Salience of emotional displays of danger and contagion in faces is enhanced when progesterone levels are raised

Estrogen predicts multimodal emotion recognition accuracy across the menstrual cycle

Researchers have proposed that variation in sex hormones across the menstrual cycle modulate the ability to recognize emotions in others. Existing research suggests that accuracy is higher during the follicular phase and ovulation compared to the luteal phase, but findings are inconsistent. Using a repeated measures design with a sample of healthy naturally cycling women (N = 63), we investigated whether emotion recognition accuracy varied between the follicular and luteal phases, and whether accuracy related to levels of estrogen (estradiol) and progesterone. Two tasks assessed recognition of a range of positive and negative emotions via brief video recordings presented in visual, auditory, and multimodal blocks, and non-linguistic vocalizations (e.g., laughter, sobs, and sighs). Multilevel models did not show differences in emotion recognition between cycle phases. However, coefficients for estrogen were significant for both emotion recognition tasks. Higher within-person levels of estrogen predicted lower accuracy, whereas higher between-person estrogen levels predicted greater accuracy. This suggests that in general having higher estrogen levels increases accuracy, but that higher-than-usual estrogen at a given time decreases it. Within-person estrogen further interacted with cycle phase for both tasks and showed a quadratic relationship with accuracy for the multimodal task. In particular, women with higher levels of estrogen were more accurate in the follicular phase and middle of the menstrual cycle. We propose that the differing role of within- and between-person hormone levels could explain some of the inconsistency in previous findings.

Investigating the association between hair progesterone, anxiety, sleep quality, and other determinants in South African females

BACKGROUND

Anxiety symptoms and poor sleep quality are common in women. The role of sex hormones, particularly progesterone, in anxiety and sleep quality in women is understudied. Measurement of hair progesterone concentrations (HPC) is a promising method to investigate the effects of progesterone on anxiety symptoms and sleep quality in women.

OBJECTIVES

We analysed sociodemographic, hair-related, and clinical factors associated with HPC and investigated the association between HPC and anxiety severity and sleep quality in a sample of 159 South African women (mean age: 46.5 years; range: 18-79 years).

METHODS

Data were obtained from control participants from the SHARED ROOTS study. HPC were determined using an established liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. Unadjusted and adjusted multiple linear regression models were used to investigate whether sleep quality, measured with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and anxiety, measured with the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), were associated with HPC. Significant sociodemographic, hair-related, and clinical factors were adjusted for.

RESULTS

HPC was significantly associated with age, duration of sample storage, hormonal treatment, postmenopausal status, and the number of different types of trauma exposures in adjusted models. Neither anxiety severity nor sleep quality was significantly associated with HPC.

CONCLUSIONS

Certain demographic, hair related, and clinical factors were associated with HPC and need to be considered in future research using HPC. Although anxiety and sleep were not associated with HPC, greater trauma exposure was associated with higher HPC, suggesting an association between severe stress and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis functioning.

Association between Disgust Sensitivity during Pregnancy and Endogenous Steroids: A Longitudinal Study

The emotion of disgust protects individuals against pathogens, and it has been found to be elevated during pregnancy. Physiological mechanisms discussed in relation to these changes include immune markers and progesterone levels. This study aimed to assess the association between steroids and disgust sensitivity in pregnancy. Using a prospective longitudinal design, we analyzed blood serum steroid concentrations and measured disgust sensitivity via text-based questionnaires in a sample of 179 pregnant women during their first and third trimesters. We found positive correlations between disgust sensitivity and the levels of C19 steroids (including testosterone) and its precursors in the Δ5 pathway (androstenediol, DHEA, and their sulfates) and the Δ4 pathway (androstenedione). Additionally, positive correlations were observed with 5α/β-reduced C19 steroid metabolites in both trimesters. In the first trimester, disgust sensitivity was positively associated with 17-hydroxypregnanolone and with some estrogens. In the third trimester, positive associations were observed with cortisol and immunoprotective Δ5 C19 7α/β-hydroxy-steroids. Our findings show that disgust sensitivity is positively correlated with immunomodulatory steroids, and in the third trimester, with steroids which may be related to potential maternal-anxiety-related symptoms. This study highlights the complex relationship between hormonal changes and disgust sensitivity during pregnancy.

Interaction of sleep and emotion across the menstrual cycle

Menstruating individuals experience an increased risk for sleep and affective disorders, attributed in part to monthly oscillations in sex hormones. Emotional functioning and sleep continuity worsens during the perimenstrual phase of the menstrual cycle. This study examined the interactive effects of sleep, menstrual phase, and emotion in healthy women. Participants (N = 51, 43% Caucasian) aged 18-35 (m = 24 years) completed actigraphy and daily sleep/emotion diaries over two menstrual cycles (m days = 51.29). Diary and actigraphic total wake time at night (TWT) and daily ratings of positive and negative affect were compared across four phases of the menstrual cycle: perimenstrual, mid-follicular, periovulatory, and mid-luteal. Relationships between phase, sleep, and emotion were estimated using multistep hierarchical linear modelling. Mean menstrual cycle length was 28.61 ± 2.69 days. Perimenstrual phase positively predicted anger (p < 0.001) but no other emotions. Additionally, the perimenstrual phase predicted higher rates of TWT, such that diary TWT was 8-16 min longer during the perimenstrual (m = 67.54, SE = 3.37) compared to other phases (p < 0.001). Actigraphic TWT was also increased by 4-7 min (m = 61.54, SE = 3.37) in the perimenstrual phase (p < 0.001). Positive emotions were 0.05-0.10 points lower (p = 0.006-0.02) when TWT was greater in the perimenstrual phase. Greater rates of anger and sleep disruption were seen during the perimenstrual phase compared with other phases. When poor sleep occurred during the perimenstrual phase individuals reported reduced positive emotions. Reducing perimenstrual sleep disruptions may be an important intervention target for those at risk for affective disorders.

Symptoms of premenstrual dysphoric disorder and cycle phase are associated with enhanced facial emotion detection: An online cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder is a depressive disorder affecting 5%-8% of people with menstrual cycles. Despite evidence that facial emotion detection is altered in depressive disorders, with enhanced detection of negative emotions (negativity bias), minimal research exists on premenstrual dysphoric disorder.

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of premenstrual dysphoric disorder symptoms and the premenstrual phase on accuracy and intensity at detection of facial emotions.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional quasi-experimental design.

METHOD

The Facial Emotion Detection Task was administered to 72 individuals assigned female at birth with no premenstrual dysphoric disorder (n = 30), and provisional PMDD (n = 42), based on a retrospective Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition-based measure of premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Facial emotion detection was examined both irrespective of menstrual cycle phase, and as a function of premenstrual phase (yes, no). The task used neutral-to-emotional facial expression morphs (15 images/morph). Participants indicated the emotion detected for each image within the progressive intensity morph. For all six basic emotions (sad, angry, fearful, happy, disgust, and surprise), two scores were calculated: accuracy of responses and the intensity within the morph at which the correct emotion was first detected (image number).

