E-cadherin mutations and cell motility: a genotype-phenotype correlation

Inter-observer agreement for the histological diagnosis of invasive lobular breast carcinoma

Invasive lobular breast carcinoma (ILC) is the second most common breast carcinoma (BC) subtype and is mainly driven by loss of E‐cadherin expression. Correct classification of BC as ILC is important for patient treatment. This study assessed the degree of agreement among pathologists for the diagnosis of ILC. Two sets of hormone receptor (HR)‐positive/HER2‐negative BCs were independently reviewed by participating pathologists. In set A (61 cases), participants were provided with hematoxylin/eosin (HE)‐stained sections. In set B (62 cases), participants were provided with HE‐stained sections and E‐cadherin immunohistochemistry (IHC). Tumor characteristics were balanced. Participants classified specimens as non‐lobular BC versus mixed BC versus ILC. Pairwise inter‐observer agreement and agreement with a pre‐defined reference diagnosis were determined with Cohen's kappa statistics. Subtype calls were correlated with molecular features, including CDH1/E‐cadherin mutation status. Thirty‐five pathologists completed both sets, providing 4,305 subtype calls. Pairwise inter‐observer agreement was moderate in set A (median κ = 0.58, interquartile range [IQR]: 0.48–0.66) and substantial in set B (median κ = 0.75, IQR: 0.56–0.86, p < 0.001). Agreement with the reference diagnosis was substantial in set A (median κ = 0.67, IQR: 0.57–0.75) and almost perfect in set B (median κ = 0.86, IQR: 0.73–0.93, p < 0.001). The median frequency of CDH1/E‐cadherin mutations in specimens classified as ILC was 65% in set A (IQR: 56–72%) and 73% in set B (IQR: 65–75%, p < 0.001). Cases with variable subtype calls included E‐cadherin‐positive ILCs harboring CDH1 missense mutations, and E‐cadherin‐negative ILCs with tubular elements and focal P‐cadherin expression. ILCs with trabecular growth pattern were often misclassified as non‐lobular BC in set A but not in set B. In conclusion, subtyping of BC as ILC achieves almost perfect agreement with a pre‐defined reference standard, if assessment is supported by E‐cadherin IHC. CDH1 missense mutations associated with preserved E‐cadherin protein expression, E‐ to P‐cadherin switching in ILC with tubular elements, and trabecular ILC were identified as potential sources of discordant classification.

Mechanical disruption of E-cadherin complexes with epidermal growth factor receptor actuates growth factor-dependent signaling

Increased intercellular tension is associated with enhanced cell proliferation and tissue growth. Here, we present evidence for a force-transduction mechanism that links mechanical perturbations of epithelial (E)-cadherin (CDH1) receptors to the force-dependent activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR, ERBB1)-a key regulator of cell proliferation. Here, coimmunoprecipitation studies first show that E-cadherin and EGFR form complexes at the plasma membrane that are disrupted by either epidermal growth factor (EGF) or increased tension on homophilic E-cadherin bonds. Although force on E-cadherin bonds disrupts the complex in the absence of EGF, soluble EGF is required to mechanically activate EGFR at cadherin adhesions. Fully quantified spectral imaging fluorescence resonance energy transfer further revealed that E-cadherin and EGFR directly associate to form a heterotrimeric complex of two cadherins and one EGFR protein. Together, these results support a model in which the tugging forces on homophilic E-cadherin bonds trigger force-activated signaling by releasing EGFR monomers to dimerize, bind EGF ligand, and signal. These findings reveal the initial steps in E-cadherin-mediated force transduction that directly link intercellular force fluctuations to the activation of growth regulatory signaling cascades.

Extracellular domains of E-cadherin determine key mechanical phenotypes of an epithelium through cell- and non-cell-autonomous outside-in signaling

Cadherins control intercellular adhesion in most metazoans. In vertebrates, intercellular adhesion differs considerably between cadherins of type-I and type-II, predominantly due to their different extracellular regions. Yet, intercellular adhesion critically depends on actomyosin contractility, in which the role of the cadherin extracellular region is unclear. Here, we dissect the roles of the Extracellular Cadherin (EC) Ig-like domains by expressing chimeric E-cadherin with E-cadherin and cadherin-7 Ig-like domains in cells naturally devoid of cadherins. Using cell-cell separation, cortical tension measurement, tissue stretching and migration assays, we show that distinct EC repeats in the extracellular region of cadherins differentially modulate epithelial sheet integrity, cell-cell separation forces, and cell cortical tension with the Cdc42 pathway, which further differentially regulate epithelial tensile strength, ductility, and ultimately collective migration. Interestingly, dissipative processes rather than static adhesion energy mostly dominate cell-cell separation forces. We provide a framework for the emergence of epithelial phenotypes from cell mechanical properties dependent on EC outside-in signaling.

Germline CDH1 G212E Missense Variant: Combining Clinical, In Vitro and In Vivo Strategies to Unravel Disease Burden

Simple Summary

Hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC) is an inherited cancer syndrome associated with CDH1 germline mutations. The increasing detection of CDH1 genetic variants due to multigene panel testing poses a serious clinical challenge and urges the development of effective classification strategies. In this study, we describe the identification of the novel CDH1 G212E variant in a large family strongly affected by diffuse gastric cancer. Through a comprehensive characterization pipeline, we provide evidence of the damaging nature of this genetic alteration, thus impacting patient management and family screening.

Abstract

E-cadherin, encoded by CDH1, is an essential molecule for epithelial homeostasis, whose loss or aberrant expression results in disturbed cell–cell adhesion, increased cell invasion and metastasis. Carriers of CDH1 germline mutations have a high risk of developing diffuse gastric cancer and lobular breast cancer, associated with the cancer syndrome Hereditary Diffuse Gastric Cancer (HDGC). The ubiquitous availability of cancer panels has led to the identification of an increasing amount of “incidental” CDH1 genetic variants that pose a serious clinical challenge. This has sparked intensive research aiming at an accurate classification of the variants and consequent validation of their clinical relevance. The present study addressed the significance of a novel CDH1 variant, G212E, identified in an unusually large pedigree displaying strong aggregation of diffuse gastric cancer. We undertook a comprehensive pipeline encompassing family data, in silico predictions, in vitro assays and in vivo strategies, which validated the deleterious phenotype induced by this genetic alteration. In particular, we demonstrated that the G212E variant affects the stability and localization, as well as the adhesive and anti-invasive functions of E-cadherin, triggering epithelial disruption and disorganization. Our findings illustrate the clinical implication of a complementary approach for effective variant categorization and patient management.

Lobular Breast Cancer: Histomorphology and Different Concepts of a Special Spectrum of Tumors

Simple Summary

Invasive lobular breast cancer (ILC) is a special type of breast cancer (BC) that was first described in 1941. The diagnosis of ILC is made by microscopy of tumor specimens, which reveals a distinct morphology. This review recapitulates the developments in the microscopic assessment of ILC from 1941 until today. We discuss different concepts of ILC, provide an overview on ILC variants, and highlight advances which have contributed to a better understanding of ILC as a special histologic spectrum of tumors.

