A novel approach to rapidly purify acid mine drainage through chemically forming schwertmannite followed by lime neutralization

Iron nanoparticles prepared from South African acid mine drainage for the treatment of methylene blue in wastewater

In this study, three acid mine drainage (AMD) sources were investigated as potential sources of iron for the synthesis of iron nanoparticles using green tea extract (an environmentally friendly reductant) or sodium borohydride (a chemical reductant). Electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO), oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), ion chromatography (IC), and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) techniques were used to characterize the AMD, and the most suitable AMD sample was selected based on availability. Additionally, three tea extracts were characterized using ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazine-hydrate (DPPH), and the most suitable environmentally friendly reductant was selected based on the highest FRAP (1152 µmol FeII/g) and DPPH (71%) values. The synthesized iron nanoparticles were characterized and compared using XRD, STEM, Image J, EDS, and FTIR analytical techniques. The study shows that the novel iron nanoparticles produced using the selected green tea (57 nm) and AMD were stable under air due to the surface modification by polyphenols contained in green tea extract, whereas the nanoparticles produced using sodium borohydride (67 nm) were unstable under air and produced a toxic supernatant. Both the AMD-based iron nanoparticles can be used as Fenton-like catalysts for the decoloration of methylene blue solution. While 99% decoloration was achieved by the borohydride-synthesized nanoparticles, 81% decoloration was achieved using green tea-synthesized nanoparticles.

Efficient co-stabilization of arsenic and cadmium in farmland soil by schwertmannite under long-term flooding-drying condition

Simultaneously stabilizing of arsenic (As) and cadmium (Cd) in co-contaminated soil presents substantial challenges due to their contrasting chemical properties. Schwertmannite (Sch) is recognized as a potent adsorbent for As pollution, with alkali modification showing promising results in the simultaneous immobilization of both As and Cd. This study systematically investigated the long-term stabilization efficacy of alkali-modified Sch in Cd-As co-contaminated farmland soil over a 200-day flooding-drying period. The results revealed that As showed significant mobility in flooded conditions, whereas Cd exhibited increased soil availability under drying phases. The addition of Sch did not affect the trends in soil pH and Eh fluctuations; nonetheless, it led to an augmentation in the levels of amorphous iron oxides and SO42- concentration in soil pore water. At a dosage of 0.5% Sch, there was a notable decrease in the mobility and soil availability of As and Cd under both flooding (34.5% and 53.6% at Day 50) and drying conditions (27.0% and 29.4% at Day 130), primarily promoting the transformation of labile metal(loid) fraction into amorphous iron oxide-bound forms. Throughout the flooding-drying treatment period, Sch maintained stable mineral morphology and mineralogical phase, highlighting its long-term stabilization effect. The findings of this study emphasize the promising application of Sch-based soil remediation agents in mitigating the challenges arising from As-Cd co-contamination. Further research is warranted to explore their application in real farmland settings and their impact on the uptake of toxic metal(loid)s by plants.

Treating waste with waste: Lignin acting as both an effective bactericide and passivator to prevent acid mine drainage formation at the source

Acid mine drainage (AMD) induced by pyrite oxidation is a notorious and serious environmental problem, but the management of AMD in an economical and environmentally friendly way remains challenging. Here, lignin, a natural polymer and abundant waste, was employed as both a bactericide and passivator to prevent AMD formation. The addition of lignin to a mimic AMD formation system inoculated with Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans at a lignin-to-pyrite weight ratio of 2.5: 10 reduced the combined abiotic and biotic oxidation of pyrite by 68.4 % (based on released SO42-). Morphological characterization of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans revealed that lignin could act on the cell surface and impair the cell integrity, disrupting its normal growth and preventing biotic oxidation of pyrite accordingly. Moreover, lignin can be used alone as a passivator to form a coating on the pyrite surface, reducing abiotic oxidation by 71.7 % (based on released SO42-). Through multiple technique analysis, it was proposed that the functional groups on lignin may coordinate with iron ions on pyrite, promoting its deposition on the surface. In addition, the inherent antioxidant activity of lignin may also be actively involved in the abatement of pyrite oxidation via the reduction of iron. Overall, this study offered a "treating waste with waste" strategy for preventing AMD formation at the source and opened a new avenue for the management of AMD.

Energy harvesting from acid mine drainage using a highly proton/ion-selective thin polyamide film

A huge chemical potential difference exists between the acid mine drainage (AMD) and the alkaline neutralization solution, which is wasted in the traditional AMD neutralization process. This study reports, for the first time, the harvest of this chemical potential energy through a controlled neutralization of AMD using H+-conductive films. Polyamide films with controllable thickness achieved much higher H+ conductance than a commercially available cation exchange membrane (CEM). Meanwhile, the optimal polyamide film had an excellent H+/Ca2+ selectivity of 63.7, over two orders of magnitude higher than that of the CEM (0.3). The combined advantages of fast proton transport and high proton/ion selectivity greatly enhanced the power generation of the AMD battery. The power density was 3.1 W m-2, which is over one order of magnitude higher than that of the commercial CEM (0.2 W m-2). Our study provides a new sustainable solution to address the environmental issues of AMD while simultaneously enabling clean energy production.

