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Yun TS, Bhatia M, Cornelius SM, Jeon Y, Bishop WM, Kang DW, Seo Y. Release of algal organic matter from cyanobacteria following application of USEPA-registered chemical algaecides. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 370:122822. [PMID: 39413636 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.122822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2024] [Revised: 09/19/2024] [Accepted: 10/02/2024] [Indexed: 10/18/2024]
Abstract
Increased occurrence of harmful algal blooms significantly impedes uses of freshwater resources, especially as potable water supply. Rapid mitigation using algaecides is common; however, the potential release of algal organic matter (AOM) and cyanotoxins poses challenges due to the difficulty of removal with conventional water treatment and negative health impacts. This study evaluated four USEPA-registered algaecides for their efficacy against Microcystis aeruginosa growth and AOM and cyanotoxin release. Successful inhibition of cell growth was achieved in both unialgal and mixed culture samples at concentrations of 0.2 mg Cu/L for copper-based algaecides and 6 mg H2O2/L for peroxide-based algaecides. At 12 h after treatment (HAT), a significant increase in dissolved phycocyanin was observed, which was more pronounced with copper-based algaecides. Microbial byproduct-related and simple aromatic proteins were measured in the unialgal culture, while microbial byproduct-related proteins and humic-like substances were dominant in the mixed culture samples. In both unialgal and mixed-culture experiments, 0.2 mg Cu/L application of copper-based algaecides was the minimum dosage for cyanobacterial cell inhibition and the lowest release of AOM and cyanotoxins, with Oximycin P5 at 6 mg H2O2/L yielding similar results among peroxide-based algaecides. These results help inform water supply managers on algaecide use toward maintaining integrity of drinking water quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Suh Yun
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States of America
| | - Mudit Bhatia
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States of America
| | - Sara M Cornelius
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States of America
| | - Youchul Jeon
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States of America
| | - West M Bishop
- SePRO Research and Technology Campus, 16013 Watson Seed Farm Rd., Whitakers, NC, 27891, United States of America
| | - Dae-Wook Kang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States of America
| | - Youngwoo Seo
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States of America; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3048 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States of America.
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2
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Wang L, Yi Z, Zhang P, Xiong Z, Zhang G, Zhang W. Comprehensive strategies for microcystin degradation: A review of the physical, chemical, and biological methods and genetic engineering. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 365:121707. [PMID: 38968883 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.121707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 06/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/07/2024]
Abstract
Addressing the threat of harmful cyanobacterial blooms (CyanoHABs) and their associated microcystins (MCs) is crucial for global drinking water safety. In this review, we comprehensively analyze and compares the physical, chemical, and biological methods and genetic engineering for MCs degradation in aquatic environments. Physical methods, such as UV treatments and photocatalytic reactions, have a high efficiency in breaking down MCs, with the potential for further enhancement in performance and reduction of hazardous byproducts. Chemical treatments using chlorine dioxide and potassium permanganate can reduce MC levels but require careful dosage management to avoid toxic by-products and protect aquatic ecosystems. Biological methods, including microbial degradation and phytoremediation techniques, show promise for the biodegradation of MCs, offering reduced environmental impact and increased sustainability. Genetic engineering, such as immobilization of microcystinase A (MlrA) in Escherichia coli and its expression in Synechocystis sp., has proven effective in decomposing MCs such as MC-LR. However, challenges related to specific environmental conditions such as temperature variations, pH levels, presence of other contaminants, nutrient availability, oxygen levels, and light exposure, as well as scalability of biological systems, necessitate further exploration. We provide a comprehensive evaluation of MCs degradation techniques, delving into their practicality, assessing the environmental impacts, and scrutinizing their efficiency to offer crucial insights into the multifaceted nature of these methods in various environmental contexts. The integration of various methodologies to enhance degradation efficiency is vital in the field of water safety, underscoring the need for ongoing innovation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zhuoran Yi
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China.
| | - Peng Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zhu Xiong
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China.
| | - Gaosheng Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China.
| | - Wei Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China.