Abstract

Invasive lobular breast cancer (ILC) is the most common special histological type of breast cancer (BC). This review recapitulates developments in the histomorphologic assessment of ILC from its beginnings with the seminal work of Foote and Stewart, which was published in 1941, until today. We discuss different concepts of ILC and their implications. These concepts include (i) BC arising from mammary lobules, (ii) BC growing in dissociated cells and single files, and (iii) BC defined as a morpho-molecular spectrum of tumors with distinct histological and molecular characteristics related to impaired cell adhesion. This review also provides a comprehensive overview of ILC variants, their histomorphology, and differential diagnosis. Furthermore, this review highlights recent advances which have contributed to a better understanding of the histomorphology of ILC, such as the role of the basal lamina component laminin, the molecular specificities of triple-negative ILC, and E-cadherin to P-cadherin expression switching as the molecular determinant of tubular elements in CDH1-deficient ILC. Last but not least, we provide a detailed account of the tumor microenvironment in ILC, including tumor infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) levels, which are comparatively low in ILC compared to other BCs, but correlate with clinical outcome. The distinct histomorphology of ILC clearly reflects a special tumor biology. In the clinic, special treatment strategies have been established for triple-negative, HER2-positive, and ER-positive BC. Treatment specialization for patients diagnosed with ILC is just in its beginnings. Accordingly, ILC deserves greater attention as a special tumor entity in BC diagnostics, patient care, and cancer research.

Lifestyles, genetics, and future perspectives on gastric cancer in east Asian populations

The prevalence of gastric cancer (GC) differs among regions worldwide, with the highest occurrence in east Asia. Thus, its etiology, with respect to ethnic background, environmental factors, and lifestyles, is also thought to differ essentially. In addition, etiology of GC is speculated to be changing due to the recent decrease in the Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection in Japan. State-of-the-art somatic/germline cancer genomics has clarified the etiologies of gastric carcinogenesis. In this review article, we summarize past and present milestones in our understanding of GC achieved through genomic approaches, including a recent report that revealed higher-than-expected frequencies of GCs attributed to east Asian-specific germline variants in ALDH2 or CDH1 in combination with lifestyles. Based on this updated knowledge, we also discuss the possible impact of and high-risk approaches for GCs in the upcoming "H. pylori-negative era."

First report of a Mexican family with mutation in the CDH1 gene

Background

Germline mutations in E‐cadherin (CDH1) gene are associated with autosomal‐dominantly inherited cancer syndrome characterized by diffuse gastric cancer, lobular breast cancer, and in some families, cleft lip/palate. However, there may be generations in which these neoplasms do not occur at all in a family and later on, one or another carcinoma arises, which makes it difficult for physicians to think about hereditary origin.

Methods

We report the first Mexican family with CDH1 mutation (variant c.377del).

Results

An asymptomatic young woman underwent a search for mutations in susceptibility genes for breast cancer due to the history of this neoplasm in her mother and maternal aunt. A CDH1 mutation was detected. After an endoscopy, a diffuse gastric carcinoma was found. Later on, three generations of this family were studied. The findings are presented.

Conclusion

Medical communities should be aware of the contribution of this gene in the development of hereditary diffuse gastric carcinoma (HDGC) and breast cancer.

Overview on new progress of hereditary diffuse gastric cancer with CDH1 variants

Hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC), comprising 1%-3% of gastric malignances, has been associated with CDH1 variants. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated more than 100 germline CDH1 variant types. E-cadherin encoded by the CDH1 gene serves as a tumor suppressor protein. CDH1 promoter hypermethylation and other molecular mechanisms resulting in E-cadherin dysfunction are involved in the tumorigenesis of HDGC. Histopathology exhibits characteristic signet ring cells, and immunohistochemical staining may show negativity for E-cadherin and other signaling proteins. Early HDGC is difficult to detect by endoscopy due to the development of lesions beneath the mucosa. Prophylactic gastrectomy is the most recommended treatment for pathogenic CDH1 variant carriers. Recent studies have promoted the progression of promising molecular-targeted therapies and management strategies. This review summarizes recent advances in CDH1 variant types, tumorigenesis mechanisms, diagnosis, and therapy, as well as clinical implications for future gene therapies.

Hereditary Gastric and Breast Cancer Syndromes Related to CDH1 Germline Mutation: A Multidisciplinary Clinical Review

E-cadherin (CDH1 gene) germline mutations are associated with the development of diffuse gastric cancer in the context of the so-called hereditary diffuse gastric syndrome, and with an inherited predisposition of lobular breast carcinoma. In 2019, the international gastric cancer linkage consortium revised the clinical criteria and established guidelines for the genetic screening of CDH1 germline syndromes. Nevertheless, the introduction of multigene panel testing in clinical practice has led to an increased identification of E-cadherin mutations in individuals without a positive family history of gastric or breast cancers. This observation motivated us to review and present a novel multidisciplinary clinical approach (nutritional, surgical, and image screening) for single subjects who present germline CDH1 mutations but do not fulfil the classic clinical criteria, namely those identified as-(1) incidental finding and (2) individuals with lobular breast cancer without family history of gastric cancer (GC).

Defined lifestyle and germline factors predispose Asian populations to gastric cancer

Germline and environmental effects on the development of gastric cancers (GC) and their ethnic differences have been poorly understood. Here, we performed genomic-scale trans-ethnic analysis of 531 GCs (319 Asian and 212 non-Asians). There was one distinct GC subclass with clear alcohol-associated mutation signature and strong Asian specificity, almost all of which were attributable to alcohol intake behavior, smoking habit, and Asian-specific defective ALDH2 allele. Alcohol-related GCs have low mutation burden and characteristic immunological profiles. In addition, we found frequent (7.4%) germline CDH1 variants among Japanese GCs, most of which were attributed to a few recurrent single-nucleotide variants shared by Japanese and Koreans, suggesting the existence of common ancestral events among East Asians. Specifically, approximately one-fifth of diffuse-type GCs were attributable to the combination of alcohol intake and defective ALDH2 allele or to CDH1 variants. These results revealed uncharacterized impacts of germline variants and lifestyles in the high incidence areas.

E-cadherin deregulation in breast cancer

E‐cadherin protein (CDH1 gene) integrity is fundamental to the process of epithelial polarization and differentiation. Deregulation of the E‐cadherin function plays a crucial role in breast cancer metastases, with worse prognosis and shorter overall survival. In this narrative review, we describe the inactivating mechanisms underlying CDH1 gene activity and its possible translation to clinical practice as a prognostic biomarker and as a potential targeted therapy.

CDH1 Mutation Distribution and Type Suggests Genetic Differences between the Etiology of Orofacial Clefting and Gastric Cancer

Pathogenic variants in CDH1, encoding epithelial cadherin (E-cadherin), have been implicated in hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC), lobular breast cancer, and both syndromic and non-syndromic cleft lip/palate (CL/P). Despite the large number of CDH1 mutations described, the nature of the phenotypic consequence of such mutations is currently not able to be predicted, creating significant challenges for genetic counselling. This study collates the phenotype and molecular data for available CDH1 variants that have been classified, using the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics criteria, as at least ‘likely pathogenic’, and correlates their molecular and structural characteristics to phenotype. We demonstrate that CDH1 variant type and location differ between HDGC and CL/P, and that there is clustering of CL/P variants within linker regions between the extracellular domains of the cadherin protein. While these differences do not provide for exact prediction of the phenotype for a given mutation, they may contribute to more accurate assessments of risk for HDGC or CL/P for individuals with specific CDH1 variants.

