘Clean India Mission’ by measuring OD trends from 2016 to 2018.MethodsWe used publicly available data from Performance Monitoring and Accountability 2020, a representative survey with two-stage stratified cluster sampling. Enumeration areas were the primary sampling units selected by the probability proportional to size method. The repeated cross-sectional surveys independently collected household water and sanitation data in Rajasthan (n=20 485). Among households reporting toilet access, the data were pooled across the four rounds for an observational analysis using logistic regression. The primary outcome measure was regular OD among households with access to toilet facilities.FindingsBetween October 2016 and July 2018 main OD practices in rural Rajasthan households decreased from 63.3% (95% CI 57.0% to 69.6%) to 45.8% (95% CI 38.4% to 53.2%) and in urban households from 12.6% (95% CI 6.0% to 19.1%) to 9.4% (95% CI 4.0% to 14.7%). Households with regular OD occurring despite access to a toilet made up 21.7% (95% CI 16.9% to 26.6%) of rural and 12.1% (95% CI 3.6% to 20.7%) of urban Rajasthan as of July 2018. The multivariate logistic regression revealed that factors related to water stress and sanitation sharing were associated with household members regularly practising OD.ConclusionsThese data highlight the importance of a continued focus on constructing toilets that are affordable with low water requirements during the next phase of SBM. An independent survey that can provide robust estimates of OD is needed to monitor progress of toilet construction and use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie G Exum
- Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Emma M Gorin
- International Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Goutam Sadhu
- School of Development Studies, Indian Institute of Health Management Research University, Jaipur, India
| | - Anoop Khanna
- Indian Institute of Health Management Research, Jaipur, India
| | - Kellogg J Schwab
- Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Ercumen A, Prottas C, Harris A, Dioguardi A, Dowd G, Guiteras R. Poultry Ownership Associated with Increased Risk of Child Diarrhea: Cross-Sectional Evidence from Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020; 102:526-533. [PMID: 31971130 PMCID: PMC7056431 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.19-0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Domestic animals have been associated with enteric infections in young children and can also be carriers of respiratory viruses. We conducted a cross-sectional assessment of health outcomes in children aged < 5 years associated with animal presence among 793 rural households in Uganda. We recorded the 2-week prevalence of diarrhea and respiratory infections in children, and the number of cows, poultry, sheep/goats, and pigs in the household. We used generalized linear models with robust standard errors to estimate the prevalence ratio (PR) for diarrhea and respiratory infections associated with households owning the above- versus below-median number of animals. We conducted unadjusted and adjusted analyses controlling for socioeconomic, water, sanitation, and hygiene indicators. Children in households with the above-median number (> 5) of poultry had 83% higher diarrhea prevalence than those with ≤ 5 poultry (adjusted PR = 1.83 [1.04, 3.23], P = 0.04). Children in households with the above-median number (> 2) of cows had 48% lower prevalence of respiratory infection than those with ≤ 2 cows (adjusted PR = 0.52 [0.35, 0.76], P < 0.005). There were no other significant associations between domestic animals and child health. Studies should assess if barring chickens from indoor living quarters and sanitary disposal of chicken and other animal feces can reduce childhood zoonotic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayse Ercumen
- Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | | | - Angela Harris
- Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | | | - Greg Dowd
- Agricultural and Resource Economics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | - Raymond Guiteras
- Agricultural and Resource Economics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
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Edwin P, Azage M. Geographical Variations and Factors Associated with Childhood Diarrhea in Tanzania: A National Population Based Survey 2015-16. Ethiop J Health Sci 2020; 29:513-524. [PMID: 31447525 PMCID: PMC6689700 DOI: 10.4314/ejhs.v29i4.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Diarrhea remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality among under 5 children in low- and middle-income countries. In Tanzania, diarrhea remains one of the major public health problems. This study aimed to investigate spatial variations and the factors correlated with diarrhea in under five children. Methods This is a secondary data analysis using data from the population-based cross section Tanzanian Demographic and Health Survey 2015–16 data. Spatial analysis was done using the Bernoulli model from SaTScan™ software, and a generalized linear mixed model was used to identify the factors associated with childhood diarrhea. Results The overall reported prevalence of childhood diarrhea for the under five children in Tanzania was 12.1% (95%CI 11.3%–12.9%). The SaTScan spatial statics analysis revealed that diarrhea in children was not random. The odds of diarrhea were 7.35 times higher (AOR= 7.35; 95%CI: 5.29, 10.22) among children in the 6–11 months age group compared to children within the 48–59 months of age. As mother's age increased, the risk of diarrhea for the under five children decreased whereas the highest risk of diarrhea was observed in the two rich income brackets richer (AOR=1.70, 95%CI=1.30, 2.22), and richest (AOR= 1.05, 95%CI=1, 1.09). The odds of diarrhea were 1.25 times higher (AOR=1.25, 95%CI=1.06, 1.46) among children with unsafe stool disposal compared to those with safe disposal. Conclusion The socio-demographic factors associated with diarrhea among children were mother's age in years, current age of the child, wealth index and child stool disposal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Edwin
- University of Dodoma, Department of Statistics, United Republic of Tanzania
| | - Muluken Azage