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3
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Lan Z, Zhang Y, Liang R, Wang Z, Sun J, Lu X, He Y, Wang Y. Comprehensive comparison of integrated fixed-film activated sludge (IFAS) and AAO activated sludge methods: Influence of different operational parameters. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 357:142068. [PMID: 38636921 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Due to limited land availability in municipal wastewater treatment plants, integrated fixed-film activated sludge (IFAS) technology offers significant advantages in improving nitrogen removal performance and treatment capacity. In this study, two systems, IFAS and Anaerobic-Anoxic-Oxic Activated sludge process (AAO), were compared by adjusting parameters such as hydraulic retention time (HRT), nitrifying solution recycle ratio, sludge recycle ratio, and dissolved oxygen (DO). The objective was to investigate pollutant removal capacity and differences in microbial community composition between the two systems. The study showed that, at an HRT of 12 h, the IFAS system exhibited an average increase of 5.76%, 8.85%, and 12.79% in COD, NH4+-N, and TN removal efficiency respectively, compared to the AAO system at an HRT of 16 h. The TP concentration in the IFAS system reached 0.82 mg/L without the use of additives. The IFAS system demonstrated superior effluent results under lower operating conditions of HRT, nitrification solution recycle ratio, and DO. The 16S rDNA analysis revealed higher abundance of denitrification-related associated flora, including Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Planctomycetota, in the IFAS system compared to the AAO system. Similarities were observed between microorganisms attached to the media and activated sludge in the anaerobic, anoxic, and oxic tanks. q-PCR analysis indicated that the incorporation of filler material in the IFAS system resulted in similar abundance of nitrifying bacteria genes on the biofilm as in the oxic tank. Additionally, denitrifying genes showed higher levels due to aeration scouring and the presence of alternating aerobic-anaerobic environments on the biofilm surface, enhancing nitrogen removal efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihua Lan
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yaping Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Renli Liang
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Zhiqiang Wang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jian Sun
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xingwen Lu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yao He
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yujie Wang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
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Jeon Y, Li L, Bhatia M, Ryu H, Santo Domingo JW, Brown J, Goetz J, Seo Y. Impact of harmful algal bloom severity on bacterial communities in a full-scale biological filtration system for drinking water treatment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 927:171301. [PMID: 38423320 PMCID: PMC11333992 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
The occurrence of harmful algal blooms (HABs) in freshwater environments has been expanded worldwide with growing frequency and severity. HABs can pose a threat to public water supplies, raising concerns about safety of treated water. Many studies have provided valuable information about the impacts of HABs and management strategies on the early-stage treatment processes (e.g., pre-oxidation and coagulation/flocculation) in conventional drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs). However, the potential effect of HAB-impacted water in the granular media filtration has not been well studied. Biologically-active filters (BAFs), which are used in drinking water treatment and rely largely on bacterial community interactions, have not been examined during HABs in full-scale DWTPs. In this study, we assessed the bacterial community structure of BAFs, functional profiles, assembly processes, and bio-interactions in the community during both severe and mild HABs. Our findings indicate that bacterial diversity in BAFs significantly decreases during severe HABs due to the predominance of bloom-associated bacteria (e.g., Spingopyxis, Porphyrobacter, and Sphingomonas). The excitation-emission matrix combined with parallel factor analysis (EEM-PARAFAC) confirmed that filter influent affected by the severe HAB contained a higher portion of protein-like substances than filter influent samples during a mild bloom. In addition, BAF community functions showed increases in metabolisms associated with intracellular algal organic matter (AOM), such as lipids and amino acids, during severe HABs. Further ecological process and network analyses revealed that severe HAB, accompanied by the abundance of bloom-associated taxa and increased nutrient availability, led to not only strong stochastic processes in the assembly process, but also a bacterial community with lower complexity in BAFs. Overall, this study provides deeper insights into BAF bacterial community structure, function, and assembly in response to HABs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youchul Jeon
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH 43606, United States of America
| | - Lei Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH 43606, United States of America
| | - Mudit Bhatia
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH 43606, United States of America
| | - Hodon Ryu
- Water Infrastructure Division, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH 45268, United States of America
| | - Jorge W Santo Domingo
- Water Infrastructure Division, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH 45268, United States of America
| | - Jess Brown
- Carollo Engineers' Research and Development Practice, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, United States of America
| | - Jake Goetz
- City of Toledo Colins Park Water Treatment, Toledo, OH 43605, United States of America
| | - Youngwoo Seo
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH 43606, United States of America; Department of Chemical and Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3048 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH 43606, United States of America.