Germline variants in DNA repair genes associated with hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome: analysis of a 21 gene panel in the Brazilian population

BACKGROUND

The Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome (HBOC) occurs in families with a history of breast/ovarian cancer, presenting an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are high penetrance genes associated with an increased risk of up to 20-fold for breast and ovarian cancer. However, only 20-30% of HBOC cases present pathogenic variants in those genes, and other DNA repair genes have emerged as increasing the risk for HBOC. In Brazil, variants in ATM, ATR, CHEK2, MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, POLQ, PTEN, and TP53 genes have been reported in up to 7.35% of the studied cases. Here we screened and characterized variants in 21 DNA repair genes in HBOC patients.

METHODS

We systematically analyzed 708 amplicons encompassing the coding and flanking regions of 21 genes related to DNA repair pathways (ABRAXAS1, ATM, ATR, BARD1, BRCA1, BRCA2, BRIP1, CDH1, CHEK2, MLH1, MRE11, MSH2, MSH6, NBN, PALB2, PMS2, PTEN, RAD50, RAD51, TP53 and UIMC1). A total of 95 individuals with HBOC syndrome clinical suspicion in Southeast Brazil were sequenced, and 25 samples were evaluated for insertions/deletions in BRCA1/BRCA2 genes. Identified variants were assessed in terms of population allele frequency and their functional effects were predicted through in silico algorithms.

RESULTS

We identified 80 variants in 19 genes. About 23.4% of the patients presented pathogenic variants in BRCA1, BRCA2 and TP53, a frequency higher than that identified among previous studies in Brazil. We identified a novel variant in ATR, which was predicted as pathogenic by in silico tools. The association analysis revealed 13 missense variants in ABRAXAS1, BARD1, BRCA2, CHEK2, CDH1, MLH1, PALB2, and PMS2 genes, as significantly associated with increased risk to HBOC, and the patients carrying those variants did not present large insertions or deletions in BRCA1/BRCA2 genes.

CONCLUSIONS

This study embodies the third report of a multi-gene analysis in the Brazilian population, and addresses the first report of many germline variants associated with HBOC in Brazil. Although further functional analyses are necessary to better characterize the contribution of those variants to the phenotype, these findings would improve the risk estimation and clinical follow-up of patients with HBOC clinical suspicion.

Genetic analysis of a case of Helicobacter pylori-uninfected intramucosal gastric cancer in a family with hereditary diffuse gastric cancer

Germline mutations in CDH1, encoding E-cadherin, are known to be the causative mechanism of hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC). We encountered two cases of gastric cancer in a Japanese family with HDGC. A 28-year-old man (Case 1) died of advanced gastric cancer. His younger sister aged 27 (Case 2) was diagnosed with intramucosal signet ring cell carcinoma (SRCC). Both had identical germline CDH1 mutations, but Case 1 was positive for Helicobacter pylori infection, whereas Case 2 was negative. Case 2 underwent total gastrectomy. Whole-exome sequencing of an intramucosal SRCC in Case 2 revealed seven somatic mutations including one in CDH1. The six non-CDH1 mutations were classified as non-driver mutations. Decreased expression of E-cadherin in intramucosal SRCC was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. Our report demonstrated that CDH1 mutation was the only active driver mutation in Helicobacter pylori-uninfected intramucosal SRCC.

Probing Cadherin Interactions in Zebrafish with E- and N-Cadherin Missense Mutants

Cadherins are cell adhesion molecules that regulate numerous adhesive interactions during embryonic development and adult life. Consistent with these functions, when their expression goes astray cells lose their normal adhesive properties resulting in defective morphogenesis, disease, and even metastatic cancer. In general, classical cadherins exert their effect by homophilic interactions via their five characteristic extracellular (EC) repeats. The EC1 repeat provides the mechanism for cadherins to dimerize with each other whereas the EC2 repeat may facilitate dimerization. Less is known about the other EC repeats. Here, we show that a zebrafish missense mutation in the EC5 repeat of N-cadherin is a dominant gain-of-function mutation and demonstrate that this mutation alters cell adhesion almost to the same degree as a zebrafish missense mutation in the EC1 repeat of N-cadherin. We also show that zebrafish E- and N-cadherin dominant gain-of-function missense mutations genetically interact. Perturbation of cell adhesion in embryos that are heterozygous mutant at both loci is similar to that observed in single homozygous mutants. Introducing an E-cadherin EC5 missense allele into the homozygous N-cadherin EC1 missense mutant more radically affects morphogenesis, causing synergistic phenotypes consistent with interdependent functions being disrupted. Our studies indicate that a functional EC5 repeat is critical for cadherin-mediated cell affinity, suggesting that its role may be more important than previously thought. These results also suggest the possibility that E- and N-cadherin have heterophilic interactions during early morphogenesis of the embryo; interactions that might help balance the variety of cell affinities needed during embryonic development.

Molecular biology as a tool for the treatment of cancer

Cancer is a genetic disease characterized by uncontrolled cell growth and metastasis. Cancer can have a number of causes, such the activation of oncogenes, the inactivation of tumor-suppressing genes, mutagenesis provoked by external factors, and epigenetic modifications. The development of diagnostic tools and treatments using a molecular biological approach permits the use of sensitive, low-cost, noninvasive tests for cancer patients. Biomarkers can be used to provide rapid, personalized oncology, in particular the molecular diagnosis of chronic myeloid leukemia, and gastric, colon, and breast cancers. Molecular tests based on DNA methylation can also be used to direct treatments or evaluate the toxic effects of chemotherapy. The adequate diagnosis, prognosis, and prediction of the response of cancer patients to treatment are essential to ensure the most effective therapy, reduce the damaging effects of treatment, and direct the therapy to specific targets, and in this context, molecular biology has become increasingly important in oncology. In this brief review, we will demonstrate the fundamental importance of molecular biology for the treatment of three types of cancer-chronic myeloid leukemia, hereditary diffuse gastric cancer, and astrocytomas (sporadic tumors of the central nervous system). In each of these three models, distinct biological mechanisms are involved in the transformation of the cells, but in all cases, molecular biology is fundamental to the development of personalized analyses for each patient and each type of neoplasia, and to guarantee the success of the treatment.

Hereditary lobular breast cancer with an emphasis on E-cadherin genetic defect

Recent studies have reported germline CDH1 mutations in cases of lobular breast cancer (LBC) not associated with the classical hereditary diffuse gastric cancer syndrome. A multidisciplinary workgroup discussed genetic susceptibility, pathophysiology and clinical management of hereditary LBC (HLBC). The team has established the clinical criteria for CDH1 screening and results' interpretation, and created consensus guidelines regarding genetic counselling, breast surveillance and imaging techniques, clinicopathological findings, psychological and decisional support, as well as prophylactic surgery and plastic reconstruction. Based on a review of current evidence for the identification of HLBC cases/families, CDH1 genetic testing is recommended in patients fulfilling the following criteria: (A) bilateral LBC with or without family history of LBC, with age at onset <50 years, and (B) unilateral LBC with family history of LBC, with age at onset <45 years. In CDH1 asymptomatic mutant carriers, breast surveillance with clinical examination, yearly mammography, contrast-enhanced breast MRI and breast ultrasonography (US) with 6-month interval between the US and the MRI should be implemented as a first approach. In selected cases with personal history, family history of LBC and CDH1 mutations, prophylactic mastectomy could be discussed with an integrative group of clinical experts. Psychodecisional support also plays a pivotal role in the management of individuals with or without CDH1 germline alterations. Ultimately, the definition of a specific protocol for CDH1 genetic screening and ongoing coordinated management of patients with HLBC is crucial for the effective surveillance and early detection of LBC.