Chemical Mineralization of AMD into Schwertmannite Fixing Iron and Sulfate Ions by Structure and Adsorption: Paving the Way for Enhanced Mineralization Capacity

Abundant iron and sulfate resources are present in acid mine drainage. The synthesis of schwertmannite from AMD rich in iron and sulfate could achieve the dual objectives of resource recovery and wastewater purification. However, schwertmannite cannot emerge spontaneously due to the Gibbs free energy greater than 0. This results in the iron and sulfate in AMD only being able to use the energy generated by oxidation in the coupling reaction to promote the formation of minerals, but this only achieved partial mineralization, which limited the remediation of AMD through mineralization. In order to clarify the mechanism of iron and sulfate removal by the formation of schwertmannite in AMD, kinetic and thermodynamic parameters were crucial. This work used H2O2 oxidation of Fe2+ as a coupling reaction to promote the formation of schwertmannite from 64.4% of iron and 15.7% of sulfate in AMD, and determined that 99.7% of the iron and 89.9% of sulfate were immobilized in the schwertmannite structural, and only a small fraction was immobilized by the adsorption of schwertmannite, both of which were consistent with second-order kinetics models. The thermodynamic data suggested that reducing the concentration of excess sulfate ions or increasing the energy of the system may allow more iron and sulfate to be immobilized by forming schwertmannite. Experimental verification using the reaction of potassium bicarbonate with the acidity in solution to increase the energy in the system showed that the addition of potassium bicarbonate effectively promoted the formation of schwertmannite from Fe3+ and SO42-. It provided a theoretical and research basis for the direct synthesis of schwertmannite from Fe3+ and SO42- rich AMD for the removal of contaminants from water and the recovery of valuable resources.

Adaptability of sulfur-disproportionating bacteria for mine water remediation under the pressures of heavy metal ions and high sulfate content

Biological sulfide production processes mediated by sulfate/sulfur reduction have gained attention for metal removal from industrial wastewater (e.g., mine water (MW) and metallurgical wastewater) via forming insoluble metal sulfides. However, these processes often necessitate the addition of external organic compounds as electron donors, which poses a constraint on the broad application of this technology. A recent proof of concept study reported that microbial sulfur disproportionation (SD) produced sulfide with no demand for organics, which could achieve more cost-benefit MW treatment against the above-mentioned processes. However, the resistance of SD bioprocess to different metals and high sulfate content in MW remains mysterious, which may substantially affect the practical applicability of such process. In this study, the sulfur-disproportionating bacteria (SDB)-dominated consortium was enriched from a previously established SD-driven bioreactor, in which Dissulfurimicrobium sp. with a relative abundance of 39.9 % was the predominated SDB. When exposed to the real pretreated acidic MW after the pretreatment process of pH amelioration, the sulfur-disproportionating activity remained active, and metals were effectively removed from the MW. Metal tolerance assays further demonstrated that the consortium had a good tolerance to different metal ions (i.e., Pb2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, Mn2+, Zn2+), especially for Mn2+ with a concentration of approximately 20 mg/L. It suggested the robustness of Dissulfurimicrobium sp. likely due to the presence of genes encoding for the enzymes associated with metal(loid) resistance/uptake. Additionally, although high sulfate content resulted in a slight inhibition on the sulfur-disproportionating activity, the consortium still achieved sulfide production rates of 27.3 mg S/g VSS-d on average under an environmentally relevant sulfate level (i.e., 1100 mg S/L), which is comparable to those reported in sulfate reduction. Taken together, these findings imply that SDB could ensure sustainable MW treatment in a more cost-effective and organic-free way.

The purification of acid mine drainage through the formation of schwertmannite with Fe(0) reduction and alkali-regulated biomineralization prior to lime neutralization

Acid mine drainage (AMD) contains abundant Fe (II), Fe(III), and SO42-, as well as a large amount of dissolved toxic metals and metalloids, posing a serious threat to the environment. In this study, an integrated technique for the treatment of AMD was proposed. The technique started with pre-oxidation followed by Fe(0) reduction and alkali-regulated biomineralization and then ended with lime neutralization. The technique removed toxic metal oxyanions in the pre-oxidation stage and recovered pure schwertmannite during the subsequent alkali-regulated biomineralization. Fe(III), which could not be directly biomineralized, was reduced to Fe(II) by Fe(0). A small amount of alkali was added to regulate the hydrolytic mineralization reaction after Fe(II) oxidation in AMD, which in a single biomineralization could remove in the form of schwertmannite >95 % of soluble Fe in the AMD. In the subsequent lime neutralization process, the amount of lime required and the sludge produced were reduced by 75.4 % and 84.9 %, respectively, compared to the raw AMD. Additionally, the content of non-ferrous metals in the sludge increased 5.6-fold. Compared with non-alkali-regulated biomineralization, the schwertmannite obtained by the alkali-regulated biomineralization had a higher adsorption capacity for oxyanions (e.g., arsenic, chromium, and antimony). The new approach should significantly reduce the treatment cost of AMD and recover Fe and S elements in the form of valuable secondary minerals, such that it is reasonable to expect that it will be widely adopted in practical applications.