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Cheng J, Odeh M, Lecompte AR, Islam T, Ordonez D, Valencia A, Anwar Sadmani AHM, Reinhart D, Chang NB. Simultaneous removal of nutrients and biological pollutants via specialty absorbents in a water filtration system for watershed remediation. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 349:123903. [PMID: 38599272 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
To investigate watershed remediation within a Total Maximum Daily Load program, this study examined the field-scale filtration performance of two specialty absorbents. The goal was to simultaneously remove nutrients and biological pollutants along Canal 23 (C-23) in the St. Lucie River Basin, Florida. The filtration system installed in the C-23 river corridor was equipped with either clay-perlite with sand sorption media (CPS) or zero-valent iron and perlite green environmental media (ZIPGEM). Both media were formulated with varying combinations of sand, clay, perlite, and/or recycled iron based on distinct recipes. In comparison with CPS, ZIPGEM exhibited higher average removal percentages for nutrients. Findings indicated that ZIPGEM could remove total nitrogen up to 49.3%, total Kjeldahl nitrogen up to 67.1%, dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) up to 72.9%, total phosphorus up to 79.6%, and orthophosphate up to 73.2%. Both ZIPGEM and CPS demonstrated similar efficiency in eliminating biological pollutants, such as E. coli (both media exhibiting an 80% removal percentage) and chlorophyll a (both media achieving approximately 95% removal). Seasonality effects were also evident in nutrient removal efficiencies, particularly in the case of ammonia nitrogen; the negative removal efficiency of ammonia nitrogen from the fifth sampling event could be attributed to processes such as photochemical ammonification, microbial transformation, and mineralization of DON in wet seasons. Overall, ZIPGEM demonstrated a more stable nutrient removal efficiency than CPS in the phase of seasonal changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxiang Cheng
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Mohamad Odeh
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Alejandra Robles Lecompte
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Touhidul Islam
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Diana Ordonez
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Andrea Valencia
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - A H M Anwar Sadmani
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Debra Reinhart
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Ni-Bin Chang
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA.
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6
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Martinez I Quer A, Larsson Y, Johansen A, Arias CA, Carvalho PN. Cyanobacterial blooms in surface waters - Nature-based solutions, cyanotoxins and their biotransformation products. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 251:121122. [PMID: 38219688 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 11/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms are expected to become more frequent and severe in surface water reservoirs due to climate change and ecosystem degradation. It is an emerging challenge that especially countries relying on surface water supplies will face. Nature-based solutions (NBS) like constructed wetlands and biofilters can be used for cyanotoxin remediation. Both technologies are reviewed and critically assessed for different types of water resources. The available information on cyanotoxins (bio)transformation products (TPs) is reviewed to point out the potential research gaps and to disclose the most reliable enzymatic degradation pathways. Knowledge gaps were found, such as information on the performance of the revised NBS in pilot and full scales, the removal processes covering different cyanotoxins (besides the most widely studied microcystin-LR), and the difficulties for real-world implementation of technologies proposed in the literature. Also, most studies focus on bacterial degradation processes while fungi have been completely overlooked. This review also presents an up-to-date overview of the transformation of cyanotoxins, where degradation product data was compiled in a unified library of 22 metabolites for microcystins (MCs), 7 for cylindrospermopsin (CYN) and 10 for nodularin (NOD), most of them reported only in a single study. Major gaps are the lack of environmentally relevant studies with TPs in pilot and full- scale treatment systems, information on TP's toxicity, as well as limited knowledge of environmentally relevant degradation pathways. NBS have the potential to mitigate cyanotoxins in recreational and irrigation waters, enabling the water-energy-food nexus and avoiding the degradability of the ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Martinez I Quer
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgsvej 399, Roskilde 4000, Denmark.