RESULTS

Individuals reporting moderate/severe symptoms of premenstrual dysphoric disorder had more accurate and earlier detection of disgust, regardless of cycle phase. In addition, those with provisional premenstrual dysphoric disorder detected sad emotions earlier. A premenstrual dysphoric disorder group × cycle phase interaction also emerged: individuals reporting premenstrual dysphoric disorder symptoms were more accurate at detecting facial emotions during the premenstrual phase compared to the rest of the cycle, with a large effect size for sad emotions.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest enhanced facial emotion processing in individuals reporting symptoms of premenstrual dysphoric disorder, particularly for sadness and disgust. However, replication is required with larger samples and prospective designs. This premenstrual dysphoric disorder premenstrual emotion detection advantage suggests an adaptive cognitive mechanism in premenstrual syndrome/premenstrual dysphoric disorder, and challenges stigma surrounding premenstrual experiences.

Does the interplay of emotion-related personality traits and reproductive hormones predict individual variation in emotion recognition?

Person-related variation has been identified in many socio-cognitive domains, and there is evidence for links between certain personality traits and individual emotion recognition. Some studies, utilizing the menstrual cycle as a hormonal model, attempted to demonstrate that hormonal fluctuations could predict variations in emotion recognition, but with merely inconsistent findings. Remarkably, the interplay between hormone fluctuations and other person-related factors that could potentially influence emotion recognition remains understudied. In the current study, we examined if the interactions of emotion-related personality traits, namely openness, extraversion, and neuroticism, and the ovulatory cycle predict individual variation in facial emotion recognition in healthy naturally cycling women. We collected salivary ovarian hormones measures from N = 129 (n = 72 validated via LH test) women across their late follicular and mid-luteal phases of the ovulatory cycle. The results revealed a negative association between neuroticism scores and emotion recognition when progesterone levels (within-subject) were elevated. However, the results did not indicate a significant moderating influence of neuroticism, openness, and extraversion on emotion recognition across phases (late follicular vs. mid-luteal) of the menstrual cycle. Additionally, there was no significant interaction between openness or extraversion and ovarian hormone levels in predicting facial emotion recognition. The current study suggests future lines of research to compare these findings in a clinical setting, as both neuroticism and ovarian hormone dysregulation are associated with some psychiatric disorders such as premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD).

Emotion recognition and mood along the menstrual cycle

Previous studies have demonstrated menstrual cycle dependent changes in the recognition of facial emotional expressions, specifically the expression of fear, anger, sadness or disgust. While some studies demonstrate an improvement of emotion recognition performance during the peri-ovulatory phase, when estradiol levels peak, other studies demonstrate a deterioration of emotion recognition performance during the mid-luteal phase, when progesterone levels peak. It has been hypothesized, that these changes in emotion recognition performance mirror mood changes along the menstrual cycle. In the present study, we investigate, whether changes in emotion recognition performance along the menstrual cycle are mediated by mood changes along the menstrual cycle. In a combined cross-sectional and longitudinal study design, two large samples of women completed an emotion recognition task, as well as several mood questionnaires during their menses, peri-ovulatory or mid-luteal cycle phase. 65 women completed the task thrice, once during each cycle phase, order counterbalanced. In order to control for potential learning effects, a sample of 153 women completed the task only once in one of the three cycle phases. In both samples, results demonstrated no significant changes in emotion recognition performance along the menstrual cycle, irrespective of the performance measure investigated (accuracy, reaction time, frequency of emotion classifications) and irrespective of the emotion displayed. Bayesian statistics provided very strong evidence for the null hypothesis, that emotion recognition does not change along the menstrual cycle. There was also no moderation of emotion recognition changes along the menstrual cycle by mood changes along the menstrual cycle. Mood changes along the menstrual cycle followed the expected pattern with highest positive affect and least premenstrual symptoms around ovulation and lowest positive affect, but strongest premenstrual symptoms during menses. Interestingly, premenstrual symptoms were negatively related to estradiol, suggesting a protective effect of estrogen during the luteal cycle phase against mood worsening during the premenstrual phase.

Does emotion recognition change across phases of the ovulatory cycle?

Recognizing emotions is an essential ability for successful interpersonal interaction. Prior research indicates some links between the endocrine system and emotion recognition ability, but only a few studies focused on within-subject differences across distinct ovulatory cycle phases and this ability. These studies have demonstrated mixed results that might be potentially due to heterogeneity in experimental tasks, methodologies, and lacking ecological validity. In the current study, we investigated associations between within-subject differences in ovarian hormones levels and emotion recognition from auditory, visual, and audiovisual modalities in N = 131 naturally cycling participants across the late follicular and mid-luteal phase of the ovulatory cycle. We applied a within-subject design with sessions in the late follicular and mid-luteal cycle phase, and also assessed salivary progesterone and estradiol in these sessions. Our findings did not reveal any significant difference in emotion recognition ability across two cycle phases. Thus, they emphasize the necessity of employing large-scale replication studies with well-established study designs along with proper statistical analyses. Moreover, our findings indicate that the potential link between ovulatory cycle phases (late follicular and mid-luteal) and emotion recognition ability might have been overestimated in previous studies, and may contribute to theoretical and practical implications of socio-cognitive neuroendocrinology.

Reliability of prospective and retrospective maternal reports of prenatal experiences

BACKGROUND

Extant perinatal research utilizes retrospective reports on the prenatal environment, but there are limited data on the validity of retrospective data compared with prospective data. The current study examined the reliability of birth mothers' memory of prenatal stress and distress and perinatal risks at 6-months postpartum with maternal reports gathered across each trimester of pregnancy and explored whether recall varied with maternal socioeconomic status.

METHODS

Surveys were collected from 34 pregnant women (M age = 29.14, SD = 5.06 years, 83% non-Hispanic White) on stress, distress, and pregnancy complications at 12(T1), 26(T2), and 38(T3) weeks of pregnancy, and at 6-month post-partum asking the same questions but specifically about the pregnancy. Cohen's kappa and Pearson's correlations were used to investigate maternal recall at post-partum with prospective reports at T1, T2, T3 and an average score of T1, T2, and T3. Correlations were also examined separately for those with high and relatively lower socioeconomic status.

RESULTS

Birth mothers' recall was generally reliable. Retrospective reports were most strongly related to prospective reports in T1 for perceived stress, T1 and T3 for anxiety symptoms and exposure to toxins, but T3 for depressive symptoms. Recall of pregnancy complications best reflected the average score across trimesters (rather than specific trimesters). Women with higher socioeconomic status better recalled prenatal (di)stress, but women with relatively lower socioeconomic status better recalled exposure to toxins.

CONCLUSION

This study provides support for utilizing retrospective reports of maternal prenatal experiences at 6-months post-partum, with implications for interpretation of specific recalled phenotypes.

