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Mangalgiri K, Cheng Z, Liu H. Development of dissolved organic matter-based indicators to understand the degradation of organic contaminants in reverse osmosis concentrate from potable reuse systems. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 470:134060. [PMID: 38552395 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Reverse osmosis (RO)-based treatment of municipal wastewater effluent allows for potable reuse, but this process generates reverse osmosis concentrate (ROC) that needs further treatment before disposal. This study investigated the application of UV-based advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) to degrade nine contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) from real ROC waste streams, using UV-only and UV-AOPs with hydrogen peroxide, free chlorine, and persulfate. Dissolved organic matter (DOM) in ROC was characterized using fluorescence excitation emission matrix data and analyzed by a four-component parallel factor (PARAFAC) analysis model. UV-only treatment showed considerable removal of CECs that displayed high values of quantum yields and molar absorption coefficients. UV-AOP treatment of ROC exhibited heavy scavenging of reactive species during CEC degradation. A probe-based approach established that hydroxyl radical was the dominant reactive species in all UV-AOPs. A kinetic analysis of PARAFAC components of DOM showed that the visible humic-like and protein-like components exhibited the higher reaction kinetics compared to UV humic-like and nutrient-like components. The strong linear correlation of protein-like component and seven of the nine CECs across multiple AOPs indicated that they have similar reactivity, enabling the establishment of chemical-reactivity based surrogates for prediction CEC fate in ROC wastes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiranmayi Mangalgiri
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Zhiwen Cheng
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Haizhou Liu
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
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2
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Zhang J, Li J, Tang W, Liu X, Yang C, Ma J. Highly efficient reduction of bromate by vacuum UV/sulfite system. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 349:140875. [PMID: 38065260 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
Bromate (BrO3-), a worldwide regulated by-product after ozone disinfection, is often detected in bromide-containing water, and has a strict limit of 10 μg L-1 in potable water. BrO3- degradation by advanced reduction processes (ARPs) has gained much attention because of efficient removal and easy integration with ultraviolet disinfection (UV at 254 nm). In the vacuum UV (VUV, 185/254 nm)/sulfite system, the elimination kinetics of BrO3- increased by 9-fold and 15-fold comparing with VUV alone and UV/sulfite system. This study further demonstrated the hydrated electron (eaq-) works as the dominant species in BrO3- degradation in alkaline solution, while in the acidic solution the H• became a secondary reactive species besides eaq-. Hence, the influences of pH, sulfite concentration, dissolved gas and water matrix on effectiveness of degradation kinetics of BrO3- was explored in details. With increasing pH, the proportion of SO32- species increased and even became the major ones, which also correlated well with the kobs (min-1) of BrO3- degradation. The stability of eaq- also climbs with increasing pH, while that of H• drops significantly. Higher sulfite dosage favored a more rapid degradation of BrO3-. The presence of dissolved oxygen inhibited BrO3- removal due to the scavenging effect of O2 toward eaq- and transformed VUV/sulfite-based ARP to an advanced oxidation process (AOP), which was ineffective for BrO3- removal. BrO3- removal was inhibited to varying degrees after anions (e.g., bicarbonate (HCO3-), chloride (Cl-), nitrate (NO3-)) and humic acid (HA) being added.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, PR China.
| | - Junjie Li
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400045, PR China
| | - Weijie Tang
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400045, PR China
| | - Xin Liu
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400045, PR China
| | - Chun Yang
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400045, PR China.