| | - Yrsa Larsson
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgsvej 399, Roskilde 4000, Denmark
| | - Anders Johansen
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgsvej 399, Roskilde 4000, Denmark; WATEC - Centre for Water Technology, Aarhus University, Ny Munkegade 120, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Carlos A Arias
- WATEC - Centre for Water Technology, Aarhus University, Ny Munkegade 120, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; Department of Biology, Aarhus University, Ny Munkegade 114-116, Aarhus C 8000, Denmark
| | - Pedro N Carvalho
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgsvej 399, Roskilde 4000, Denmark; WATEC - Centre for Water Technology, Aarhus University, Ny Munkegade 120, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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7
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Li Z, Wang J, Yue H, Du M, Jin Y, Fan J. Marine toxin domoic acid alters nitrogen cycling in sediments. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7873. [PMID: 38036528 PMCID: PMC10689436 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43265-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
As a red tide algal toxin with intense neurotoxicity distributed worldwide, domoic acid (DA) has attracted increasing concerns. In this work, the integrative analysis of metagenome and metabolome are applied to investigate the impact of DA on nitrogen cycling in coastal sediments. Here we show that DA can act as a stressor to induce the variation of nitrogen (N) cycling by altering the abundance of functional genes and electron supply. Moreover, microecology theory revealed that DA can increase the role of deterministic assembly in microbial dynamic succession, resulting in the shift of niches and, ultimately, the alteration in N cycling. Notably, denitrification and Anammox, the important process for sediment N removal, are markedly limited by DA. Also, variation of N cycling implies the modification in cycles of other associated elements. Overall, DA is capable of ecosystem-level effects, which require further evaluation of its potential cascading effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zelong Li
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, PR China
| | - Jing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, PR China.
| | - Hao Yue
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, PR China
| | - Miaomiao Du
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, PR China
| | - Yuan Jin
- Marine Ecology Department, National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Dalian, 116023, PR China
| | - Jingfeng Fan
- Marine Ecology Department, National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Dalian, 116023, PR China.
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8
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Ahmadi N, Abbasi M, Torabian A, van Loosdrecht MCM, Ducoste J. Biotransformation of micropollutants in moving bed biofilm reactors under heterotrophic and autotrophic conditions. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 460:132232. [PMID: 37690201 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the transformation of four pharmaceuticals (Diclofenac, Naproxen, Ibuprofen and Carbamazepine) in a moving bed biofilm reactor subjected to different COD/N ratios in four experimental phases. The shift from medium to high range COD/N ratio (i.e., 5:1 to 100:1) intensified the competition between heterotrophs and nitrifying communities, leading to a transition from co-existence of heterotrophic and autotrophic conditions with high COD removal and nitrification rate in phase I to dominant heterotrophic conditions in phase II. At lower range COD/N ratios (i.e., 1:2 and 1:8) in phase III and IV, autotrophic conditions prevailed, resulting in increased nitrification rates and high abundance of amoA gene in the biofilm. Such shifts in the operating condition were accompanied by notable changes in the biofilm concentrations, composition and abundance of microbial populations as well as biodiversity in the biofilms, which collectively affected the degradation rates of the pharmaceuticals. We observed higher kinetic rates per unit of biofilm concentration under autotrophic conditions compared to heterotrophic conditions for all compounds except Naproxen, indicating the importance of nitrification in the transformation of such compounds. The results also revealed a positive relationship between biodiversity and biomass-normalized kinetic rates of most compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navid Ahmadi
- School of Environment, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mona Abbasi
- School of Environment, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Torabian
- School of Environment, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mark C M van Loosdrecht
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629Hz Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Joel Ducoste
- Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