Similarities and differences in the induction and regulation of the negative emotions fear and disgust: A functional near infrared spectroscopy study

Affective processing, including induction and regulation of emotion, activates neural networks, induces physiological responses, and generates subjective experience. Dysregulation of these processes can lead to maladaptive behavior and even psychiatric morbidity. Multimodal studies of emotion thus not only help elucidate the nature of emotion, but also contribute to important clinical insights. In the present study, we compared the induction (EI) and effortful regulation (ER) with reappraisal of fear and disgust in healthy subjects using functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in conjunction with electrodermal activity (EDA). During EI, there was significant activation in medial prefrontal cortex (PFC) for fear and more widespread activation for disgust, with right lateral PFC significantly more active during disgust compared to fear. ER was equally effective for fear and disgust reducing subjective emotion rating by roughly 45%. Compared to baseline, there was no increased PFC activity for fear during ER, while for disgust lateral PFC was significantly more active. Significant differences between the two negative emotions were also observed in sympathetic nerve activity as reflected in EDA during EI, but not during ER. Lastly, compared to men, women had higher emotion rating for both fear and disgust without corresponding differences in EDA. In conclusion, in the present study we show that emotion induction was associated with differential activation in both PFC and sympathetic nerve activity for fear and disgust. These differences were however less prominent during emotion regulation. We discuss the potential interpretation of our results and their implications regarding our understanding of negative emotion processing.

The Effect of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Approach-Avoidance Behaviors in Women: Evidence from Conscious and Unconscious Processes

The menstrual cycle affects women’s emotional states, with estrogen and progesterone having predominant roles. However, it remains unclear whether the phases of the menstrual cycle also affect women’s motivational behaviors. In this study, the main aim was to investigate how the menstrual cycle influences approach–avoidance behavior under conditions of conscious versus unconscious processing of emotions. Briefly, after recruitment by advertisement and screening with a menstrual cycle survey questionnaire, 27 naturally cycling, healthy women participated in an improved “manikin task” and were presented both positive and negative emotional stimuli during early follicular, late follicular, and mid-luteal phases. Estrogen and progesterone levels were measured. Women in the late follicular phase exhibited the shortest response times for approaching positive stimuli, while women in the mid-luteal phase exhibited the shortest response times for avoiding negative stimuli. Estrogen and progesterone levels significantly correlated with the speed of the approach–avoidance responses observed for the women, indicating the important role that sex hormones have in mediating emotionally motivated behavior. Overall, these findings suggest that the menstrual cycle has strong and specific influences on women’s approach–avoidance behaviors that are in part mediated by estrogen and progesterone. By identifying characteristics of these behaviors in the late follicular and mid-luteal phases, greater insight can be provided to women regarding the physiological influences of the menstrual cycle on their personal growth and security.

Attentional bias towards appealing and disgusting food cues varies with the menstrual cycle

Ovarian hormonal changes along the female menstrual cycle are believed to adapt women to the external environment through various adaptive strategies, including modulating appetite and eating behavior. We aimed to compare food-associated behavioral responses between two distinct menstrual phases (late follicular vs. mid-luteal) and investigate the underlying neural mechanism. Attentional bias towards visual food cues was repeatedly measured in 29 healthy young women during these two menstrual phases in a counterbalanced manner. Combining an emotional dot-probe task with frequency-tagged electroencephalography (EEG), we confirmed that the menstrual cycle modulated healthy women's attentional bias towards appealing and disgusting food cues. Women in the mid-luteal phase showed more avoidance of disgusting food cues, as reflected by a significantly longer response time. Steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP) results indicated that they exhibited a trend of transiently enhanced attentional bias towards appealing food cues and another trend of speeded attentional withdrawal from disgusting food cues during the mid-luteal phase relative to the late follicular phase, albeit non-significant after correction for multiple testing. Moreover, a significantly larger P3 amplitude was evoked by probes following the presentation of disgusting food cues in the mid-luteal phase than the late follicular phase. These findings indicate divergent attentional deployments on emotional food cues across menstrual phases and suggest the mid-luteal phase as a relatively sensitive stage in the menstrual cycle for women to regulate their appetite and eating behavior.

Oral Contraceptives Modulate the Relationship Between Resting Brain Activity, Amygdala Connectivity and Emotion Recognition – A Resting State fMRI Study

Recent research into the effects of hormonal contraceptives on emotion processing and brain function suggests that hormonal contraceptive users show (a) reduced accuracy in recognizing emotions compared to naturally cycling women, and (b) alterations in amygdala volume and connectivity at rest. To date, these observations have not been linked, although the amygdala has certainly been identified as core region activated during emotion recognition. To assess, whether volume, oscillatory activity and connectivity of emotion-related brain areas at rest are predictive of participant’s ability to recognize facial emotional expressions, 72 participants (20 men, 20 naturally cycling women, 16 users of androgenic contraceptives, 16 users of anti-androgenic contraceptives) completed a brain structural and resting state fMRI scan, as well as an emotion recognition task. Our results showed that resting brain characteristics did not mediate oral contraceptive effects on emotion recognition performance. However, sex and oral contraceptive use emerged as a moderator of brain-behavior associations. Sex differences did emerge in the prediction of emotion recognition performance by the left amygdala amplitude of low frequency oscillations (ALFF) for anger, as well as left and right amygdala connectivity for fear. Anti-androgenic oral contraceptive users (OC) users stood out in that they showed strong brain-behavior associations, usually in the opposite direction as naturally cycling women, while androgenic OC-users showed a pattern similar to, but weaker, than naturally cycling women. This result suggests that amygdala ALFF and connectivity have predictive values for facial emotion recognition. The importance of the different connections depends heavily on sex hormones and oral contraceptive use.

Facial threat affects trust more strongly than facial attractiveness in women than it does in men

Trust is essential in initiating social relationships. Due to the differential evolution of sex hormones as well as the fitness burdens of producing offspring, evaluations of a potential mating partner's trustworthiness likely differ across sexes. Here, we explore unknown sex-specific effects of facial attractiveness and threat on trusting other-sex individuals. Ninety-three participants (singles; 46 women) attracted by the other sex performed an incentivized trust game. They had to decide whether to trust individuals of the other sex represented by a priori-created face stimuli gradually varying in the intensities of both attractiveness and threat. Male and female participants trusted attractive and unthreatening-looking individuals more often. However, whereas male participants' trust behavior was affected equally by attractiveness and threat, female participants' trust behavior was more strongly affected by threat than by attractiveness. This indicates that a partner's high facial attractiveness might compensate for high facial threat in male but not female participants. Our findings suggest that men and women prioritize attractiveness and threat differentially, with women paying relatively more attention to threat cues inversely signaling parental investment than to attractiveness cues signaling reproductive fitness. This difference might be attributable to an evolutionary, biologically sex-specific decision regarding parental investment and reproduction behavior.