A coupled electrochemical process for schwertmannite recovery from acid mine drainage: Important roles of anodic reactive oxygen species and cathodic alkaline

The increasing need for sustainable acid mine drainage (AMD) treatment has spurred much attention to strategic development of resource recovery. Along this line, we envisage that a coupled electrochemical system involving anodic Fe(II) oxidation and cathodic alkaline production will facilitate in situ synthesis of schwertmannite from AMD. Multiple physicochemical studies showed the successful formation of electrochemistry-induced schwertmannite, with its surface structure and chemical composition closely related to the applied current. A low current (e.g., 50 mA) led to the formation of schwertmannite having a small specific surface area (SSA) of 122.8 m² g^-1 and containing small amounts of -OH groups (formula Fe₈O₈(OH)_4.49(SO₄)_1.76), whereas a large current (e.g., 200 mA) led to schwertmannite high in SSA (169.5 m² g^-1) and amounts of -OH groups (formula Fe₈O₈(OH)_5.16(SO₄)_1.42). Mechanistic studies revealed that the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated pathway, rather than the direct oxidation pathway, plays a dominant role in accelerating Fe(II) oxidation, especially at high currents. The abundance of •OH in the bulk solution, along with the cathodic production of OH^-, were the key to obtaining schwertmannite with desirable properties. It was also found to function as a powerful sorbent in removal of arsenic species from the aqueous phase.

Revealing the role of calcium alginate-biochar composite for simultaneous removing SO42- and Fe3+ in AMD: Adsorption mechanisms and application effects

The remediation of acid mine drainage (AMD) is particularly challenging because it contains a large amount of Fe³⁺ and a high concentration of SO₄^2-. To reduce the pollution caused by SO₄^2- and Fe³⁺ in AMD and realize the recycling of solid waste, this study used distillers grains as raw materials to prepare biochar at different pyrolysis temperatures. Calcium alginate-biochar composite (CA-MB) was further synthesized via the entrapment method and used to simultaneously remove SO₄^2- and Fe³⁺ from AMD. The effects of different influencing factors on the sorption process of SO₄^2- and Fe³⁺ were studied through batch adsorption experiments. The adsorption behaviors and mechanisms of SO₄^2- and Fe³⁺ were investigated with different adsorption models and characterizations. The results showed that the adsorption process of CA-MDB600 on SO₄^2- and Fe³⁺ could be well described by Elovich and Langmuir-Freundlich models. It was further proved by the site energy analysis that the adsorption mechanisms of SO₄^2- onto CA-MDB600 were mainly surface precipitation and electrostatic attraction, while that of Fe³⁺ removal was attributed to ion exchange, precipitation, and complexation. The applications of CA-MDB600 in actual AMD proved its good application potential. This study indicates that CA-MDB600 could be applied as a promising eco-friendly adsorbent for the remediation of AMD.

Wildfire effects on the hydrogeochemistry of a river severely polluted by acid mine drainage

This study evaluates for the first time the impact of a large wildfire on the hydrogeochemistry of a deeply AMD-affected river at the beginning of the wet season. To accomplish this, a high-resolution water monitoring campaign was performed within the basin coinciding with the first rainfalls after summer. Unlike similar events recorded in AMD-affected areas, where dramatic increases in most dissolved element concentrations, and decreases in pH values are observed as a result of evaporitic salts flushing and the transport of sulfide oxidation products from mine sites, a slight increase in pH values (from 2.32 to 2.88) and decrease in element concentrations (e.g.; Fe: 443 to 205 mg/L; Al: 1805 to 1059 mg/L; sulfate: 22.8 to 13.3 g/L) was observed with the first rainfalls after the fire. The washout of wildfire-ash deposited in the riverbanks and the drainage area, constituted by alkaline mineral phases, seems to have counterbalanced the usual behavior and patterns of the river hydrogeochemistry during autumn. Geochemical results indicate that a preferential dissolution occurs during ash washout (K > Ca > Na), with a quick release of K followed by an intense dissolution of Ca and Na. On the other hand, in unburnt zones parameters and concentrations vary to a lesser extent than burnt areas, being the washout of evaporitic salts the dominant process. With subsequent rainfalls ash plays a minor role on the river hydrochemistry. Elemental ratios (Fe/SO₄ and Ca/Mg) and geochemical tracers in both ash (K, Ca and Na) and AMD (S) were used to prove the importance of ash washout as the dominant geochemical process during the study period. Geochemical and mineralogical evidences point to intense schwertmannite precipitation as the main driver of reduction in metal pollution. The results of this study shed light on the response of AMD-polluted rivers to certain climate change effects, since climate models predict an increase in the number and intensity of wildfires and torrential rain events, especially in Mediterranean climates.