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Tu X, Xu P, Zhu Y, Mi W, Bi Y. Molecular complexation properties of Cd 2+ by algal organic matter from Scenedesmus obliquus. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 263:115378. [PMID: 37598544 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
A detailed understanding the metals binding with algal organic matter (AOM) is essential to gain a deeper insight into the toxicity and migration of metals in algae cell. However, the molecular complexation mechanism of the metals binding with AOM remains unclear. In this study, cadmium ion (Cd2+) binding properties of AOMs from Scenedesmus obliquus, which included extracellular organic matter (EOM) and intracellular organic matter (IOM), were screened. When Cd2+ < 0.5 mg/L, the accumulation of Cd2+ could reach 40%, while Cd2+ > 0.5 mg/L, the accumulation of Cd2+ was only about 10%. EOM decreased gradually (from 8.51 to 3.98 mg/L), while IOM increased gradually (from 9.62 to 21.00 mg/L). The spectral characteristics revealed that IOM was richer in peptides/proteins and had more hydrophilic than EOM. Both EOM and IOM contained three protein-like components (containing tryptophan and tyrosine) and one humic-like component, and their contents in IOM were higher than that in EOM. The tryptophan protein-like substances changed greatly during Cd2+ binding, and that the tryptophan protein-like substances complexed to Cd2+ before tyrosine protein-like substances in IOM was identified. Moreover, the functional groups of N-H, O-H, and CO in AOM played an important role, and the N-H group was priority to interacts with Cd2+ in the complexing process. More functional groups (such as C-O and C-N) were involved in the metals complexing in EOM than in IOM. It could be concluded that Cd2+ stress promoted the secretion of AOM in Scenedesmus obliquus, and proteins in AOM could complex Cd2+ and alleviate its toxicity to algal cell. These findings provided deep insights into the interaction mechanism of AOM with Cd2+ in aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojie Tu
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Pingping Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yuxuan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Wujuan Mi
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China.
| | - Yonghong Bi
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China.
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10
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Zhang X, Zhou L, Cai M, Cui N, Zou G, Wang Q. Effects of photocatalysis using a photocatalytic concrete board on water qualities and microbial communities in the aquaculture wastewater. Sep Purif Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2023.123517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
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11
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Jeon Y, Baranwal P, Li L, Piezer K, Seo Y. Review: Current understanding on biological filtration for the removal of microcystins. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 313:137160. [PMID: 36356807 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) have become a global problem not only in aquatic habitats but also in public health and safety due to the production of cyanotoxins as their secondary metabolites. Among the various identified cyanotoxin groups, microcystins (MCs) are one of the most prevalent cyanotoxin detected during HABs. Different strategies including advanced physical and chemical treatment processes have been developed to mitigate the threat of cyanotoxins in water utilities, but these have revealed certain limitations in terms of high operational costs, low removal efficacy, and harmful by-products formation. Recently, biological filtration systems (BFS) have gained attention for safe drinking water production as they can treat various natural organic matter (NOM) and emerging contaminants through a highly efficient and environmentally sustainable process. However, limited attention has been given to understand the current research progress, research challenges, and knowledge gaps for the successful implementation of BFS for MC removal. Therefore, in this review, currently identified MC biodegradation pathways and MC-degrading microorganisms with their degradation rates are summarized, which may be pivotal for studying bioaugmented BFS to enhance the MC removal during HABs. Moreover, both laboratory and field studies on BFS for MC removal are reviewed, followed by a discussion of current challenges and future research needs for the practical application of BFS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youchul Jeon
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States
| | - Parul Baranwal
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States
| | - Lei Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States
| | - Kayla Piezer
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3048 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States
| | - Youngwoo Seo
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3048 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH, 43606, United States.