Merging perspectives: genotype-directed molecular therapy for hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC) and E-cadherin-EGFR crosstalk

Hereditary diffuse gastric cancer is a cancer predisposition syndrome associated with germline mutations of the E-cadherin gene (CDH1; NM_004360). Male CDH1 germline mutation carriers have by the age of 80 years an estimated 70% cumulative incidence of gastric cancer, females of 56% for gastric and of 42% for lobular breast cancer. Metastatic HDGC has a poor prognosis which is worse than for sporadic gastric cancer. To date, there have been no treatment options described tailored to this molecular subtype of gastric cancer. Here we review recent differential drug screening and gene expression results in c.1380del CDH1-mutant HDGC cells which identified drug classes targeting PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase), MEK (mitogen-activated protein kinase), FAK (focal adhesion kinase), PKC (protein kinase C), and TOPO2 (topoisomerase II) as selectively more effective in cells with defective CDH1 function. ERK1-ERK2 (extracellular signal regulated kinase) signaling measured as top enriched network in c.1380delA CDH1-mutant cells. We compared these findings to synthetic lethality and pharmacological screening results in isogenic CDH1-/- MCF10A mammary epithelial cells with and without CDH1 expression and current knowledge of E-cadherin/catenin-EGFR cross-talk, and suggest different rationales how loss of E-cadherin function activates PI3K, mTOR, EGFR, or FAK signaling. These leads represent molecularly selected treatment options tailored to the treatment of CDH1-deficient familial gastric cancer.

Evaluation of epidermal growth factor receptor signaling effects in gastric cancer cell lines by detailed motility-focused phenotypic characterization linked with molecular analysis

Background

Gastric cancers frequently overexpress the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), which has been implicated in pathological processes including tumor cell motility, invasion and metastasis. Targeting EGFR with the inhibitory antibody cetuximab may affect the motile and invasive behavior of tumor cells. Here, we evaluated the effects of EGFR signaling in gastric cancer cell lines to link the phenotypic behavior of the cells with their molecular characteristics.

Methods

Phenotypic effects were analyzed in four gastric cancer cell lines (AGS, Hs746T, LMSU and MKN1) by time-lapse microscopy and transwell invasion assay. Effects on EGFR signaling were detected using Western blot and proteome profiler analyses. A network was constructed linking EGFR signaling to the regulation of cellular motility.

Results

The analysis of the effects of treatment with epidermal growth factor (EGF) and cetuximab revealed that only one cell line (MKN1) was sensitive to cetuximab treatment in all phenotypic assays, whereas the other cell lines were either not responsive (Hs746T, LMSU) or sensitive only in certain tests (AGS). Cetuximab inhibited EGFR, MAPK and AKT activity and associated components of the EGFR signaling pathway to different degrees in cetuximab-sensitive MKN1 cells. In contrast, no such changes were observed in Hs746T cells. Thus, the different phenotypic behaviors of the cells were linked to their molecular response to treatment. Genetic alterations had different associations with response to treatment: while PIK3CA mutations and KRAS mutation or amplification were not obstructive, the MET mutation was associated with non-response.

Conclusion

These results identify components of the EGFR signaling network as important regulators of the phenotypic and molecular response to cetuximab treatment.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12885-017-3822-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Predicting the Functional Impact of CDH1 Missense Mutations in Hereditary Diffuse Gastric Cancer

The role of E-cadherin in Hereditary Diffuse Gastric Cancer (HDGC) is unequivocal. Germline alterations in its encoding gene (CDH1) are causative of HDGC and occur in about 40% of patients. Importantly, while in most cases CDH1 alterations result in the complete loss of E-cadherin associated with a well-established clinical impact, in about 20% of cases the mutations are of the missense type. The latter are of particular concern in terms of genetic counselling and clinical management, as the effect of the sequence variants in E-cadherin function is not predictable. If a deleterious variant is identified, prophylactic surgery could be recommended. Therefore, over the last few years, intensive research has focused on evaluating the functional consequences of CDH1 missense variants and in assessing E-cadherin pathogenicity. In that context, our group has contributed to better characterize CDH1 germline missense variants and is now considered a worldwide reference centre. In this review, we highlight the state of the art methodologies to categorize CDH1 variants, as neutral or deleterious. This information is subsequently integrated with clinical data for genetic counseling and management of CDH1 variant carriers.

Systemic Treatment Strategies for Patients with Hereditary Breast Cancer Syndromes

Hereditary breast cancer syndromes are associated with an increased risk of breast cancer and constitute a unique patient population, making up approximately 5%-10% of breast cancer cases in the United States. By virtue of the germline mutations that define these syndromes, invasive breast cancers in these patients have unique mechanisms that can be rationally targeted for therapeutic opportunities distinct from standard of care treatments in nongermline mutation associated breast cancers. This review intends to describe existing data on several of the most common hereditary breast cancer syndromes, including BRCA-related breast cancer syndrome, Li-Fraumeni syndrome, Cowden syndrome, Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, and hereditary diffuse gastric cancer syndrome, specifically focusing on rational therapeutics utilized in these distinct patient subgroups and completed or ongoing clinical trials evaluating their efficacy. By exploiting the distinct biologic features associated with these syndromes, tailored treatment strategies have the potential for improved efficacy and lower toxicity. Knowledge of the emergence of these targeted cancer therapies is critical for appropriate management in these patients, extending beyond treatment to highlight the need for appropriate genetic screening to allow for early recognition of these patients and therefore appropriate treatment.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Molecular testing allows for identification of germline mutations that place individuals at high risk for breast cancer and that are associated with distinct histopathology and molecular characteristics that define the invasive breast cancer cases that these patients develop. These unique characteristics may ultimately provide rational targets for systemic treatments with improvements in both morbidity and efficacy. Identification of patients with these germline mutations is important for not only appropriate screening and prophylaxis, but knowledge of therapies specifically targeting several of the most common hereditary breast cancer syndromes is essential to ensure appropriate treatment of invasive breast cancers in these patients.

Sherloc: a comprehensive refinement of the ACMG-AMP variant classification criteria

PurposeThe 2015 American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics-Association for Molecular Pathology (ACMG-AMP) guidelines were a major step toward establishing a common framework for variant classification. In practice, however, several aspects of the guidelines lack specificity, are subject to varied interpretations, or fail to capture relevant aspects of clinical molecular genetics. A simple implementation of the guidelines in their current form is insufficient for consistent and comprehensive variant classification.MethodsWe undertook an iterative process of refining the ACMG-AMP guidelines. We used the guidelines to classify more than 40,000 clinically observed variants, assessed the outcome, and refined the classification criteria to capture exceptions and edge cases. During this process, the criteria evolved through eight major and minor revisions.ResultsOur implementation: (i) separated ambiguous ACMG-AMP criteria into a set of discrete but related rules with refined weights; (ii) grouped certain criteria to protect against the overcounting of conceptually related evidence; and (iii) replaced the "clinical criteria" style of the guidelines with additive, semiquantitative criteria.ConclusionSherloc builds on the strong framework of 33 rules established by the ACMG-AMP guidelines and introduces 108 detailed refinements, which support a more consistent and transparent approach to variant classification.

Gastric cancer related genes

Gastric cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors. In addition to environmental, socioeconomic, and dietary factors, hereditary factors also play an important role in the development of gastric cancer. Although some driver genes have been identified in gastric cancer, the molecular compositions of gastric cancer have not been fully understood. Genome-wide association studies, copy number variations and next-generation sequencing provide systematic methods to identify all genetic alterations in the cancer genome, especially in the field of mutation detection. Here we make a brief review of the current status of research on gastric cancer genetics.