Assessment of the induced effect of selected iron hydroxysulfates biosynthesized using Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans for biomineralization of acid mine drainage

Soluble iron and sulfate in acid mine drainage (AMD) can be greatly removed through the formation of minerals facilitated by seed crystals. However, the difference in the effects of jarosite and schwertmannite as endogenous seed crystals to induce AMD mineralization remains unclear. This paper intends to study the effect of Fe²⁺ oxidation and Fe³⁺ mineralization in the biosynthesis of minerals using different addition amounts and methods of jarosite or schwertmannite. The results showed that the addition amount and method of different seed crystals had no effect on the Fe²⁺ bio-oxidation but would change the Fe³⁺ mineralization efficiency. With the same amount of seed crystals added, jarosite exhibited a higher capacity to promote Fe³⁺ mineralization than schwertmannite. Adding seed crystals before the initiation of Fe²⁺ oxidation (0 h) could significantly promote Fe³⁺ mineralization efficiency. With the increase of seed crystals, jarosite could not only shorten the time required for mineral synthesis but also improve the final mineral yield, whereas schwertmannite could only shorten the time required for mineral synthesis. When Fe²⁺ was completely oxidized to Fe³⁺ (48 h), the supplementary of jarosite could still effectively improve Fe³⁺ mineralization efficiency, but the addition of schwertmannite no longer affected the final mineralization degree.

Sulfur disproportionation realizes an organic-free sulfidogenic process for sustainable treatment of acid mine drainage

Biological sulfidogenic processes (BSPs) have been considered effective biotechnologies for the treatment of organic-deficit acid mine drainage (AMD) and heavy metal recovery. However, high-rate sulfide production relies on the continuous addition of exogenous organic substrates as electron donors to facilitate dissimilatory sulfate reduction, which substantially increases the operational cost and CO₂ emission and also limits the wide application of BSPs in AMD treatment. In this study, we proposed a novel chemoautotrophic elemental sulfur disproportionation (SD) process as an alternative to conventional BSPs for treating AMD, in which sulfur-disproportionating bacteria (SDB) disproportionates sulfur to sulfide and sulfate without organic substrate supplementation. During the 393-day lab-scale test, we observed that the sulfur-disproportionating reactor (SDR) achieved a stable high-rate sulfide production, with a maximal rate of 21.10 mg S/L-h at an organic-substrate-free condition. This high rate of sulfide production suggested that the SD process could provide sufficient sulfide to precipitate metal ions from AMD. Thermodynamics analysis and batch tests further revealed that alkalinity rather than sulfate was the critical factor influencing the SD process, suggesting that the abundant sulfate present in AMD would not inhibit the SD process. The critical condition of SD in the SDR was therefore determined. Microbial community analysis showed that Dissulfurimicrobium sp. was the dominant SDB during the long-term operation regardless of dynamic sulfate and/or alkalinity concentrations, which provides evidence that SDB can be employed for sustainable and high-rate sulfide production for engineering purposes. A multi-stage AMD treatment system equipped with a SDR removed over 99% of the influent metals (i.e., Fe, Al, Zn, Cu, Pb) from AMD except for Mn. This study demonstrated that the novel SD process is a green and promising biotechnology for the sustainable treatment of organic-deficient metal-laden wastewater, such as AMD.

Release and fate of As mobilized via bio-oxidation of arsenopyrite in acid mine drainage: Importance of As/Fe/S speciation and As(III) immobilization

Mining activities expose sulfidic minerals including arsenopyrite (FeAsS) to acid mine drainage (AMD). The subsequent release of toxic arsenic (As) can have great negative implications for the environment and human health. This study investigated the evolution of secondary products and As speciation transformations during arsenopyrite bio-oxidation in AMD collected from a polymetallic mine. Immobilization of the As solubilized via arsenopyrite bio-oxidation using red mud (RM) was also studied. The results show that the high ionic strength (concentrations of dissolved Fe³⁺, SO₄^2-, and Ca²⁺ reached values up to 0.75, 3.38, and 0.35 g/L, respectively) and redox potential (up to +621 mV) of AMD (caused primarily by Fe³⁺) enhanced the dissolution of arsenopyrite. A high [Fe]_aq/[As]_aq ratio in the AMD favored the precipitation of tooeleite during arsenopyrite bio-oxidation, and the formation of other poorly crystalline products such as schwertmannite and amorphous ferric arsenate also contributed to As immobilization. Bacterial cells served as important nucleation sites for the precipitation of mineral phases. Arsenopyrite completely dissolved after 12 days of bio-oxidation in AMD and the [As]_aq (mainly present as As(III)) reached 1.92 g/L, while a greater [As]_aq was observed in a basal salts medium (BSM) assay (reaching 3.02 g/L). An RM addition significantly promoted As(III) immobilization, with final [As(III)]_aq decreasing to 0.16 and 1.43 g/L in AMD and BSM assays respectively. No oxidation of As(III) was detected during the immobilization process. These findings can help predict As release from arsenopyrite on contact with AMD and, on a broader scale, assist in designing remediation and treatment strategies to mitigate As contamination in mining.