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12
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Baranwal P, Kang DW, Seo Y. Impacts of algal organic matter and humic substances on microcystin-LR removal and their biotransformation during the biodegradation process. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 852:157993. [PMID: 35964751 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The application of bioaugmentation (i.e., injection of contaminant-degrading microorganisms) has shown its potential to remove harmful cyanotoxins like microcystin-LR (MC-LR) from drinking water sources. However, the natural organic matter (NOM) present in both natural and engineered water systems might affect the bacterial biodegradation of MC-LR. Therefore, for the successful application of bioaugmentation for MC-LR removal in water treatment, it is important to understand NOM effects on MC-LR biodegradation. In this study, the impact of NOM [algal organic matter (AOM) and humic substances (HS)] on MC-LR biodegradation was evaluated in the presence of varying concentrations of NOM by monitoring MC-LR biodegradation kinetics. The changes in NOM composition during MC-LR biodegradation were also characterized by a five-component Parallel factor (PARAFAC) model using 336 excitation-emission matrix (EEM) spectra collected at different sampling points. Our results showed decreases in MC-LR biodegradation rate of 1.6-and 3.4-fold in the presence of AOM and HS, respectively. The expression of the functional mlrA gene exhibited a similar trend to the MC-LR degradation rate at different NOM concentrations. EEM-PARAFAC analyses and NOM molecular size fractionation results indicated a relatively greater production of terrestrial humic-like components (57%) and a decrease of protein-like components. Two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2D-COS) analyses further confirmed that low molecular weight protein-like components were initially utilized by bacteria, followed by the formation of higher molecular weight humic-like components, likely due to microbial metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parul Baranwal
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH 43606, United States
| | - Dae-Wook Kang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH 43606, United States
| | - Youngwoo Seo
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3006 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH 43606, United States; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Toledo, Mail Stop 307, 3048 Nitschke Hall, Toledo, OH 43606, United States.
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13
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Yang C, Zhang L, Hu S, Diao Y, Jin X, Jin P, Chen C, Wu X, Wang XC. Electro-dissolved ozone flotation (E-DOF) integrated anoxic/oxic membrane reactor for leachate treatment from a waste transfer station. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:55803-55815. [PMID: 35320482 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-19526-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
With high organics and ammonia, leachate from waste transfer stations (WTSs) is among the most complex wastewater that cannot be easily disposed by signal biological processes. In this study, an electro-dissolved ozone flotation (E-DOF) was established, in which dissolved ozone flotation (DOF) and electro-coagulation (EC) occurred concurrently in one unit and integrated with anoxic/oxic membrane bioreactor (A/O-MBR) to dispose leachate from a WTS. In the integrated reactor, E-DOF acted as pretreatment and advanced treatment unit. A/O-MBR acted as secondary treatment unit. The E-DOF pretreatment achieved 34.48% COD and 16.96% NH3-N removal efficiency through synergistic effect between EC and DOF. BOD5/COD of leachate was increased from 0.32 to 0.51 after E-DOF pretreatment, indicating the enhancement of biodegradability. Molecular weight distribution (MWD) and three-dimensional excitation-emission matrix (3D-EEM) analysis demonstrate that the reduction of molecular weight and elimination of refractory organics through EC, ozone, and their interacted product (•OH) are attributed to biodegradability enhancement in lechate. Microbial community analysis proved that chemoheterotrophy and oxic chemoheterotrophy functions, mainly provided by Truepera, Aquamicrobium, Saprospiraceae, and Lentimicrobiaceae, ensured the efficient degradation of organic in the secondary processes. E-DOF advanced treatment effectively disposed residual contaminant in MBR effluent. The E-DOF advanced treatment mainly disposed residual contaminant in MBR effluent. High removal efficiency of COD (98.59 ± 0.27%), NH3-N (95.59 ± 0.50%), TN (95.37 ± 0.73%), and TP (96.75 ± 1.66%) were observed in the integrated reactor, and final effluent met the discharge standards for inclusion in the sewage pipe network in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Yang
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, No. 13, Yanta Road, Beilin District, Xi'an, 710055, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, No. 13, Yanta Road, Beilin District, Xi'an, 710055, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Shiyi Hu
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, No. 13, Yanta Road, Beilin District, Xi'an, 710055, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Yue Diao
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, No. 13, Yanta Road, Beilin District, Xi'an, 710055, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Xin Jin
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Pengkang Jin
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, No. 13, Yanta Road, Beilin District, Xi'an, 710055, Shaanxi Province, China.