Sex-hormone status and emotional processing in healthy women

Fluctuations of sex hormones across the menstrual cycle allow investigating the role of 17-β estradiol and progesterone in emotional processing. We examined emotional memory, empathy-related measures, as well as mimic and skin-conductance responses to affective stimuli in 72 women either in the mid-cycle (MC-group: moderate to high estradiol, low progesterone), the later cycle (LC-group: high progesterone, moderate estradiol), or during oral contraceptive use (OC-group: low endogenous ovarian-hormone levels). In the first session, affective pictures were presented (memory encoding) while recording mimic and skin-conductance responses. Additionally, participants were exposed to a post-encoding stressor (cold pressor test). After 24 h, we tested surprise recall as well as empathy-related performance. Emotional memory was not affected by the hormone-status group, stressor, or salivary hormone levels. For the cognitive empathy-related measure, hormone status interacted with the protagonist gender. Women in the LC- and OC-groups identified emotions more accurately if depicted by female protagonists, yet the MC-group identified emotions depicted by men and women equally well. Correspondingly, the number of correctly identified emotions from male protagonists correlated positively with estradiol levels. In the affective empathy-related ratings, the OC-group showed a negativity bias, rating negative (vs. positive) emotions higher, although not associated with hormone levels. Mimic responses were not modulated by hormone-status group or related to hormone levels. Skin-conductance responses to negative pictures were heightened in the LC-group and correlated positively with progesterone levels. These data suggest a differential impact of female sex hormones on emotional processing, i.e., empathy-related performance and affective sympathetic reactivity, but not in emotional memory or affective mimic reactivity.

Alpha neural oscillation of females in the luteal phase is sensitive to high risk during sequential risk decisions

Risk taking is a non-negligible component in decision-making. Previous behavioral studies have demonstrated that female's risk decisions vary along with their menstrual cycle phases. However, little is known how females' neural processes of risk stimuli change in different menstrual cycle phases. To address this, the present study adopted a sequential economic risk-taking task and EEG technique. Thirty eligible female participants completed the task twice with EEG recordings, once in the late follicular phase and once in the midluteal phase, separately. We found that the risk stimuli induced an evident frontal N1 in the early time window of 90-180 ms. The results on N1 showed no significant difference between two phases for low- and medium-risk stimuli; whereas, for high-risk stimuli, females in midluteal phase exhibited a significantly larger N1 than that in late follicular phase. Further, by exploiting time-frequency transformation, we observed a pronounced low alpha (∼8 Hz) activity in frontal area from stimuli onset to 175 ms. The results indicated that, only for high-risk stimuli, the alpha power was significantly greater in midluteal phase than that in late follicular phase. Our neural results demonstrated a stronger early neural response to high-risk stimuli of females in midluteal phase, which suggests women are more sensitive to high risk in midluteal than in late follicular phase.

Facial Emotion Recognition and Emotional Memory From the Ovarian-Hormone Perspective: A Systematic Review

Background

We review original papers on ovarian-hormone status in two areas of emotional processing: facial emotion recognition and emotional memory. Ovarian-hormone status is operationalized by the levels of the steroid sex hormones 17β-estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4), fluctuating over the natural menstrual cycle and suppressed under oral contraceptive (OCs) use. We extend previous reviews addressing single areas of emotional processing. Moreover, we systematically examine the role of stimulus features such as emotion type or stimulus valence and aim at elucidating factors that reconcile the inconsistent results.

Methods

We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and included papers published until September 2020 indexed in PubMed and Web of Science databases. Search terms were MeSH terms (emotional OR emotion) AND (X) AND (estrogen OR progesterone OR menstrual cycle OR oral contraceptives) with (X) representing our separately searched areas, resulting in (processing OR recognition OR empathy), and (memory OR recall). To be included, articles had to (1) be written and published in English, (2) examine healthy, non-pregnant adult women in their reproductive age, and (3) measure or at least estimate levels of E2 and P4. In PubMed, the search was (4) limited to humans and (5) to the search term present in the title or abstract.

Results

Features of the provided stimulus material (emotion type and/or valence) constitute a relevant influence that interacts with E2- and P4-related ovarian-hormone status. For instance, recognition of basic emotions appears to be more related to P4- than E2-levels. Quite consistent, OC intake (vs. natural menstrual cycling) was accompanied by impaired recognition accuracy of basic and also complex emotions, although not in a recent large-sample study assessing complex emotions. Memory recall of negative content was mainly enhanced by P4, especially after having been stressed.

Discussion and Conclusion

We document the methodological diversity in the field, presumably contributing to the heterogeneity of results. More studies explicitly contrasting the early follicular phase, mid-cycle phase, mid-luteal, and OC intake while standardizing tasks are needed. Research would take advantage of using within-subject designs and accounting for the recognition of complex emotions.

Social Orientation in the Luteal Phase: Increased Social Feedback Sensitivity, Inhibitory Response, Interpersonal Anxiety and Cooperation Preference

Cyclical fluctuations of the ovarian hormones estrogen (E2) and progesterone (PROG) have multiple effects on reproduction and development. However, little is known about the roles of E2 and PROG in women's social behaviors. Here, based on evolutionary theory suggesting social sensitivity and inhibition ability are conductive to maintaining social relationships, we provide evidence for the association between menstrual phases and social orientation. In Study 1, 78 women provided saliva samples and reported their intensity of behavioral activation/inhibition system (BAS/BIS) and interpersonal sensitivity at either of two phases of the menstrual cycle: late follicular phase (FP), and mid-luteal phase (LP). A significant between-subject association emerged, revealing that women with higher PROG levels reported higher levels of social feedback sensitivity, and women with relatively high PROG levels showed a positive association between their E2 levels and inhibitory response. In Study 2, 30 women reported their interpersonal anxiety and finished the social value orientation (SVO) measures at both late FP and mid-LP. A significant within-person effect emerged: women in the mid-LP, which is characterized by higher PROG levels, reported higher levels of interpersonal anxiety and SVO. In sum, these findings revealed that women's social orientation could fluctuate naturally with ovarian hormones across the menstrual cycle.

Differential effects of progesterone on social recognition and the avoidance of pathogen threat by female mice

Although pathogen threat affects social and sexual responses across species, relatively little is known about the underlying neuroendocrine mechanisms. Progesterone has been speculated to be involved in the mediation of pathogen disgust in women, though with mixed experimental support. Here we considered the effects of acute progesterone on the disgust-like avoidance responses of female mice to pathogen threat. Estrous female mice discriminated and avoided the urinary and associated odors of males subclinically infected with the murine nematode parasite, Heligmosomoides polygyrus. These avoidance responses were not significantly affected by pre-treatment with progesterone. Likewise, brief (1 min) exposure to the odors of infected males attenuated the subsequent responses of females to the odors of the normally preferred unfamiliar males and enhanced their preferences for familiar males. Neither progesterone nor allopregnanolone, a central neurosteroid metabolite of progesterone, had any significant effects on the avoidance of unfamiliar males elicited by pre-exposure to a parasitized male. Progesterone and allopregnanolone, did, however, significantly attenuate the typical preferences of estrous females for unfamiliar uninfected males, suggestive of effects on social recognition. These findings with mice indicate that progesterone may have minimal effects on the responses to specific parasite threat and the expression of pathogen disgust but may influence more general social recognition and preferences.