Roles for E-cadherin cell surface regulation in cancer

Loss of E-cadherin expression often occurs in tumors, but many metastases retain E-cadherin. Regulation of the adhesive activity of E-cadherin at the cell surface is important for metastasis of mammary tumor cells, and cancer-associated missense mutations in E-cadherin selectively affect the mechanism of cell surface regulation.

The loss of E-cadherin expression in association with the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) occurs frequently during tumor metastasis. However, metastases often retain E-cadherin expression, an EMT is not required for metastasis, and metastases can arise from clusters of tumor cells. We demonstrate that the regulation of the adhesive activity of E-cadherin present at the cell surface by an inside-out signaling mechanism is important in cancer. First, we find that the metastasis of an E-cadherin–expressing mammary cell line from the mammary gland to the lung depends on reduced E-cadherin adhesive function. An activating monoclonal antibody to E-cadherin that induces a high adhesive state significantly reduced the number of cells metastasized to the lung without affecting the growth in size of the primary tumor in the mammary gland. Second, we find that many cancer-associated germline missense mutations in the E-cadherin gene in patients with hereditary diffuse gastric cancer selectively affect the mechanism of inside-out cell surface regulation without inhibiting basic E-cadherin adhesion function. This suggests that genetic deficits in E-cadherin cell surface regulation contribute to cancer progression. Analysis of these mutations also provides insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying cadherin regulation at the cell surface.

Accuracy of Hereditary Diffuse Gastric Cancer Testing Criteria and Outcomes in Patients With a Germline Mutation in CDH1

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Germline mutations in the cadherin 1, type 1, E-cadherin gene (CDH1) cause a predisposition to gastric cancer. We evaluated the ability of the internationally accepted hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC) criteria to identify individuals with pathogenic mutations in CDH1, and assessed their outcomes. The criteria were as follows: families with 2 or more cases of gastric cancer, with at least 1 patient diagnosed with diffuse gastric cancer (DGC) before age 50; families with 3 or more cases of DGC; families with 1 DGC before the age of 40; and families with a history of DGC and lobular breast cancer, with 1 diagnosis before the age of 50.

METHODS

We collected results of a CDH1 mutation analysis of 578 individuals from 499 families tested in The Netherlands between 1999 and 2014 (118 families met the HDGC criteria for testing and 236 did not; there were 145 families with incomplete data and/or availability of only first-degree relatives). Data were linked with family histories and findings from clinical and pathology analyses. The Kaplan-Meier method and Cox regression analysis were used to evaluate the overall survival of patients with and without CDH1 mutations.

RESULTS

In a cohort study in The Netherlands, the HDGC criteria identified individuals with a germline CDH1 mutation with a positive predictive value of 14% and 89% sensitivity. There were 18 pathogenic CDH1 mutations in 499 families (4%); 16 of these mutations were detected in the 118 families who met the HDGC criteria for testing. One pathogenic CDH1 mutation was detected in the 236 families who did not meet HDGC criteria and 1 in the 145 families with incomplete data and/or availability of only first-degree relatives. No CDH1 mutations were found in the 67 families whose members developed intestinal-type gastric cancer, or in the 22 families whose families developed lobular breast cancer. Among patients who fulfilled the HDGC criteria and had pathogenic CDH1 mutations, 36% survived for 1 year and 4% survived for 5 years; among patients who fulfilled the HDGC criteria but did not carry pathogenic CDH1 mutations, 48% survived for 1 year and 13% survived for 5 years (P = .014 for comparative survival analysis between patients with and without a CDH1 mutation).

CONCLUSIONS

All individuals with a CDH1 mutation had a personal or family history of diffuse gastric cancer. Patients with gastric cancer and germline CDH1 mutations had shorter survival times than patients who met the HDGC criteria but did not have CDH1 mutations.

CDH1 germ-line missense mutation identified by multigene sequencing in a family with no history of diffuse gastric cancer

Germ-line mutation in CDH1 gene is associated with high risk for Hereditary Diffuse Gastric Cancer (HDGC) and Infiltrative Lobular Carcinoma (ILC). Although somatic CDH1 mutations were also detected in ILC with a frequency ranging from 10 to 56%, CDH1 alterations in more frequent infiltrative ductal carcinoma (IDC) appear to be rare, and no association with germ-line CDH1 mutation and IDC has been established. Here we report the case of a woman diagnosed with IDC at 39years of age, presenting extensive familial history of cancer at multiple sites with early-age onset and with no case of HDGC. Deep sequencing have revealed CDH1 missense mutation c.1849G>A (p.Ala617Thr) in heterozygous and four BRCA2 single nucleotide polymorphism in homozygosis. In this family, the mutation c.1849G>A in the CDH1 gene is not related to HDGC nor ILC. Therefore, here we highlight that multigene analysis is important to detect germ-line mutations and genetic variants in patients with cancers at multiple sites in the family, even if inconclusive genetic counseling can be offered, since hereafter, medical awareness will be held.

E-cadherin germline mutation carriers: clinical management and genetic implications

Hereditary diffuse gastric cancer is an autosomic dominant syndrome associated with E-cadherin protein (CDH1) gene germline mutations. Clinical criteria for genetic screening were revised in 2010 by the International Gastric Cancer Linkage Consortium at the Cambridge meeting. About 40 % of families fulfilling clinical criteria for this inherited disease present deleterious CDH1 germline mutations. Lobular breast cancer is a neoplastic condition associated with hereditary diffuse gastric cancer syndrome. E-cadherin constitutional mutations have been described in both settings, in gastric and breast cancers. The management of CDH1 asymptomatic mutation carriers requires a multidisciplinary approach; the only life-saving procedure is the prophylactic total gastrectomy after thorough genetic counselling. Several prophylactic gastrectomies have been performed to date; conversely, no prophylactic mastectomies have been described in CDH1 mutant carriers. However, the recent discovery of novel germline alterations in pedigree clustering only for lobular breast cancer opens up a new debate in the management of these individuals. In this critical review, we describe the clinical management of CDH1 germline mutant carriers providing specific recommendations for genetic counselling, clinical criteria, surveillance and/ or prophylactic surgery.

Quantification of mutant E-cadherin using bioimaging analysis of in situ fluorescence microscopy. A new approach to CDH1 missense variants

Missense mutations result in full-length proteins containing an amino acid substitution that can be neutral or deleterious, interfering with the normal conformation, localization, and function of a protein. A striking example is the presence of CDH1 (E-cadherin gene) germline missense variants in hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC), which represent a clinical burden for genetic counseling and surveillance of mutation carriers and their families. CDH1 missense variants can compromise not only the function of E-cadherin but also its expression pattern. Here, we propose a novel method to characterize E-cadherin signature in order to identify cases with E-cadherin deregulation and functional impairment. The strategy includes a bioimaging pipeline to quantify the expression level and characterize the distribution of the protein from in situ immunofluorescence images. The algorithm computes 1D (dimension intensity) radial and internuclear fluorescence profiles to generate expression outlines and 2D virtual cells representing a typical cell within the populations analyzed. Using this new approach, we verify that cells expressing mutant forms of E-cadherin display fluorescence profiles distinct from those of the wild-type cells. Mutant proteins showed a significantly decrease of fluorescence intensity at the membrane and often abnormal expression peaks in the cytoplasm, reflecting the underlying molecular mechanism of trafficking deregulation. Our results suggest employing this methodology as a complementary approach to evaluate the pathogenicity of E-cadherin missense variants. Moreover, it can be applied to a wide range of proteins and, more importantly, to diseases characterized by aberrant protein expression or trafficking deregulation.