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, Shaanxi Province, China.
| | - Chong Chen
- Jiang Su Yong Guan Water and Wastewater Equipment Co. Ltd, Jiangsu Province, Xu'zhou, 221100, China
| | - Xia Wu
- Jiang Su Yong Guan Water and Wastewater Equipment Co. Ltd, Jiangsu Province, Xu'zhou, 221100, China
| | - Xiaochang C Wang
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, No. 13, Yanta Road, Beilin District, Xi'an, 710055, Shaanxi Province, China
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14
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Multi-Soil-Layering Technology: A New Approach to Remove Microcystis aeruginosa and Microcystins from Water. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14050686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Eutrophication of surface waters caused by toxic cyanobacteria such as Microcystis aeruginosa leads to the release of secondary metabolites called Microcystins (MCs), which are heptapeptides with adverse effects on soil microbiota, plants, animals, and human health. Therefore, to avoid succumbing to the negative effects of these cyanotoxins, various remediation approaches have been considered. These techniques involve expensive physico-chemical processes because of the specialized equipment and facilities required. Thus, implementing eco-technologies capable of handling this problem has become necessary. Indeed, multi-soil-layering (MSL) technology can essentially meet this requirement. This system requires little space, needs simple maintenance, and has energy-free operation and high durability (20 years). The performance of the system is such that it can remove 1.16 to 4.47 log10 units of fecal contamination from the water, 98% of suspended solids (SS), 92% of biological oxygen demand (BOD), 98% of chemical oxygen demand (COD), 92% of total nitrogen (TN), and 100% of total phosphorus (TP). The only reported use of the system to remove cyanotoxins has shown a 99% removal rate of MC-LR. However, the mechanisms involved in removing this toxin from the water are not fully understood. This paper proposes reviewing the principal methods employed in conventional water treatment and other technologies to eliminate MCs from the water. We also describe the principles of operation of MSL systems and compare the performance of this technology with others, highlighting some advantages of this technology in removing MCs. Overall, the combination of multiple processes (physico-chemical and biological) makes MSL technology a good choice of cyanobacterial contamination treatment system that is applicable in real-life conditions, especially in rural areas.
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15
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Wang Y, Qin W, Jiang X, Ju F, Mao Y, Zhang A, Stahl DA, Zhang T. Seasonal Prevalence of Ammonia-Oxidizing Archaea in a Full-Scale Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Treating Saline Wastewater Revealed by a 6-Year Time-Series Analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:2662-2673. [PMID: 33539079 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c07703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Although several molecular-based studies have demonstrated the involvement of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) in ammonia oxidation in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), factors affecting the persistence and growth of AOA in these engineered systems have not been resolved. Here, we show a seasonal prevalence of AOA in a full-scale WWTP (Shatin, Hong Kong SAR) over a 6-year period of observation, even outnumbering ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in the seasonal peaks in 3 years, which may be due to the high bioavailable copper concentrations. Comparative analysis of three metagenome-assembled genomes of group I.1a AOA obtained from the activated sludge and 16S rRNA gene sequences recovered from marine sediments suggested that the seawater used for toilet flushing was the primary source of the WWTP AOA. A rare AOA population in the estuarine source water became transiently abundant in the WWTP with a metagenome-based relative abundance of up to 1.3% over three seasons of observation. Correlation-based network analysis revealed a robust co-occurrence relationship between these AOA and organisms potentially active in nitrite oxidation. Moreover, a strong correlation between the dominant AOA and an abundant proteobacterial organism suggested that capacity for extracellular polymeric substance production by the proteobacterium could provide a niche for AOA within bioaggregates. Together, the study highlights the importance of long-term observation in identifying biotic and abiotic factors governing population dynamics in open systems such as full-scale WWTPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulin Wang
- Environmental Microbiome Engineering and Biotechnology Laboratory, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Wei Qin
- School of Oceanography, University of Washington, Seattle 98195, Washington, United States
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman 73019, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Xiaotao Jiang
- Environmental Microbiome Engineering and Biotechnology Laboratory, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Feng Ju
- School of Engineering, Westlake University, 18 Shilongshan Road, Hangzhou 310024, China
| | - Yanping Mao
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, Guangdong, China
| | - Anni Zhang