A novel approach for treating acid mine drainage by forming schwertmannite driven by a combination of biooxidation and electroreduction before lime neutralization

Acid mine drainage (AMD) contains abundant iron, sulfates, and various metal ions, and it causes environmental pollution. The traditional AMD lime neutralization forms a layer of iron hydroxide and gypsum on the surface of the lime particles, preventing continuous reaction and leading to excessive lime addition and neutralized sludge production. In this study, an approach for treating AMD using a cyclic process of biooxidation and electroreduction before lime neutralization was proposed, in which the Fe²⁺ in AMD was oxidized to Fe³⁺ and induced to form schwertmannite through Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans. The remaining Fe³⁺ was reduced to Fe²⁺ using an electric field. After three biooxidation and two electroreduction cycles, 98.2% of Fe and 62.4% of SO₄^2- in AMD precipitated as schwertmannite (Fe₈O₈(OH)_5.16(SO₄)_1.37). The yield of schwertmannite reached 33.98 g/L_AMD, with a high specific surface area of 112.59 m²/g. The lime dosage and sludge yield of the treated AMD in the subsequent neutralization stage (pH = 7.00) decreased by 85.0% and 74.5%, respectively, than those of raw AMD. The pilot test results showed that the integrated treatment of biooxidation-electroreduction cyclic mineralization and lime neutralization has practical applications.

Modified chemical mineralization-alkali neutralization technology: Mineralization behavior at high iron concentrations and its application in sulfur acid spent pickling solution

Mineralization coupled with neutralization is a dual-function technology for disposing acidic iron-rich waters, which can recover the valuable iron in the form of secondary mineral and concurrently purify the wastewater. In this study, a modified technology for treating high Fe wastewater (sulfur acid spent pickling liquor, 62 g Fe/L) was proposed based on the specific investigation of the mineralization behaviors in Fe concentration range of 20-70 g/L. Results showed that high SO₄^2-/Fe²⁺ molar ratio (> 2.0) tended to trigger gelation phenomena at Fe concentrations above 30 g/L. Fe specie distribution suggested that the insufficient polymerization among Fe-OH complexes might be responsible for the gelation phenomena, since the strong Fe-SO₄ coordination almost completely suppressed the Fe_x(OH)_y^(3x-y)+ form (a general terms of Fe³⁺ hydrolysates and their polymers). Modified mineralization strategies were proposed, including pretreatment with dilution or BaCl₂/CaCl₂ precipitation, of which CaCl₂ pretreatment was a versatile and low-cost method. Following CaCl₂ pretreatment, chemical mineralization converted above 90% of iron into secondary mineral, which therefore drastically reduced the alkali consumption (from 164.2 g/L to 1.4 g/L) and sludge yield (from 328.1 g/L to 2.4 g/L) in subsequent neutralization treatment. The resultant mineral was identified as schwertmannite, and exhibited efficient adsorption capacity toward arsenite (364.2 mg/g). The modified chemical mineralization-alkaline neutralization is a cost-effective technology for the treatment of the acidic iron-rich waters. In practical applications, several regulating strategies should be further explored to improve the mineral purity, and the mineralization conditions must be optimized according to the Fe and SO₄^2- concentrations in wastewater.

Study on the Mechanical and Leaching Characteristics of Permeable Reactive Barrier Waste Solidified by Cement-Based Materials

The durability against wet-dry (w-d) cycles is an important parameter for the service life design of solidified permeable reactive barrier (PRB) waste. This study introduces the potential use of cement, fly ash, and carbide slag (CFC) for the stabilization/solidification (S/S) of PRB waste. In this study, solidified PRB waste was subjected to different w-d cycles ranging in times from 0 to 10. By analyzing the mass loss, the unconfined compressive strength (UCS), initial resistivity (IR), and the Mn2+ leaching concentration under different durability conditions, the results demonstrate that these variables increased and then tended to decrease with the number of w-d cycles. The UCS of contaminated soil is significantly correlated with IR. Moreover, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses indicate that the hydration products calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and ettringite (AFt) are the main reasons for the enhancement of the UCS. However, the increase in Mn2+ concentration leads to a decrease in hydration products and the compactness of solidified soil, which has negative effects for the UCS and the leaching ion concentration. In general, the durability exhibited by the PRB waste treated with S/S in this paper was satisfactory. This study can provide theoretical guidance for practical engineering applications.