Pathogens, odors, and disgust in rodents

All animals are under the constant threat of attack by parasites. The mere presence of parasite threat can alter behavior before infection takes place. These effects involve pathogen disgust, an evolutionarily conserved affective/emotional system that functions to detect cues associated with parasites and infection and facilitate avoidance behaviors. Animals gauge the infection status of conspecific and the salience of the threat they represent on the basis of various sensory cues. Odors in particular are a major source of social information about conspecifics and the infection threat they present. Here we briefly consider the origins, expression, and regulation of the fundamental features of odor mediated pathogen disgust in rodents. We briefly review aspects of: (1) the expression of affective states and emotions and in particular, disgust, in rodents; (2) olfactory mediated recognition and avoidance of potentially infected conspecifics and the impact of pathogen disgust and its' fundamental features on behavior; (3) pathogen disgust associated trade-offs; (4) the neurobiological mechanisms, and in particular the roles of the nonapeptide, oxytocin, and steroidal hormones, in the expression of pathogen disgust and the regulation of avoidance behaviors and concomitant trade-offs. Understanding the roles of pathogen disgust in rodents can provide insights into the regulation and expression of responses to pathogens and infection in humans.

High progesterone levels facilitate women's social information processing by optimizing attention allocation

Ovarian hormones exert an influence on social information processing, in which, however, the exact roles of estradiol and progesterone remain unclear. This study examines the specific influences of these two ovarian hormones on social information processing across the menstrual cycle using the emotional face flanker task and attentional network test (ANT). Twenty-six naturally cycling, healthy women were tested thrice: during menses, in the follicular phase, and in the luteal phase. In the emotional face flanker task, a significant positive relation was found between progesterone levels and reaction times (RTs) for sad faces, suggesting that high progesterone levels may activate the social monitoring system and allocate more attention to the social stimulus, which benefits individuals' survival and adaptation. In the ANT, a significant increase was found in RTs and accuracy during the luteal phase, suggesting that luteal women increase this accuracy by exerting a relatively conservative strategy of allocating more attention to the targets. Taken together, these findings indicate that high levels of progesterone may facilitate social information processing by optimizing attention allocation. Moreover, overactivation of the social monitoring system may make women more susceptible to stressors and promote affective disturbances, which may provide underlying pathophysiology of the premenstrual dysphoric disorder.

Gender identity better than sex explains individual differences in episodic and semantic components of autobiographical memory: An fMRI study

Advances in the literature of sex-related differences in autobiographical memory increasingly tend to highlight the importance of psychosocial factors such as gender identity, which may explain these differences better than sex as a biological factor. To date, however, none of these behavioral studies have investigated this hypothesis using neuroimaging. The purpose of this fMRI study is to examine for the first time sex and gender identity-related differences in episodic and semantic autobiographical memory in healthy participants (M=19, W=18). No sex-related differences were found; however, sex-related effects of masculine and feminine gender identity were identified in men and women independently. These results confirm the hypothesis that differences in episodic and semantic autobiographical memory are best explained by gender but are an interaction between biological sex and gender identity and extend these findings to the field of neuroimaging. We discuss the importance of hormonal factors to be taken into consideration in the future.

Progesterone - Friend or foe?

Estradiol is the "prototypic" sex hormone of women. Yet, women have another sex hormone, which is often disregarded: Progesterone. The goal of this article is to provide a comprehensive review on progesterone, and its metabolite allopregnanolone, emphasizing three key areas: biological properties, main functions, and effects on mood in women. Recent years of intensive research on progesterone and allopregnanolone have paved the way for new treatment of postpartum depression. However, treatment for premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder as well as contraception that women can use without risking mental health problems are still needed. As far as progesterone is concerned, we might be dealing with a two-edged sword: while its metabolite allopregnanolone has been proven useful for treatment of PPD, it may trigger negative symptoms in women with PMS and PMDD. Overall, our current knowledge on the beneficial and harmful effects of progesterone is limited and further research is imperative.

Females’ menstrual cycle and incentive salience: Insights on neural reaction towards erotic pictures and effects of gonadal hormones

Background

Studies in regard to womens’ neural reactivity to erotic and other positive emotional cues in association with sexual hormones are relatively rare and findings rather inconclusive. Concerning the neural reactions towards erotic stimuli, the late positive potential (LPP) is seen as the most relevant ERP-component: More positive amplitudes are supposed to reflect larger motivational salience and higher arousal in reaction to the presented stimuli. Therefore, it was expected that the LPP in reaction to erotic pictures would be more pronounced during fertile periods of the menstrual cycle around ovulation, as well as to be associated with estradiol-levels. A similar pattern was hypothesized to be present with testosterone-levels, whereas no association with progesterone was expected.

Method

N ​= ​35 free-cycling women completed an Erotic picture Stroop task (neutral, positive, and erotic stimuli, with three neutral- and three erotic subcategories) during follicular phase, ovulation and luteal phase, while EEG was recorded. Subjects provided saliva samples in order to determine estradiol-, progesterone-, and testosterone levels at each measuring time, and affective states were assessed using the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS).

Results

LPPs in reaction to erotic-compared to positive- and neutral pictures were larger in every cycle phase. LPPs in reaction to erotic couples were strongest in comparison to every other (sub-) category. During ovulation, higher estradiol-concentrations were associated with lower LPP-amplitudes towards erotic-couples- than to neutral pictures. No effects of progesterone, no direct effect of testosterone, as well as no effects of cycle phase, were evident.

Conclusion

Results partly contradict our hypotheses, as estradiol was expected to be positively associated with LPP during fertile stages. Possible differences between stimulus-entities (words v. pictures) and ideas for further research are being discussed.

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Associations of LPP-amplitudes in reaction to erotic (vs. neutral) pictures with estradiol.

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Higher Estradiol concentrations are associated with blunted LPP-amplitudes towards erotic pictures during ovulation.

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Progesterone is not associated with the reactivity towards erotic pictures in the LPP.

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Cycle phase is not associated with the reactivity towards erotic pictures in the LPP.

Kinetics of oxytocin effects on amygdala and striatal reactivity vary between women and men

Accumulating evidence suggests that intranasal oxytocin (OXT; 24 IU) reduces amygdala responses to fear-related stimuli in men, while exerting inverse effects in women. However, OXT enhances activity of the brain reward system in both sexes. Importantly, a crucial and still open question is whether there are sex-specific dose-response relationships for the amygdala and striatal regions. To address this question, a total of 90 healthy women participated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study and the results were compared with our previous findings from men. Participants were randomly assigned to three doses of OXT (6 IU, 12 IU, and 24 IU) and completed an emotional face recognition task including fearful and happy faces of varying emotional intensities. Across doses, OXT enhanced amygdala reactivity to low fearful faces compared to placebo and increased responses to happy faces in the dorsal striatum in women. While treatment effects on amygdala reactivity were evident at each given dose, the OXT effect on striatal responses to social stimuli was more pronounced with higher doses, but this dose-dependent effect did not survive correction for multiple comparisons. Importantly, OXT effects on amygdala and striatal activation significantly differed between sexes and striatal baseline sexual-dimorphic response patterns were diminished after administration of OXT. Our findings suggest that OXT increases the salience of social signals by strengthening the sensitivity for these signals in the amygdala and in the striatum in women, while OXT may primarily induce anxiolysis by reducing amygdala responses in men.