- Bahir Dar university - Public health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bahir Dar university, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
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Hamzah L, Boehm AB, Davis J, Pickering AJ, Wolfe M, Mureithi M, Harris A. Ruminant Fecal Contamination of Drinking Water Introduced Post-Collection in Rural Kenyan Households. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E608. [PMID: 31963600 PMCID: PMC7027003 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17020608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
In sub-Saharan Africa, many families travel to collect water and store it in their homes for daily use, presenting an opportunity for the introduction of fecal contamination. One stored and one source water sample were each collected from 45 households in rural Kenya. All 90 samples were analyzed for fecal indicator bacteria (E. coli and enterococci) and species-specific contamination using molecular microbial source tracking assays. Human (HF183), avian (GFD), and ruminant (BacR) contamination were detected in 52, two, and four samples, respectively. Stored water samples had elevated enterococci concentrations (p < 0.01, Wilcoxon matched pairs test) and more frequent BacR detection (89% versus 27%, p < 0.01, McNemar's exact test) relative to source water samples. fsQCA (fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis) was conducted on the subset of households with no source water BacR contamination to highlight combinations of factors associated with the introduction of BacR contamination to stored water supplies. Three combinations were identified: (i) ruminants in the compound, safe water extraction methods, and long storage time, (ii) ruminants, unsafe water extraction methods, and no soap at the household handwashing station, and (iii) long storage time and no soap. This suggests that multiple pathways contribute to the transmission of ruminant fecal contamination in this context, which would have been missed if data were analyzed using standard regression techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Latifah Hamzah
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (L.H.); (A.B.B.); (J.D.); (M.W.)
| | - Alexandria B. Boehm
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (L.H.); (A.B.B.); (J.D.); (M.W.)
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jennifer Davis
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (L.H.); (A.B.B.); (J.D.); (M.W.)
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Amy J. Pickering
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 01255, USA;
| | - Marlene Wolfe
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (L.H.); (A.B.B.); (J.D.); (M.W.)
- Innovations for Poverty Action, Nairobi, Kenya;
| | | | - Angela Harris
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, NC State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
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Alemayehu B, Ayele BT, Kloos H, Ambelu A. Individual and community-level risk factors in under-five children diarrhea among agro-ecological zones in southwestern Ethiopia. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2020; 224:113447. [PMID: 31978740 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.113447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Revised: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Under-five children diarrhea remains a major public health problem in resource-limited areas, including Ethiopia, due to multiple risk factors. This study aimed to identify individual and community-level risk factors affecting under-five children diarrhea (UFCD) in five districts of the Bench Maji Zone, southwestern Ethiopia. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from February to April 2018. A total of 826 households were recruited from five randomly selected districts using stratified sampling. A multivariable logistic regression model was fitted to identify risk factors associated with UFCD. The prevalence of UFCD in the study area was found to be 18.3%. Children less than six months of age are more at risk for diarrhea (95% CI for AOR2.5;1.23-4.90). Most probably initiating supplementary feedings before six months of age is one of the main risk factor for diarrhea (95% CI for AOR 0.65; 0.45-0.98). Similarly, mothers with low educational status (95% CI for AOR 0.30; 0.10-0.84), limited knowledge of mothers' about diarrhea (95% CI for AOR 0.24; 0.15-0.40), absence of hand washing among mothers/caregivers at critical times (95% CI for AOR 4.6; 2.88-7.67), and sharing of the residence with domestic animals (95% CI for AOR 2.87, 1.75-4.67) were the predictors of UFCD at individual-level. Children living in semi pastoral areas (95% CI for AOR 0.22; 0.10-0.50) unvaccinated children for rotavirus prevention (95% CI AOR 5.22, 3.33-8.20), households obtaining water from unimproved sources (95% CI for AOR 2.53; 1.60-4.40), and households with unimproved latrine facilities (95% CI for AOR 0.60; 0.33-0.99) were the risk factors of UFCD at the community-level. The study revealed that UFCD is a critical health concern in southwestern Ethiopia, where integrated intervention approach at individual and community level could help to alleviate the problem. At individual level, behavioral change intervention on handwashing, exclusive breast-feeding before the age of six months, and awareness on diarrhea prevention methods are critical areas of intervention. Likewise, provision of safe and adequate water source combined with household water chlorination, and vaccination for rotavirus are interventions at community that need to be integrated with the individual-level of intervention. This could significantly contribute for the reduction of UFCD in the resource limited areas through intersectoral collaboration of the health and other sectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bezuayehu Alemayehu
- Department of Environmental Health Science and Technology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia.
| | - Birhanu Teshome Ayele
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa.
| | - Helmut Kloos
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, USA.
| | - Argaw Ambelu
- Department of Environmental Health Science and Technology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia.
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