Synergistic effects of curcumin and bevacizumab on cell signaling pathways in hepatocellular carcinoma

The aim of the present study was to explore the effects of curcumin in combination with bevacizumab on the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)/VEGF receptor (VEGFR)/K-ras pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma. A total of 30 Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into five groups: Control, model, curcumin, VEGF blocker, and curcumin + VEGF blocker groups. The mRNA levels of VEGF and VEGFR in all groups were subsequently measured by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and the protein expression of K-ras was detected by western blot analysis. Compared with the control group, the mRNA levels of VEGF and VEGFR were revealed to be significantly increased in the model, curcumin and VEGF blocker groups. The VEGF mRNA levels in the curcumin, VEGF blocker and curcumin + VEGF blocker groups were all decreased when compared with the model group. In addition, the VEGF mRNA levels in the curcumin + VEGF blocker group were significantly lower compared with the curcumin group (P<0.05). The VEGF mRNA levels in the curcumin, VEGF blocker and curcumin + VEGF blocker groups were decreased when compared with the model group (P=0.0001). No significant differences in VEGF mRNA levels were identified between the VEGF blocker and curcumin groups (P=0.863), whereas the VEGF mRNA levels in the curcumin + VEGF blocker group were significantly lower than that of the curcumin group (P=0.025). Curcumin and the VEGF blocker are each capable of inhibiting hepatocellular carcinoma progression by regulating the VEGF/VEGFR/K-ras pathway. The combination of the two compounds has a synergistic effect on the inhibition of the effects of the VEGF signaling pathways in hepatocellular carcinoma progression.

Genetic screening analysis of patients with hereditary diffuse gastric cancer from northern and northeastern Brazil

Background

Hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC) is a hereditary autosomal inherited syndrome associated with CDH1 germline mutations. In Brazil, gastrointestinal tumors are among the most prevalent tumor types and constitute a serious public health problem, especially in the northern and northeastern regions. This study aimed to investigate germline mutations, methylation pattern and genomic rearrangements in the CDH1 gene and quantitative changes in the DNA of HDGC patients in northern and northeastern Brazil.

Methods

Twenty-seven DNA samples from the members of four families affected by HDGC were analyzed using array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH), DNA sequencing and methylation pattern.

Results

No evidence of gain and loss events or any rearrangements were found in any of the samples tested using aCGH. No promoter region hypermethylation was observed either. Two of the four families presented different types of germline mutations. The 185G > T and 1018A > G germline mutations detected in this study have been described in Asian and European families, respectively. The ancestors of the two families carrying these mutations had originated from those continents.

Conclusion

This is the first study to evaluate CDH1 gene germline mutations in Brazilian families with HDGC. In our study, 50% of the families showed no CDH1 gene alterations, and it is possible that in regions with a high incidence of gastric cancer, such as northern and northeastern Brazil, environmental factors might have induced the different genetic alterations analyzed in this study.

Rescue of wild-type E-cadherin expression from nonsense-mutated cancer cells by a suppressor-tRNA

Hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC) syndrome, although rare, is highly penetrant at an early age, and is severe and incurable because of ineffective screening tools and therapy. Approximately 45% of HDGC families carry germline CDH1/E-cadherin alterations, 20% of which are nonsense leading to premature protein truncation. Prophylactic gastrectomy is the only recommended approach for all asymptomatic CDH1 mutation carriers. Suppressor-tRNAs can replace premature stop codons (PTCs) with a cognate amino acid, inducing readthrough and generating full-length proteins. The use of suppressor-tRNAs in HDGC patients could therefore constitute a less invasive therapeutic option for nonsense mutation carriers, delaying the development of gastric cancer. Our analysis revealed that 23/108 (21.3%) of E-cadherin-mutant families carried nonsense mutations that could be potentially corrected by eight suppressor-tRNAs, and arginine was the most frequently affected amino acid. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we developed an arginine suppressor-tRNA vector to correct one HDGC nonsense mutation. E-cadherin- deficient cell lines were transfected with plasmids carrying simultaneously the suppressor-tRNA and wild-type or mutant CDH1 mini-genes. RT-PCR, western blot, immunofluorescence, flow cytometry and proximity ligation assay (PLA) were used to establish the model, and monitor mRNA and protein expression and function recovery from CDH1 vectors. Cells expressing a CDH1 mini-gene, carrying a nonsense mutation and the suppressor-tRNA, recovered full-length E-cadherin expression and its correct localization and incorporation into the adhesion complex. This is the first demonstration of functional recovery of a mutated causative gene in hereditary cancer by cognate amino acid replacement with suppressor-tRNAs. Of the HDGC families, 21.3% are candidates for correction with suppressor-tRNAs to potentially delay cancer onset.

Multiplex genetic cancer testing identifies pathogenic mutations in TP53 and CDH1 in a patient with bilateral breast and endometrial adenocarcinoma

Background

Germline genetic testing for familial cancer syndromes is usually performed serially for the most likely genetic causes. In recent years the way genetic testing carried out has changed, as next generation sequencing now allows the simultaneous testing of multiple susceptibility genes at low costs.

Case presentation

Here, we present a female with bilateral breast cancer and endometrial adenocarcinoma. After simultaneous sequencing of 150 genes (890 kb) associated with hereditary cancer we identified pathogenic mutations in two high-penetrance genes, i.e. TP53 and CDH1 that would most likely not have been elucidated by serial screening of candidate genes.

Conclusion

As the two mutated genes are located on different chromosomes and cause different cancer syndromes these findings had a tremendous impact not only on genetic counseling of the index patient and her family but also on subsequent surveillance strategies.

Identification and characterization of CDH1 germline variants in sporadic gastric cancer patients and in individuals at risk of gastric cancer

Objective

To screen and characterize germline variants for E-cadherin (CDH1) in non-hereditary gastric cancer (GC) patients and in subjects at risk of GC.

Methods

59 GCs, 59 first degree relatives (FDRs) of GC, 20 autoimmune metaplastic atrophic gastritis (AMAGs) and 52 blood donors (BDs) were analyzed for CDH1 by direct sequencing, structural modelling and bioinformatics. Functional impact on splicing was assessed for intronic mutations. E-cadherin/β-catenin immunohistochemical staining and E-cadherin mRNA quantification using RT-PCR were performed.

Results

In GCs, 4 missense variants (p.G274S; p.A298T; p.T470I; p.A592T), 1 mutation in the 5′UTR (−71C>G) and 1 mutation in the intronic IVS12 (c.1937-13T>C) region were found. First pathogenic effect of p.A298T mutation was predicted by protein 3D modelling. The novel p.G274S mutation showed a no clear functional significance. Moreover, first, intronic IVS12 (c.1937-13T>C) mutation was demonstrated to lead to an aberrant CDH1 transcript with exon 11 deletion. This mutation was found in 2 GCs and in 1 BD. In FDRs, we identified 4 variants: the polymorphic (p.A592T) and 3 mutations in untranslated regions with unidentified functional role except for the 5′UTR (−54G>C) that had been found to decrease CDH1 transcription. In AMAGs, we detected 2 alterations: 1 missense (p.A592T) and 1 novel variant (IVS1 (c.48+7C>T)) without effect on CDH1 splicing. Several silent and polymorphic substitutions were found in all the groups studied.