| | - Jun Ma
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, PR China
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3
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Li M, Lou F, Huang Y, Sun Z, Li W, Bolton JR, Qiang Z. Electrical Energy Consumption of Multiscale UV-AOP Reactors for Micropollutant Removal in Drinking Water: Facilitated Prediction by Reaction Rate Constants Measured on a Mini-Fluidic Photoreaction System. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:18960-18969. [PMID: 37272414 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c00888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Electrical energy consumption per order (EEO) is an important figure-of-merit for the selection and optimization of ultraviolet (UV)-based advanced oxidation processes (UV-AOPs). However, EEO applications are limited by the lack of an accurate and facilitative evaluation method because EEO presents reactor property dependence. In this study, we developed an EEO prediction method for multiscale UV-AOP reactors for micropollutant removal in water. The method utilized the reaction rate constants determined in a reference reactor (e.g., mini-fluidic photoreaction system), complemented by a scale-up method that clarified the dependence of EEO on reactor properties. The predicted results of various UV-AOPs were verified experimentally in four bench/pilot-scale reactors in laboratory and a full-scale flow-through reactor (FFR) in field using sulfamethazine as a model micropollutant. For example, EEO values of 0.105 and 0.058 kWh m-3 order-1 were predicted in the FFR at H2O2 doses of 5 and 10 mg L-1, respectively, which generally agreed with verification results. Additionally, the developed method could assist the identification of appropriate reactors in the laboratory for EEO measurements, providing a valuable supplement for the EEO prediction in practice. The developed method presents acceptable accuracy, convenience, and low cost, which would significantly facilitate EEO evaluations for practical UV-AOP applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengkai Li
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Fei Lou
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yanyan Huang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhe Sun
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Wentao Li
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - James R Bolton
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Zhimin Qiang
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Aquatic Chemistry, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
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4
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Liu G, Lin Y, Li S, Shi C, Zhang D, Chen L. Degradation of ciprofloxacin by persulfate activated by Fe(III)-doped BiOCl composite photocatalyst. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:87830-87850. [PMID: 37434054 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-28490-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023]
Abstract
Fe-BOC-X photocatalyst was successfully prepared by solvothermal method. The photocatalytic activity of Fe-BOC-X was determined by ciprofloxacin (CIP), a typical fluoroquinolone antibiotic. Under sunlight irradiation, all Fe-BOC-X showed better CIP removal performance than original BiOCl. In comparison, the photocatalyst with iron content of 50 wt% (Fe-BOC-3) has excellent structural stability and the best adsorption photodegradation efficiency. The removal rate of CIP (10 mg/L) by Fe-BOC-3 (0.6 g/L) reached 81.4% within 90 min. At the same time, the effects of photocatalyst dosage, pH, persulfate, persulfate concentration, and combinations of different systems (PS, Fe-BOC-3, Vis/PS, Vis/Fe-BOC-3, Fe-BOC-3/PS, and Vis/Fe-BOC-3/PS) on the reaction were systematically discussed. In reactive species trapping experiments, electron spin resonance (ESR) signals revealed that the photogenerated holes (h+), hydroxyl radical (•OH), sulfate radical (•SO4-), and superoxide radical (•O2-) played an important role in CIP degradation; hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and sulfate radicals (•SO4-) play a major role. Various characterization methods have demonstrated that Fe-BOC-X has larger specific surface area and pore volume than original BiOCl. UV-vis DRS indicate that Fe-BOC-X has wider visible light absorption and faster photocarrier transfer and provides abundant surface oxygen absorption sites for effective molecular oxygen activation. Accordingly, a large number of active species were produced and participated in the photocatalytic process, thus effectively promoting the degradation of ciprofloxacin. Based on HPLC-MS analysis, two possible decomposition pathways of CIP were finally proposed. The main degradation pathways of CIP are mainly due to the high electron density of piperazine ring in CIP molecule, which is mainly attacked by various free radicals. The main reactions include piperazine ring opening, decarbonylation, decarboxylation, and fluorine substitution. This study can better open up a new way for the design of visible light driven photocatalyst and provide more ideas for the removal of CIP in water environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gen Liu
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Street, Changchun, 130117, Jilin, China
| | - Yingzi Lin
- Key Laboratory of Songliao Aquatic Environment, Ministry of Education, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun, 130118, China.
- School of Municipal & Environmental Engineering, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun, 130118, China.