Oxytocin increases emotional theory of mind, but only for low socioeconomic status individuals

Studies have linked oxytocin to emotional theory of mind (eToM) — the ability to recognise and understand others' emotions. However, multiple replications have so far failed to reach a consistent result. Growing evidence suggests that oxytocin's positive effects on social-emotional tasks such as eToM are highly dependent on trait-level individual differences. In the present study, we theorised that socioeconomic status (SES) could influence oxytocin's impact on emotional mentalising processes. We tested our hypothesis in a double-blind between–subjects oxytocin nasal spray study on 147 Caucasian white male participants in the United Kingdom. In accordance with our hypothesis, we found that oxytocin (as compared to placebo) did boost emotional theory of mind, but only in people from low subjective SES backgrounds. Our results expand existing theory on how individual differences moderate oxytocin's role on social behaviours.

The role of oxytocin in the facial mimicry of affiliative vs. non-affiliative emotions

The present paper builds upon a growing body of work documenting oxytocin's role in social functioning, to test whether this hormone facilitates spontaneous mimicry of others' emotional expressions. In a double-blind, randomized trial, adult Caucasian males (n = 145) received a nasal spray of either oxytocin or placebo before completing a facial mimicry task. Facial expressions were coded using automated face analysis. Oxytocin increased mimicry of facial features of sadness (lips and chin, but not areas around the eyes), an affiliative reaction that facilitates social bonding. Oxytocin also increased mimicry of happiness, but only for individuals who expressed low levels of happiness in response to neutral faces. Overall, participants did not reliably mimic expressions of fear and anger, echoing recent theoretical accounts of emotional mimicry as dependent on the social context. In sum, our findings suggest that oxytocin facilitates emotional mimicry in ways that are conducive to affiliation, pointing to a possible pathway through which oxytocin promotes social bonding.

Electrophysiological and Behavioral Indices of the Role of Estrogens on Memory Processes for Emotional Faces in Healthy Young Women

It is well known that estrogens influence cognitive activities, such as memory, and emotional states. The objective of the present study was to investigate the role of estrogens in the short-term memory processing of basic emotional face expressions, by means of event-related potentials (ERPs) and a recognition memory (RM) behavioral task. Healthy young women were divided into a periovulatory (PO) group, characterized by high levels of estrogens and low levels of progesterone, and an early follicular (EF) group, characterized by low levels of both estrogens and progesterone. During the RM task, all subjects viewed images of faces expressing six basic emotions (happiness, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise, fear) and one neutral expression while their electrophysiological activity was recorded. We considered P300 components, amplitude, and latency in response to each stimulus. Soon after the presentation of each stimulus face, a target image was presented, consisting of two faces, one of which was the same, while the other was a chimerical face, obtained by mixing the upper or lower halves of the faces of the stimulus image with a different emotion. The subjects had to choose between the two alternatives, and the reaction time (RT) and accuracy of response (RM errors) were measured. The main findings of this study showed that P300 amplitudes are significantly higher in response to the expressions of happiness, but significantly lower for sadness, in PO compared to EF. The P300 data are consistent with performance in the RM task and with the measures of RT. The interest in the emotion of happiness, unlike sadness, during the PO phase may reflect the evolutionary significance of female sex hormones linked to mating behavior.

Do women expose themselves to more health-related risks in certain phases of the menstrual cycle? A meta-analytic review

Researchers have increasingly examined the menstrual cycle as a potential source of day-to-day variation in women's cognitions, motivations, and behavior. Within this literature, several lines of research have examined the impact of the menstrual cycle on women's engagement in activities that could negatively affect their health (alcohol and tobacco consumption, sexual behavior, risk recognition). However, findings have been mixed, leaving it unclear whether women may expose themselves to more health-related risks during certain phases of the cycle. We conducted a meta-analysis of 22 published and four unpublished studies (N = 7529, https://osf.io/xr37j/). The meta-analysis revealed shifts across the menstrual cycle in women's sexual behavior with others and risk recognition (higher in ovulatory phase), whereas there was no consistent pattern of difference for alcohol and cigarette consumption. These findings help to clarify the proximate physiological and evolutionary mechanisms underlying women's health-related risk-taking and may inform new interventions.

Phase of the menstrual cycle affects engagement of attention with emotional images

Changes that occur during the menstrual cycle affect various aspects of behavior, cognition, and emotion. Here, we focused on potential differences between early follicular and midluteal phases in the way women process images of behaviorally relevant content categories: children, threat, disgust, erotic scenes, low- and high-calorie food. Using eye-tracking, we examined women's engagement of attention in the key region of each image in a free-viewing condition. Specifically, we tested how quickly attention was attracted to these regions and for how long it was held there. Participants took part in two experimental sessions, one in the early follicular and one in the midluteal phase. The results showed that in the midluteal phase attention was attracted to the key region earlier than in the early follicular phase: the first fixation more often fell within the key region and there were fewer fixations preceding it. While the effect of the phase in terms of the capture of attention did not depend on the image category, the effect regarding the hold of attention was category-specific, concerning the disgust category only. Specifically, in the midluteal phase the duration of the exploration of the key region between reaching it for the first time and first exiting it was shorter, which might be due to heightened sensitivity to disgusting stimuli in this period. Overall, our results indicate the occurrence of changes in attentional processing of emotional scenes related to the menstrual cycle, which seem to differ depending on the aspect of attention deployment: in the midluteal phase the effect of enhancing orienting was general and concerned any important visual information, whereas the effect of the shortened hold of attention appeared to be limited to specific content.

Expecting and Competing? Jealous Responses Among Pregnant and Nonpregnant Women

In the current study, we reasoned that when pregnant, women should be especially motivated to protect their reproductive investments as well as their pair bond and be vigilant about intrasexual competitors. To investigate this, pregnant women ( n = 66) and nonpregnant women ( n = 59; age M = 27.41, SD = 3.36) in committed relationships read a jealousy-evoking scenario that was accompanied by a picture of either an attractive or an unattractive woman, after which they indicated their jealousy about such a situation. Moreover, we asked whether a mate's emotional infidelity would evoke more jealousy than his sexual infidelity. The results showed that for pregnant women, both rivals evoked similar amounts of jealousy, whereas nonpregnant women's jealousy was mainly evoked by the attractive rival. Moreover, pregnant women indicated they would be most upset by their partner's emotional infidelity, and especially if they were previously exposed to the attractive rival. Nonpregnant women considered both types of infidelity equally upsetting. These results emphasize the adaptive function of jealousy and extend the literature on the influence of a rival's attractiveness on women's jealousy by focusing on the experiences of pregnant women.