Conclusions

Overall our study improves upon the current characterization of CDH1 mutations and their functional role in GC and in individuals at risk of GC. Mutations found in untranslated regions and data on splicing effects deserve a particular attention like associated with a reduced E-cadherin amount. The utility of CDH1 screening, in addition to the identification of other risk factors, could be useful for the early detection of GC in subjects at risk (i.e. FDRs and AMAGs), and warrants further study.

Therapeutic targets associated to E-cadherin dysfunction in gastric cancer

INTRODUCTION

Epithelial cadherin (E-cadherin) plays a key role in epithelial cell-cell adhesion, contributing to tissue differentiation and homeostasis. Throughout the past decades, research has shed light on the molecular mechanisms underlying E-cadherin's role in tumor progression, namely in invasion and metastization. Emerging evidence established E-cadherin as a tumor suppressor and suggests that targeting E-cadherin or downstream signaling molecules may constitute effective cancer therapeutics.

AREAS COVERED

This review aims to cover E-cadherin-mediated signaling during cancer development and progression and highlight putative therapeutic targets.

EXPERT OPINION

Reconstitution of E-cadherin expression or targeting of E-cadherin downstream molecules holds promise in cancer therapies. Considering the high frequency of CDH1 promoter hypermethylation as a second hit in malignant lesions from hereditary diffuse gastric cancer patients, histone deacetylase inhibitors are potential therapeutic agents in combination with conventional chemotherapy, specifically in initial tumor stages. Concerning E-cadherin-mediated signaling, we propose that HER receptors (as epidermal growth factor receptor) and Notch downstream targets are clinically relevant and should be considered in gastric cancer therapeutics and control.

E-cadherin alterations in hereditary disorders with emphasis on hereditary diffuse gastric cancer

The only gastric cancer (GC) syndrome with a proven inherited defect is designated as hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC) and is caused by germline E-cadherin/CDH1 alterations. Other E-cadherin-associated hereditary disorders have been identified, encompassing HDGC families with or without cleft-lip/palate involvement, isolated early-onset diffuse GCs, and lobular breast cancer families without GC. To date, 141 probands harboring more than 100 different germline CDH1 alterations, mainly point mutations and large deletions, have been described in these different settings. A third of all HDGC families described so far carry recurrent CDH1 alterations. Full screening of CDH1 is recommended in patients fulfilling the HDGC criteria and total prophylactic gastrectomy is the only reliable intervention for carriers of pathogenic alterations. In this chapter, we discuss CDH1-associated syndromes, frequency and type of CDH1 germline alterations, clinical criteria, and guidelines for genetic counseling, molecular pathology, and available animal/cell line models of the disease.

Cancer syndromes and therapy by stop-codon readthrough

Several hereditary cancer syndromes are associated with nonsense mutations that create premature termination codons (PTC). Therapeutic strategies involving readthrough induction partially restore expression of proteins with normal function from nonsense-mutated genes, and small molecules such as aminoglycosides and PTC124 have exhibited promising results for treating patients with cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Transgenic expression of suppressor-tRNAs and depleting translation termination factors are, among others, potential strategies for treating PTC-associated diseases. In this review, the potential of using readthrough strategies as a therapy for cancer syndromes is discussed, and we consider the effect of nonsense-mediated decay and other factors on readthrough efficiency.

The importance of E-cadherin binding partners to evaluate the pathogenicity of E-cadherin missense mutations associated to HDGC

In hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC), CDH1 germline gene alterations are causative events in 30% of the cases. In 20% of HDGC families, CDH1 germline mutations are of the missense type and the mutation carriers constitute a problem in terms of genetic counseling and surveillance. To access the pathogenic relevance of missense mutations, we have previously developed an in vitro method to functionally characterize them. Pathogenic E-cadherin missense mutants fail to aggregate and become more invasive, in comparison with cells expressing the wild-type (WT) protein. Herein, our aim was to develop a complementary method to unravel the pathogenic significance of E-cadherin missense mutations. We used cells stably expressing WT E-cadherin and seven HDGC-associated mutations (five intracellular and two extracellular) and studied by proximity ligation assays (PLA) how these mutants bind to fundamental regulators of E-cadherin function and trafficking. We focused our attention on the interaction with: p120, β-catenin, PIPKIγ and Hakai. We showed that cytoplasmic E-cadherin mutations affect the interaction of one or more binding partners, compromising the E-cadherin stability at the plasma membrane and likely affecting the adhesion complex competence. In the present work, we demonstrated that the study of the interplay between E-cadherin and its binding partners, using PLA, is an easy, rapid, quantitative and highly reproducible technique that can be applied in routine labs to verify the pathogenicity of E-cadherin missense mutants for HDGC diagnosis, especially those located in the intracellular domain of the protein.

E-cadherin dysfunction in gastric cancer--cellular consequences, clinical applications and open questions

E-cadherin plays a major role in cell-cell adhesion and inactivating germline mutations in its encoding gene predispose to hereditary diffuse gastric cancer. Evidence indicates that aside from its recognized role in early tumourigenesis, E-cadherin is also pivotal for tumour progression, including invasion and metastization. Herein, we discuss E-cadherin alterations found in a cancer context, associated cellular effects and signalling pathways, and we raise new key questions that will impact in the management of GC patients and families.

Secondary variants in individuals undergoing exome sequencing: screening of 572 individuals identifies high-penetrance mutations in cancer-susceptibility genes

Genome- and exome-sequencing costs are continuing to fall, and many individuals are undergoing these assessments as research participants and patients. The issue of secondary (so-called incidental) findings in exome analysis is controversial, and data are needed on methods of detection and their frequency. We piloted secondary variant detection by analyzing exomes for mutations in cancer-susceptibility syndromes in subjects ascertained for atherosclerosis phenotypes. We performed exome sequencing on 572 ClinSeq participants, and in 37 genes, we interpreted variants that cause high-penetrance cancer syndromes by using an algorithm that filtered results on the basis of mutation type, quality, and frequency and that filtered mutation-database entries on the basis of defined categories of causation. We identified 454 sequence variants that differed from the human reference. Exclusions were made on the basis of sequence quality (26 variants) and high frequency in the cohort (77 variants) or dbSNP (17 variants), leaving 334 variants of potential clinical importance. These were further filtered on the basis of curation of literature reports. Seven participants, four of whom were of Ashkenazi Jewish descent and three of whom did not meet family-history-based referral criteria, had deleterious BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. One participant had a deleterious SDHC mutation, which causes paragangliomas. Exome sequencing, coupled with multidisciplinary interpretation, detected clinically important mutations in cancer-susceptibility genes; four of such mutations were in individuals without a significant family history of disease. We conclude that secondary variants of high clinical importance will be detected at an appreciable frequency in exomes, and we suggest that priority be given to the development of more efficient modes of interpretation with trials in larger patient groups.

Epithelial E- and P-cadherins: role and clinical significance in cancer

E-cadherin and P-cadherin are major contributors to cell-cell adhesion in epithelial tissues, playing pivotal roles in important morphogenetic and differentiation processes during development, and in maintaining integrity and homeostasis in adult tissues. It is now generally accepted that alterations in these two molecules are observed during tumour progression of most carcinomas. Genetic or epigenetic alterations in E- and P-cadherin-encoding genes (CDH1 and CDH3, respectively), or alterations in their proteins expression, often result in tissue disorder, cellular de-differentiation, increased invasiveness of tumour cells and ultimately in metastasis. In this review, we will discuss the major properties of E- and P-cadherin molecules, its regulation in normal tissue, and their alterations and role in cancer, with a specific focus on gastric and breast cancer models.