| | - Siwen Li
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Street, Changchun, 130117, Jilin, China
| | - Chunyan Shi
- The University of Kitakyushu, 1-1 Hibikino, Wakamatsuku, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Dongyan Zhang
- School of Municipal & Environmental Engineering, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun, 130118, China
| | - Lei Chen
- School of Municipal & Environmental Engineering, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun, 130118, China
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Qin W, Peng J, Yang J, Song Y, Ma J. UV absorbance and electron donating capacity as surrogate parameters to indicate the abatement of micropollutants during the oxidation of Fe(II)/PMS and Mn(II)/NTA/PMS. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023:116253. [PMID: 37276973 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the relative residual UV absorbance (UV254) and/or electron donating capacity (EDC) was investigated as a surrogate parameter to evaluate the abatement of micropollutants during the Fe(II)/PMS and Mn(II)/NTA/PMS processes. In the Fe(II)/PMS process, due to the generation of SO4•- and •OH at acidic pH, UV254 and EDC abatement was greater at pH 5. In the Mn(II)/NTA/PMS process, UV254 abatement was greater at pH 7 and 9, while EDC abatement was greater at pH 5 and 7. This was attributed to the fact that MnO2 was formed at alkaline pH to remove UV254 by coagulation, and manganese intermediates (Mn(V)) were formed at acidic pH to remove EDC via electron transfer. Due to the strong oxidation capacity of SO4•-, •OH and Mn(V), the abatement of micropollutants increased with increasing dosages of oxidant in different waters in both processes. In the Fe(II)/PMS and Mn(II)/NTA/PMS processes, except for nitrobenzene (∼23% and 40%, respectively), the removal of other micropollutants was greater than 70% when the oxidant dosages were greater in different waters. The linear relationship between the relative residual UV254, EDC and the removal of micropollutants was established in different waters, showing a one-phase or two-phase linear relationship. The differences of the slopes for one-phase linear correlation in the Fe(II)/PMS process (micropollutant-UV254: 0.36-2.89, micropollutant-EDC: 0.26-1.75) were less than that in the Mn(II)/NTA/PMS process (micropollutant-UV254: 0.40-13.16, micropollutant-EDC: 0.51-8.39). Overall, these results suggest that the relative residual UV254 and EDC could truly reflect the removal of micropollutants during the Fe(II)/PMS and Mn(II)/NTA/PMS processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Qin
- School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, Guangdong, China.
| | - Jianshan Peng
- School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, Guangdong, China.
| | - Jingru Yang
- School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, Guangdong, China.
| | - Yang Song
- School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, Guangdong, China.
| | - Jun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China.
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6
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Zeng Y, Zeng J, Luo Z, Pan J, Luo Y, Liu J, Wang C. Degradation mechanism of ammonia nitrogen synergistic with bromate under UV or UV/TiO 2. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:22284-22295. [PMID: 36284046 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-23658-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Bromate (BrO3-) and ammonia nitrogen (NH4+) are both typical environmental pollutants: BrO3- has been categorized as one of the Group 2B carcinogen by IARC; an excess of NH4+ might result in the eutrophication of water. The existence of NH4+ could inhibit the transformation of bromide (Br-) to bromate (BrO3-). However, the interaction of NH4+ and BrO3- during the removal process is not clear. This study intends to disclose the mutual relationships of ammonia nitrogen and bromate ions under UV irradiation or UV/TiO2 conditions. Without UV irradiation, BrO3- and NH4+ were both stable even under the presentation of each other. Under UV irradiation or UV/TiO2 conditions, BrO3- and NH4+ promoted the degradation of each other, showing the synergistic degradation mechanism. In the neutral environment, both of BrO3- and NH4+ could be transformed effectively. Furthermore, NH4+ accelerated the transformation of BrO3- to Br- at the reaction beginning and the existence of BrO3- is beneficial for the transformation of NH4+ to N2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiting Zeng
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Mining & Metallurgy Environmental Pollution Control, Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, Ganzhou, 341000, China
| | - Jin Zeng
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Mining & Metallurgy Environmental Pollution Control, Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, Ganzhou, 341000, China
| | - Zhenwei Luo
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Mining & Metallurgy Environmental Pollution Control, Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, Ganzhou, 341000, China
| | - Jiahao Pan
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Mining & Metallurgy Environmental Pollution Control, Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, Ganzhou, 341000, China
| | - Yuxia Luo
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Mining & Metallurgy Environmental Pollution Control, Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, Ganzhou, 341000, China
| | - Jun Liu
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Mining & Metallurgy Environmental Pollution Control, Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, Ganzhou, 341000, China
| | - Chunying Wang
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Mining & Metallurgy Environmental Pollution Control, Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, Ganzhou, 341000, China.