Cognitive costs of reproduction: life-history trade-offs explain cognitive decline during pregnancy in women

Life-history theory predicts that access to limited resources leads to trade-offs between competing body functions. Women, who face higher costs of reproduction when compared to men, should be especially vulnerable to these trade-offs. We propose the 'cognitive costs of reproduction hypothesis', which states that energy trade-offs imposed by reproduction may lead to a decline in maternal cognitive function during gestation. In particular, we hypothesize that the decline in cognitive function frequently observed during pregnancy is associated with the allocation of resources between the competing energetic requirements of the mother's brain and the developing foetus. Several distinctive anatomical and physiological features including a high metabolic rate of the brain, large infant size, specific anatomical features of the placenta and trophoblast, and the lack of maternal control over glucose flow through the placenta make the occurrence of these trade-offs likely. Herein, we review several lines of evidence for trade-offs between gestation and cognition that are related to: (i) energy metabolism during reproduction; (ii) energy metabolism of the human brain; (iii) links between energy metabolism and cognitive function; and (iv) links between gestation and cognitive function. We also review evidence for the important roles of cortisol, corticotropin-releasing hormone and sex hormones in mediating the effects of gestation on cognition, and we discuss possible neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the observed effects. The evidence supports the view that energy trade-offs between foetal growth and maternal endocrine and brain function lead to changes in maternal cognition, and that this phenomenon is mediated by neuroendocrine mechanisms involving the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, brainstem nucleus locus coeruleus and hippocampus.

Sensitivity to Deviance and to Dissimilarity: Basic Cognitive Processes Under Activation of the Behavioral Immune System

Throughout evolutionary history, pathogens have imposed strong selection pressures on humans. To minimize humans' exposure to pathogens, a behavioral immune system that promotes the detection and avoidance of disease-connoting cues has evolved. Although most pathogens cannot be discerned by our sensory organs, they produce discernable changes in their environment. As a result, a common denominator of many disease-connoting cues is morphological deviance-figurative disparity from what is normal, visual dissimilarity to the prototype stored in memory. Drawing on an evolutionary rationale, we examine the hypothesis that activation of the behavioral immune system renders people more sensitive to morphological deviance and more prone to perceive dissimilarities between stimuli. In Study 1 ( N = 343), participants who scored higher on disgust sensitivity demonstrated greater differentiation between normal and disfigured faces, reflecting greater sensitivity to morphological deviance in the bodily domain. In Study 2 ( N = 109), participants who were primed with pathogen threat demonstrated greater differentiation between perfect and imperfect geometrical shapes, reflecting greater sensitivity to morphological deviance even in stimuli that have nothing to do with health or disease. In Study 3 ( N = 621), participants who scored higher on disgust sensitivity perceived pairs of neutral pictures as less similar (i.e., more dissimilar) to each other. Literature on the relations to social deviance and implications for social perception and for social behavior is discussed.

Estradiol moderates the relationship between state-trait anxiety and attentional bias to threat in women

Anxiety disorders are characterized by impaired fear extinction and heightened attentional allocation to threatening stimuli. The sex hormones estradiol and progesterone modulate fear extinction in female rats and women; whether these hormones are similarly related to attentional biases to threat has not been examined. In the present study 74 women (53 cycling, 21 using hormonal contraception), and a comparison group of 30 men, completed standard assessments of state-trait anxiety, as well symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress, followed by a computerized assessment of attentional bias, the dot-probe task. Women's endogenous estradiol and progesterone levels were ascertained by a blood sample. No differences in attentional bias were found dependent on sex or hormonal contraceptive use. Estradiol was the only variable measured that was independently positively correlated with attentional bias to threat. Regression analyses revealed a bi-directional relationship between state-trait anxiety, symptoms of anxiety and stress, and attentional bias that was moderated by estradiol, such that a positive relationship was observed amongst women with higher estradiol, and a negative relationship was observed amongst women with lower estradiol. Together, these results indicate that under conditions of anxiety and stress, women may attend to threat differently depending on endogenous estradiol levels, being avoidant when estradiol is lower, and vigilant when estradiol is higher. A more nuanced understanding of the role for attention in anxiety disorders amongst women may be developed by taking hormonal status into consideration.

Sex hormones play a role in vulnerability to sleep loss on emotion processing tasks

The central aim of this study was to investigate hormones as a predictor of individual vulnerability or resiliency on emotion processing tasks following one night of sleep restriction. The restriction group was instructed to sleep 3 a.m.-7 a.m. (13 men, 13 women in follicular phase, 10 women in luteal phase of menstrual cycle), and a control group slept 11 p.m.-7 a.m. (12 men, 12 follicular women, 12 luteal women). Sleep from home was verified with actigraphy. Saliva samples were collected on the evening prior to restriction, and in the morning and afternoon following restriction, to measure testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone. In the laboratory, event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded during presentation of images and faces to index neural processing of emotional stimuli. Compared to controls, sleep-restricted participants had a larger amplitude Late Positive Potential (LPP) ERP to positive vs neutral images, reflecting greater motivated attention towards positive stimuli. Sleep-restricted participants were also less accurate categorizing sad faces and exhibited a larger N170 to sad faces, reflecting greater neural reactivity. Sleep-restricted luteal women were less accurate categorizing all images compared to control luteal women, and progesterone was related to several outcomes. Morning testosterone in men was lower in the sleep-restricted group compared to controls; lower testosterone was associated with lower accuracy to positive images, a greater difference between positive vs neutral LPP amplitude, and lower accuracy to sad and fearful faces. In summary, women higher in progesterone and men lower in testosterone were more vulnerable to the effects of sleep restriction on emotion processing tasks. This study highlights a role for sex and sex hormones in understanding individual differences in vulnerability to sleep loss.

Progesterone and women's anxiety across the menstrual cycle

Animal models and a few human investigations suggest progesterone may be associated with anxiety. Progesterone naturally fluctuates across the menstrual cycle, offering an opportunity to understand how within-person increases in progesterone and average progesterone levels across the cycle correspond to women's anxiety. Across two longitudinal studies, we simultaneously modeled the between- and within-person associations between progesterone and anxiety using multilevel modeling. In Study 1, 100 Polish women provided saliva samples and reported their anxiety at three phases of the menstrual cycle: follicular, peri-ovulatory, and luteal. A significant between-person effect emerged, revealing that women with higher average progesterone levels across their cycles reported higher levels of anxiety than women with lower progesterone cycles. This effect held controlling for estradiol. In Study 2, 61 American women provided saliva samples and reported their attachment anxiety during laboratory sessions during the same three cycle phases. A significant between-person and within-person association emerged: women with higher average progesterone levels reported higher levels of attachment anxiety, and as women's progesterone levels increased across their cycles, so too did their attachment anxiety. These effects held controlling for cortisol. In sum, both studies provide support for a link between menstrual cycle progesterone levels and subjective anxiety.

Fluctuations of estradiol during women's menstrual cycle: Influences on reactivity towards erotic stimuli in the late positive potential

BACKGROUND

While several studies examined the reactivity towards negative emotional stimuli across women's menstrual cycle, only few investigated responses to positive emotional cues in association with sexual hormones on a neural level. Therefore, the aim of the current EEG-experiment was to study the differential reactivity towards positive (erotic) words during the menstrual cycle (i.e. with fluctuations in the steroids estradiol and progesterone) in the late positive potential (LPP). Regarding reactivity towards erotic stimuli, the LPP is seen as the most relevant ERP-component, as more positive amplitudes in the LPP reflect larger incentive salience and higher arousal. The LPP towards erotic words was expected to be more pronounced during fertile phases of the menstrual cycle (around ovulation). Furthermore, associations with hormonal concentrations of estradiol and progesterone were investigated.