A novel CDH1 germline missense mutation in a sporadic gastric cancer patient in north-east of Italy

It is well documented that germline mutations in the E-cadherin (CDH1) gene are linked to hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC). Despite the known molecular genetic causes, most gastric cancers are sporadic and poorly investigated for susceptibility genes. We report the finding of a novel germline missense mutation in exon 6, c. 820 G > A (p.G274S) in one sporadic gastric cancer patient. This new variant does not affect cryptic splicing of CDH1 as demonstrated by molecular assay. Immunohistochemical analysis shows a mixed pattern of E-cadherin staining (membranous and cytoplasmic) in the intestinal component, while in the diffuse counterpart, the membranous staining was prevalent and a reduced membranous expression of ß-catenin was observed. In vitro assays suggest that the mutant G274S does not affect the E-cadherin protein function, its expression pattern or subcellular localization. This new variant is present in EC2 extracellular domain of the protein (p.G120S in mature protein). The molecular modelling shows that this point mutation is not dramatic for local structure. However, p.S120 is located on the surface of the protein close to the functional calcium sites and in the region of interaction with EC1 domain of another E-cadherin molecule involved in the formation of the intercellular junction. Moreover, p.S120 residue could be involved in posttranslational modifications, such as phosphorylation or glycosylation, with possible effects on stability and integrity of adhesive properties of E-cadherin. In conclusion, the pathogenicity of this mutation is unlikely; probably we found a new germline CDH1 missense mutation with potential impact, however, of uncertain significance.

Frequency of CDH1 germline mutations in gastric carcinoma coming from high- and low-risk areas: metanalysis and systematic review of the literature

Background

The frequency of E-cadherin germline mutations in countries with different incidence rates for gastric carcinoma has not been well established. The goal of this study was to assess the worldwide frequency of CDH1 germline mutations in gastric cancers coming from low- and high-risk areas.

Methods

English articles using MEDLINE access (from 1998 to 2011). Search terms included CDH1, E-cadherin, germline mutation, gastric cancer, hereditary, familial and diffuse histotype.

The study included all E-cadherin germline mutations identified in gastric cancer patients; somatic mutations and germline mutations reported in other tumors were excluded.

The method of this study was scheduled in accordance with the "PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses". Countries were classified as low- or middle/high risk-areas for gastric carcinoma incidence. Statistical analysis was performed to correlate the CDH1 mutation frequency with gastric cancer incidence areas.

Results

A total of 122 E-cadherin germline mutations have been identified; the majority (87.5%) occurred in gastric cancers coming from low-risk areas. In high-risk areas, we identified 16 mutations in which missense mutations were predominant. (68.8%). We verified a significant association between the mutation frequency and the gastric cancer risk area (p < 0.001: overall identified mutations in low- vs. middle/high-risk areas).

Conclusions

E-cadherin genetic screenings performed in low-risk areas for gastric cancer identified a higher frequency of CDH1 germline mutations. This data could open new approaches in the gastric cancer prevention test; before proposing a proband candidate for the CDH1 genetic screening, geographic variability, alongside the family history should be considered.

Chromosomal, epigenetic and microRNA-mediated inactivation of LRP1B, a modulator of the extracellular environment of thyroid cancer cells

The low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP1B), encoding an endocytic LDL-family receptor, is among the 10 most significantly deleted genes across 3312 human cancer specimens. However, currently the apparently crucial role of this lipoprotein receptor in carcinogenesis is not clear. Here we show that LRP1B inactivation (by chromosomal, epigenetic and microRNA (miR)-mediated mechanisms) results in changes to the tumor environment that confer cancer cells an increased growth and invasive capacity. LRP1B displays frequent DNA copy number loss and CpG island methylation, resulting in mRNA underexpression. By using CpG island reporters methylated in vitro, we found that DNA methylation disrupts a functional binding site for the histone-acetyltransferase p300 located at intron 1. We identified and validated an miR targeting LRP1B (miR-548a-5p), which is overexpressed in cancer cell lines as a result of 8q22 DNA gains. Restoration of LRP1B impaired in vitro and in vivo tumor growth, inhibited cell invasion and led to a reduction of matrix metalloproteinase 2 in the extracellular medium. We emphasized the role of an endocytic receptor acting as a tumor suppressor by modulating the extracellular environment composition in a way that constrains the invasive behavior of the cancer cells.

De novo expression of CD44 variants in sporadic and hereditary gastric cancer

CD44 is the major ubiquitously expressed cell surface receptor for hyaluronate. The CD44 gene encodes several protein isoforms due to extensive alternative splicing and post-translational modifications. Some of these CD44 variable isoforms have been foreseen as key players in malignant transformation and their expression is highly restricted and highly specific, unlike the canonical CD44 standard isoform. In this study, we aimed at dissecting the mRNA splicing pattern of CD44 in normal stomach and gastric cancer (GC) cell lines (n=9) using cloning and quantitative mRNA amplification assays. Moreover, we assessed the RNA levels and protein expression pattern of relevant splicing forms in distinct premalignant and malignant gastric lesions (sporadic (n=43) and hereditary (n=3) forms) using real-time RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. We also explored the association of CD44 and E-cadherin expression by immunohistochemistry, as E-cadherin has a pivotal functional role in GC. We established the pattern of CD44 variant forms in normal stomach and gastric malignancy. We observed that although exon v6-containing isoforms were rarely expressed in normal gastric mucosa, they became increasingly expressed both in gastric premalignant (hyperplastic polyps, complete and incomplete intestinal metaplasia, low- and high-grade dysplasia) and malignant lesions (cell lines derived from GCs, primary sporadic GCs and hereditary diffuse GCs (HDGCs)). Moreover, we verified that whenever E-cadherin expression was absent, exon v6-containing CD44 isoforms were overexpressed. The lack of expression of CD44 isoforms containing exon v6 in the surface and foveolar epithelia of normal stomach and, its de novo expression in premalignant, as well as in sporadic and hereditary malignant lesions of the stomach, pinpoint CD44 v6-containing isoforms as potential biomarkers for early transformation of the gastric mucosa. Further, our results raise the hypothesis of using CD44v6 as a marker of early invasive intramucosal carcinoma in HDGC CDH1 mutation carriers that lack CDH1 expression in their tumors.

Hereditary diffuse gastric cancer: translation of CDH1 germline mutations into clinical practice

Hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC) is the only known cancer syndrome that is dominated by gastric adenocarcinoma. HDGC is caused by germline mutation of the CDH1 gene that encodes the cell adhesion protein E-cadherin. Mutation carriers have a more than 70% lifetime risk of developing DGC and an elevated risk of lobular breast cancer. Intestinal-type gastric cancer is not part of the syndrome. Clinical management of HDGC involves predictive genetic testing beginning at or near 16 years of age. It is recommended that mutation carriers undergo prophylactic gastrectomy after about 20 years of age. Anatomical mapping has demonstrated that mutation carriers develop multifocal stage T1a signet ring cell carcinomas, with up to several hundred foci being observed in single stomachs. These foci develop following the somatic inactivation of the second CDH1 allele by mechanisms that include DNA promoter hypermethylation.