- Environmental Microbiome Engineering and Biotechnology Laboratory, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - David A Stahl
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle 98195, Washington, United States
| | - Tong Zhang
- Environmental Microbiome Engineering and Biotechnology Laboratory, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
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16
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Dexter J, McCormick AJ, Fu P, Dziga D. Microcystinase - a review of the natural occurrence, heterologous expression, and biotechnological application of MlrA. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 189:116646. [PMID: 33246218 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 11/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Microcystinase (MlrA) was first described in 1996. Since then MlrA peptidase activity has proven to be both the most efficient enzymatic process and the most specific catalyst of all known microcystins detoxification pathways. Furthermore, MlrA and the MlrABC degradation pathway are presently the only enzymatic processes with clear genetic and biochemical descriptions available for microcystins degradation, greatly facilitating modern applied genetics for any relevant technological development. Recently, there has been increasing interest in the potential of sustainable, biologically inspired alternatives to current industrial practice, with note that biological microcystins degradation is the primary detoxification process found in nature. While previous reviews have broadly discussed microbial biodegradation processes, here we present a review focused specifically on MlrA. Following a general overview, we briefly highlight the initial discovery and present understanding of the MlrABC degradation pathway, before discussing the genetic and biochemical aspects of MlrA. We then review the potential biotechnology applications of MlrA in the context of available literature with emphasis on the optimization of MlrA for in situ applications including (i) direct modulation of Mlr activity within naturally existing populations, (ii) bioaugmentation of systems with introduced biodegradative capacity via whole cell biocatalysts, and (iii) bioremediation via direct MlrA application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Dexter
- Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 31-007 Kraków, Poland; Cyanoworks, LLC, 1771 Haskell Rd., Olean, NY 14760, USA.
| | - Alistair J McCormick
- SynthSys & Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, King's Buildings, University of Edinburgh, EH9 3BF, UK.
| | - Pengcheng Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, 58 Renmin Avenue, Meilan District, Haikou, Hainan Province, 570228 China.
| | - Dariusz Dziga
- Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 31-007 Kraków, Poland.
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17
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Sorlini S, Collivignarelli C, Carnevale Miino M, Caccamo FM, Collivignarelli MC. Kinetics of Microcystin-LR Removal in a Real Lake Water by UV/H 2O 2 Treatment and Analysis of Specific Energy Consumption. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120810. [PMID: 33371280 PMCID: PMC7766062 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The hepatotoxin microcystin-LR (MC-LR) represents one of the most toxic cyanotoxins for human health. Considering its harmful effect, the World Health Organization recommended a limit in drinking water (DW) of 1 µg L−1. Due to the ineffectiveness of conventional treatments present in DW treatment plants against MC-LR, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are gaining interest due to the high redox potential of the OH• radicals. In this work UV/H2O2 was applied to a real lake water to remove MC-LR. The kinetics of the UV/H2O2 were compared with those of UV and H2O2 showing the following result: UV/H2O2 > UV > H2O2. Within the range of H2O2 tested (0–0.9 mM), the results showed that H2O2 concentration and the removal kinetics followed an increasing quadratic relation. By increasing the initial concentration of H2O2, the consumption of oxidant also increased but, in terms of MC-LR degraded for H2O2 dosed, the removal efficiency decreased. As the initial MC-LR initial concentration increased, the removal kinetics increased up to a limit concentration (80 µg L−1) in which the presence of high amounts of the toxin slowed down the process. Operating with UV fluence lower than 950 mJ cm−2, UV alone minimized the specific energy consumption required. UV/H2O2 (0.3 mM) and UV/H2O2 (0.9 mM) were the most advantageous combination when operating with UV fluence of 950–1400 mJ cm−2 and higher than 1400 mJ cm−2, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Sorlini
- Department of Civil, Environmental, Architectural Engineering and Mathematics, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy;
- Correspondence:
| | - Carlo Collivignarelli
- Department of Civil, Environmental, Architectural Engineering and Mathematics, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy;
| | - Marco Carnevale Miino
- Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (M.C.M.); (F.M.C.); (M.C.C.)
| | - Francesca Maria Caccamo
- Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (M.C.M.); (F.M.C.); (M.C.C.)
| | - Maria Cristina Collivignarelli
- Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (M.C.M.); (F.M.C.); (M.C.C.)
- Interdepartmental Centre for Water Research, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
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