A stepwise processing strategy for treating highly acidic wastewater and comprehensive utilization of the products derived from different treating steps

A stepwise processing strategy, including initial neutralization, chemical mineralization, and complete neutralization treating steps, was developed to effectively treat and utilize the highly acidic wastewater derived from titanium dioxide production. Approximately 94.6% of SO₄^2-, 100% of Fe, and most of other metals were recovered to produce white gypsum, schwertmannite, and Fe⁰/Fe₃O₄@biochar (Fe⁰/Fe₃O₄@BC) composite in the corresponding treating steps. The resulting effluent with neutral pH and a small amount of metal ions could be discharged to general sewage treatment plant for further processing. Schwertmannite was applied as a heterogeneous Fenton-like catalyst to stimulate H₂O₂ to produce active radicals for effective degradation and mineralization of methyl orange (MO) in solution. The MO removal of 100% and total organic carbon removal of 91.1% were achieved in schwertmannite/H₂O₂ reaction system, and schwertmannite exhibited good stability and reusability. Fe⁰/Fe₃O₄@BC composite was applied to remove Cr(VI), with the adsorption capacity of 67.74 mg g^-1. The removal of Cr(VI) using Fe⁰/Fe₃O₄@BC composite was a chemisorption process, including the adsorption of Cr(VI), reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III), and co-precipitation of Cr(III)/Fe(III) oxides/hydroxides. This stepwise treating strategy is a promising technology for effective treatment of highly acidic industrial wastewater and comprehensive utilization of the related products.

A novel biofilm bioreactor derived from a consortium of acidophilic arsenite-oxidizing bacteria for the cleaning up of arsenite from acid mine drainage

Arsenite (As(III)) was considered to be of great concern in acid mine drainage (AMD). A promising approach for cleaning up of arsenite from AMD is microbial oxidation of As(III) followed by adsorptions. However, there is virtually no research about the acidophilic bioreactor for As(III) oxidation so far. In this study, we formed a new biofilm bioreactor with a consortium of acidophilic As(III) oxidation bacteria. It is totally chemoautotrophic, with no need to add any carbon or other materials during the operations. It works well under pH 3.0-4.0, capable of oxidizing 1.0-20.0 mg/L As(III) in 3.0-4.5 h, respectively. A continuous operation of the bioreactor suggests that it is very stable and sustainable. Functional gene detection indicated that the biofilms possessed a unique diversity of As(III) oxidase genes. Taken together, this acidophilic bioreactor has great potential for industrial applications in the cleaning up of As(III) from AMD solution.

Assessment of Characteristics of Acid Mine Drainage Treated with Fly Ash

Acid mine drainage (AMD) occurs naturally in abandoned coal mines, and it contains hazardous toxic elements in varying concentrations. In the present research, AMD samples collected from an abandoned mine were treated with fly ash samples from four thermal power plants in Singrauli Coalfield in the proximate area, at optimized concentrations. The AMD samples were analyzed for physicochemical parameters and metal content before and after fly ash treatment. Morphological, geochemical and mineralogical characterization of the fly ash was performed using SEM, XRF and XRD. This laboratory-scale investigation indicated that fly ash had appreciable neutralization potential, increasing AMD pH and decreasing elemental and sulfate concentrations. Therefore, fly ash may be effectively used for AMD neutralization, and its suitability for the management of coalfield AMD pits should be assessed further.

Biological aqua crust mitigates metal(loid) pollution and the underlying immobilization mechanisms

Biocrust-mediated in situ bioremediation could be an alternative strategy to mitigate metal(loid) pollution in aquatic habitats. To better understand the roles of biocrusts in regulating the fate of metal(loid)s, we examined the morphology, composition and structure of biological aqua crusts (BAC) developed in the mine drainage of a representative Pb/Zn tailing pond, and tested their effectiveness for immobilizing typical metal(loid)s. Unlike terrestrial biocrusts, BAC results from an assembly of compounds produced by the strong microbial activity and mineral compounds present in the aquatic environment. The BAC exhibited a unique flexible, spongy and porous structure with a specific surface area of 12-22 m² g^-1, and was able to effectively concentrate various metal(loid)s (e.g. Cd, 0.26-0.60 g kg^-1; Pb, 0.52-0.66 g kg^-1; As, 10.4-24.3 g kg^-1). The concentrations of metal(loid)s (e.g. Cd and As) in the BAC were even three to seven times higher than those in the source tailings, and more than 98% of immobilized metal(loid)s were present as the highly stable non-EDTA-exchangeable fraction. Adsorption on the well distributed micro-particles of the clay minerals (e.g. kaolinite) and the organic matters (2.0-2.7 wt.%) were found to be the major mechanisms for BAC to bind metal cations, whereas adsorption and coprecipitation on Fe/Mn oxide (e.g. FeOOH), was proposed to be the dominant pathway for accumulating metal(loid)s, especially As. The decrease in aqueous concentrations of the metal(loid)s along the drainage could be attributed in part to the scavenging effects of the BAC. These findings therefore provide new insights into the possible and efficient strategy for metal(loid) removal from water bodies, and highlighted the important role of BAC as a nature-based solution to benefit the bioremediation of mining area.