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7
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Almeida J, Monahan A, Dionísio J, Delgado F, Magro C. Sustainability assessment of wastewater reuse in a Portuguese military airbase. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 851:158329. [PMID: 36030850 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The current water-scarcity crisis that is being felt in Europe, namely in the southern region, has leveraged the development and implementation of national and regional water management plans. These policies aim to promote efficient wastewater reuse in industrial and urban sectors. Thus, stakeholders are now seeking strategies to enhance the sustainability of their wastewater treatment processes. The present work details the evaluation of the wastewater treatment methods used at an Air Force Base located in Portugal. In addition, this study also intended to determine how wastewater reuse can be implemented and add value to the environmental protection mission of the military airbase. Hence, an assessment of wastewater treatment practices was carried out, considering primary and secondary treatments. The chemical, physical, and biological indicators of samples collected over two consecutive years were analyzed to determine trends and fluctuations. The results revealed that the overall effectiveness of nutrient removal is low due to the oversized nature of the treatment plant, the age of the facility, and the composition of the wastewater. The effluent produced meets standards for non-potable reuse and could be used on base for aircraft maintenance and the cleaning of facilities. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of the plant could be improved by implementing a more advanced tertiary wastewater treatment to decrease the concentration of undesired compounds (e.g., total nitrogen), enabling the reuse of water in a broader range of activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Almeida
- CENSE-Center for Environmental and Sustainability Research, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Abigail Monahan
- School for International Training, World Learning Inc., Brattleboro, VT 05302, USA
| | - Joana Dionísio
- School for International Training, World Learning Inc., Brattleboro, VT 05302, USA
| | - Filipe Delgado
- Environmental Department, Portuguese Air Force, Portugal
| | - Cátia Magro
- School for International Training, World Learning Inc., Brattleboro, VT 05302, USA.
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Lim S, Shi JL, von Gunten U, McCurry DL. Ozonation of organic compounds in water and wastewater: A critical review. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 213:118053. [PMID: 35196612 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 62.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Ozonation has been applied in water treatment for more than a century, first for disinfection, later for oxidation of inorganic and organic pollutants. In recent years, ozone has been increasingly applied for enhanced municipal wastewater treatment for ecosystem protection and for potable water reuse. These applications triggered significant research efforts on the abatement efficiency of organic contaminants and the ensuing formation of transformation products. This endeavor was accompanied by developments in analytical and computational chemistry, which allowed to improve the mechanistic understanding of ozone reactions. This critical review assesses the challenges of ozonation of impaired water qualities such as wastewaters and provides an up-to-date compilation of the recent kinetic and mechanistic findings of ozone reactions with dissolved organic matter, various functional groups (olefins, aromatic compounds, heterocyclic compounds, aliphatic nitrogen-containing compounds, sulfur-containing compounds, hydrocarbons, carbanions, β-diketones) and antibiotic resistance genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sungeun Lim
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | - Jiaming Lily Shi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Urs von Gunten
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland; School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne CH-1015, Switzerland.
| | - Daniel L McCurry
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States.
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Houska J, Salhi E, Walpen N, von Gunten U. Oxidant-reactive carbonous moieties in dissolved organic matter: Selective quantification by oxidative titration using chlorine dioxide and ozone. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 207:117790. [PMID: 34740166 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The application of oxidants for disinfection or micropollutant abatement during drinking water and wastewater treatment is accompanied by oxidation of matrix components such as dissolved organic matter (DOM). To improve predictions of the efficiency of oxidation processes and the formation of oxidation products, methods to determine concentrations of oxidant-reactive phenolic, olefinic or amine-type DOM moieties are critical. Here, a novel selective oxidative titration approach is presented, which is based on reaction kinetics of oxidation reactions towards certain DOM moieties. Phenolic moieties were determined by oxidative titration with ClO2 and O3 for five DOM isolates and two secondary wastewater effluent samples. The determined concentrations of phenolic moieties correlated with the electron-donating capacity (EDC) and the formation of inorganic ClO2-byproducts (HOCl, ClO2-, ClO3-). ClO2-byproduct yields from phenol and DOM isolates and changes due to the application of molecular tagging for phenols revealed a better understanding of oxidant-reactive structures within DOM. Overall, oxidative titrations with ClO2 and O3 provide a novel and promising tool to quantify oxidant-reactive moieties in complex mixtures such as DOM and can be expanded to other matrices or oxidants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Houska
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Elisabeth Salhi
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Walpen
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Urs von Gunten
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland; School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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