Hydroxyl, Fe2+, and Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans Jointly Determined the Crystal Growth and Morphology of Schwertmannite in a Sulfate-Rich Acidic Environment

Schwertmannite, ubiquitously found in iron and sulfate-rich acid mine drainage, is generated via biological oxidation of ferrous ions by Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans (A. ferrooxidans). However, little information on the mechanisms of biogenic schwertmannite formation and crystal growth is available. This study deliberately investigated the relationships among mineral morphology, solution chemistry, and phase transformation of schwertmannite in A. ferrooxidans-containing ferrous sulfate solutions. The formation of schwertmannite could be divided into three stages. In the first nucleation stage, crystallites are presented as nonaggregative or aggregative forms via a successive polymerization process. In the second stage, ellipsoidal aggregates, which are identified as ferrihydrite and/or schwertmannite, are formed. In the third stage, needles appear on the surface of ellipsoidal aggregates, which is caused by the phase transformation of ferrihydrite or schwertmannite to lepidocrocite and goethite through a Fe2+ (aq) catalysis-driven pathway. After three stages, a typical characteristic "hedgehog" morphology finally appears. In addition, A. ferrooxidans could significantly speed up the mineral transformation. Solution pH affects the morphology of schwertmannite by acid leaching. The experimental results also reveal that the formation of schwertmannite depend on the content of hydroxyl complexes or the transformation of the monomers to polymers, which are greatly affected by the solution pH.

Recovering iron and sulfate in the form of mineral from acid mine drainage by a bacteria-driven cyclic biomineralization system

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is recognized as a challenge encountered by mining industries globally. Cyclic mineralization method, namely Fe²⁺ oxidation/mineralization-residual Fe³⁺ reduction-resultant Fe²⁺ oxidation/mineralization, could precipitate Fe and SO₄^2- present in AMD into iron hydroxysulfate minerals and greatly improve the efficiency of subsequent lime neutralization, but the current Fe⁰-mediated reduction approach increased the mineralization cycles. This study constructed a bacteria-driven biomineralization system based on the reactions of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans-mediated Fe²⁺ oxidation and Acidiphilium multivorum-controlled Fe³⁺ reduction, and utilized water-dropping aeration and biofilm technology to satisfy the requirement of practical application. The resultant biofilms showed stable activity for Fe conversion: the efficiency of Fe²⁺-oxidation, Fe-precipitation, and Fe³⁺-reduction maintained at 98%, 32%, and 87%, respectively. Dissolved oxygen for Fe-oxidizing bacteria growth was continuously replenished by water-dropping aeration (4.2-7.2 mg/L), and the added organic carbon was mainly metabolized by Fe-reducing bacteria. About 89% Fe and 60% SO₄^2- were precipitated into jarosite mineral after five biomineralization cycles. Fe was removed via forming secondary mineral precipitates, while SO₄^2- was coprecipitated into mineral within the initial three biomineralization cycles, and then mainly precipitated with Ca²⁺ afterwards. Fe concentration in AMD was proven to directly correlate with subsequent lime neutralization efficiency. Biomineralization for five cycles drastically reduced the amount of required lime and neutralized sludge by 75% and 77%, respectively. The results in this study provided theoretical guidance for practical AMD treatment based on biomineralization technology.

A novel approach for treating acid mine drainage through forming schwertmannite driven by a mixed culture of Acidiphilium multivorum and Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans prior to lime neutralization

As the predominant treatment approach of acid mine drainage (AMD), lime neutralization often exhibits inefficiencies since the abundance of iron and sulfate in AMD usually form iron hydroxide and gypsum precipitate coatings on the surface of lime. In this study, a novel approach of biomineralization prior to lime neutralization for treating AMD was proposed, in which iron and sulfate were biologically precipitated as schwertmannite through iron biological reduction-oxidation driven by a culture mixed with Acidiphilium multivorum JZ-6 and Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans LX5. It was found that only five cycles of iron reduction by A. multivorum JZ-6 followed by iron oxidation by A. ferrooxidans LX5 could remove completely iron and nearly 40% of sulfate in AMD, while non-ferrous metals (Al, Mn, Cu, Ni, and Zn) were hardly removed. Consequently, the amounts of lime required and sludge generated in the subsequent lime neutralization process were reduced by 56% and 68%, respectively. As a result, the content of non-ferrous metals in the sludge was increased by 3.2 folds. The level of Al was increased surprisingly to 19% (wt/wt), a level similar to the commercially valuable bauxite. The novel process of biomineralization prior to lime neutralization provides a sustainable way for AMD treatment.

Co-Disposal of Coal Gangue and Red Mud for Prevention of Acid Mine Drainage Generation from Self-Heating Gangue Dumps

The seepage and diffusion of acid mine drainage (AMD) generated from self-heating coal gangue tailings caused acid pollution to the surrounding soil and groundwater. Red mud derived from the alumina smelting process has a high alkali content. To explore the feasibility of co-disposal of coal gangue and red mud for prevention of AMD, coal gangue and red mud were sampled from Yangquan (Shanxi Province, China), and dynamic leaching tests were carried out through the automatic temperature-controlled leaching system under the conditions of different temperatures, mass ratios, and storage methods. Our findings indicated that the heating temperature had a significant effect on the release characteristics of acidic pollutants derived from coal gangue, and that the fastest rate of acid production corresponding to temperature was 150 °C. The co-disposal dynamic leaching tests indicated that red mud not only significantly alleviated the release of AMD but also that it had a long-term effect on the treatment of acid pollution. The mass ratio and stacking method were selected to be 12:1 (coal gangue: red mud) and one layer was alternated (coal gangue covered with red mud), respectively, to ensure that the acid-base pollution indices of leachate reached the WHO drinking-water quality for long-term discharge. The results of this study provided a theoretical basis and data support for the industrial field application of solid waste co-treatment.

Mine drainage: Remediation technology and resource recovery

Drainage from current and historic mining operations remains a persistent environmental problem. Numerous research and development efforts were made in 2019 with a goal to minimize the impact of mine drainage on the environment, while other research endeavors addressed the mine drainage issue from a different perspective, where mine drainage was considered a resource for water and valuable products, such as metals, sulfuric acid, and rare earth elements. Thus, this review has two main sections: (a) focusing on research efforts in mine drainage remediation technology, and (b) emphasizing advances in resource recovery from mine drainage. The first section covers traditional and emerging passive and active treatment technologies. The second section summarizes resource recovery efforts using various technologies, such as selective precipitation, membrane process, and biological systems. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Significant progress continued to be made in the management of mine drainage and related issues. Recent remediation technology advances in mine drainage were presented. Technologies focusing on resource recovery from mine drainage were reviewed.

The use of biochar for controlling acid mine drainage through the inhibition of chalcopyrite biodissolution

Although chalcopyrite biodissolution plays an important role in the formation of acid mine drainage (AMD), the control of AMD through inhibiting the biodissolution of chalcopyrite has not been studied until now. In order to fill this knowledge gap, a novel method for inhibiting chalcopyrite biodissolution using biochar was proposed and verified. The effects of biochar pyrolysis temperature and biochar concentration on the inhibition of chalcopyrite biodissolution in the presence of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans (A. ferrooxidans) were studied. The results indicate that biochar significantly inhibited chalcopyrite biodissolution, thus reducing the number of copper and iron ions and quantity of acid released. In turn, this suggests that AMD generation was suppressed under these conditions. Biochar pyrolyzed at 300 °C (Biochar-300 °C) was the most effective at inhibiting chalcopyrite biodissolution and reduced its biodissolution rate by 17.7%. A suitable concentration of biochar-300 °C enhanced its inhibition of chalcopyrite biodissolution. The optimal concentration of biochar-300 °C for inhibiting chalcopyrite biodissolution was 3 g/L. Biodissolution results, cyclic voltammetry, mineral surface morphology, mineralogical phase, and elemental composition analyses reveal that biochar inhibited the biodissolution of chalcopyrite by promoting the formation of passivation layer (jarosite and S_n^2-/S⁰) and adsorbing bacteria.

Catalytic effect of silver on copper release from chalcopyrite mediated by Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans

Although silver ion in the solution is an important factor affecting the biodissolution of chalcopyrite, the effect of silver ion on the release of copper ion from chalcopyrite to the environment has not been explored until now. In order to fill this knowledge gap, the effect of silver ion on copper release from chalcopyrite in the presence of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans was investigated. The results indicate that silver ion significantly enhanced chalcopyrite biodissolution, thereby releasing more copper ion. In turn, this indicates that the release of copper ion from chalcopyrite to the environment was increased under these conditions. Biodissolution results, bacterial adsorption experiments, elemental composition analysis, and electrochemical analysis reveal that the enhancement of silver ion on copper ion release from chalcopyrite was mainly attributed to the improvement of electrochemical activity of chalcopyrite and the inhibition of the formation of passivation layer (S_n^2-/S⁰) on the chalcopyrite surface. This study provides a better understanding of the effect of silver ion on the release of copper ion from chalcopyrite to the environment. In the future, the influence of silver ion on chalcopyrite biodissolution should be considered in the evaluation of copper ion pollution to ensure reliability.