METHOD

19 young, free cycling women were tested in an Erotic Stroop paradigm during the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase in a balanced cross-over design, while electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded.

RESULTS

LPPs in reaction to erotic compared to neutral words were larger in every phase. During the follicular phase and ovulation, higher estradiol-concentrations were associated with more positive LPP-amplitudes towards erotic- than to neutral words. No effects of progesterone, as well as no effects of cycle phase, were evident. Results are being discussed regarding implications for further research.

Sex Hormones and Processing of Facial Expressions of Emotion: A Systematic Literature Review

Background: We systematically reviewed the literature to determine the influence of sex hormones on facial emotion processing (FEP) in healthy women at different phases of life. Methods: Searches were performed in PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, LILACS, and SciELO. Twenty-seven articles were included in the review and allocated into five different categories according to their objectives and sample characteristics (menstrual cycle, oral contraceptives, pregnancy/postpartum, testosterone, and progesterone). Results: Despite the limited number of studies in some categories and the existence of inconsistencies in the results of interest, the findings of the review suggest that FEP may be enhanced during the follicular phase. Studies with women taking oral contraceptives showed reduced recognition accuracy and decreased responsiveness of different brain structures during FEP tasks. Studies with pregnant women and women in the postpartum showed that hormonal changes are associated with alterations in FEP and in brain functioning that could indicate the existence of a hypervigilant state in new and future mothers. Exogenous administration of testosterone enhanced the recognition of threatening facial expressions and the activation of brain structures involved in the processing of emotional stimuli. Conclusions: We conclude that sex hormones affect FEP in women, which may have an impact in adaptive processes of the species and in the onset of mood symptoms associated with the premenstrual syndrome.

The Effects of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Processing of Emotional Images

Abstract. The ovarian hormone levels can affect subjective ratings and modulate late positive potential (LPP) amplitudes evoked by images of varying appeal. The present study examines how different progesterone levels influence the valence, arousal ratings and mean LPP amplitudes evoked by pleasant, neutral, and unpleasant images. Twenty-three healthy females were grouped by menstrual cycle days (estradiol and progesterone levels): 10 were included in the follicular phase group and 13 were included in the luteal phase group. Each female rated the affective images in terms of valence and arousal while event-related potentials (ERPs) were measured. The valence ratings of pleasant images were higher in follicular phase group than in luteal, but the same effect was not seen in the arousal ratings. The arousal ratings to unpleasant images were higher than those to pleasant in luteal, but not in follicular phase group. However, the mean amplitude of the early LPP (450–700 ms) was significantly greater to pleasant than to neutral and unpleasant stimuli, but did not differ between follicular and luteal phase groups. The mean amplitude of the late LPP (700–950 ms) was significantly larger to pleasant and unpleasant compared to neutral images, but did not differ between menstrual cycle phase groups. Correlation analysis showed a significant negative relationship between progesterone levels and arousal ratings of pleasant and unpleasant images in luteal phase group. Arousal scores for unpleasant images negatively correlated with mean LPP amplitudes to unpleasant images at Pz site in the luteal phase group. The present study provides evidence that subjective ratings of affective images of different attractiveness could be influenced by female menstrual cycle phase, but mean amplitudes of LPP (450–950 ms) are not affected. However, results of correlational analysis suggest that valence, arousal ratings and mean LPP amplitudes are susceptible to the influence of hormone progesterone in luteal phase.

Predictions penetrate perception: Converging insights from brain, behaviour and disorder

It is argued that during ongoing visual perception, the brain is generating top-down predictions to facilitate, guide and constrain the processing of incoming sensory input. Here we demonstrate that these predictions are drawn from a diverse range of cognitive processes, in order to generate the richest and most informative prediction signals. This is consistent with a central role for cognitive penetrability in visual perception. We review behavioural and mechanistic evidence that indicate a wide spectrum of domains-including object recognition, contextual associations, cognitive biases and affective state-that can directly influence visual perception. We combine these insights from the healthy brain with novel observations from neuropsychiatric disorders involving visual hallucinations, which highlight the consequences of imbalance between top-down signals and incoming sensory information. Together, these lines of evidence converge to indicate that predictive penetration, be it cognitive, social or emotional, should be considered a fundamental framework that supports visual perception.

The Influence of Menstrual Cycle and Androstadienone on Female Stress Reactions: An fMRI Study

Communicating threats and stress via biological signaling is common in animals. In humans, androstadienone (ANDR), a synthetic male steroid, is a socially relevant chemosignal exhibited to increase positive mood and cortisol levels specifically in (periovulatory) females in positively arousing contexts. In a negative context, we expected that such effects of ANDR could amplify social evaluative threat depending on the stress sensitivity, which differs between menstrual cycle phases. Therefore, this fMRI study aimed to examine psychosocial stress reactions on behavioral, hormonal and neural levels in 31 naturally cycling females, between 15 early follicular (EF) and 16 mid-luteal (ML) females tested with ANDR and placebo treatment in a repeated-measures design. Regardless of odor stimulation, psychosocial stress (i.e., mental arithmetic task with social evaluative threat) led to elevated negative mood and anxiety in all females. A negative association of social threat related amygdala activation and competence ratings appeared in ML-females, indicating enhanced threat processing by ANDR, particularly in ML-females who felt less competent early in the stress experience. Further, ML-females showed reduced performance and stronger stress-related hippocampus activation compared to EF-females under ANDR. Hippocampal activation in ML-females also correlated positively with post-stress subjective stress. Contrarily, such patterns were not observed in EF-females or under placebo in either group. Strikingly, unlike passive emotional processing, ANDR in a stressful context decreased cortisol concentration in all females. This points to a more complex interaction of ovarian/gonadal hormones in social threat processing and stress reactivity. Our findings suggest that ANDR enhanced initial evaluation of self-related social threat in ML-females. Female stress reactions are related to stress sensitivity through enhanced awareness and processing of social cues in a stressful context, with menstrual cycle phase being a critical factor.

Convergent evidence for top-down effects from the "predictive brain"

Modern conceptions of brain function consider the brain as a "predictive organ," where learned regularities about the world are utilised to facilitate perception of incoming sensory input. Critically, this process hinges on a role for cognitive penetrability. We review a mechanism to explain this process and expand our previous proposals of cognitive penetrability in visual recognition to social vision and visual hallucinations.

Post-learning stress enhances long-term memory and differentially influences memory in females depending on menstrual stage

Most work has shown that post-learning stress enhances long-term memory; however, there have been recent inconsistencies in this literature. The purpose of the present study was to examine further the effects of post-learning stress on long-term memory and to explore any sex differences that may exist. Male and female participants learned a list of 42 words that varied in emotional valence and arousal level. Following encoding, participants completed a free recall assessment and then submerged their hand into a bath of ice cold (stress) or lukewarm (no stress) water for 3 min. The next day, participants were given free recall and recognition tests. Stressed participants recalled more words than non-stressed participants 24h after learning. Stress also enhanced female participants' recall of arousing words when they were in the follicular, but not luteal, phase. These findings replicate previous work examining post-learning stress effects on memory and implicate the involvement of sex-related hormones in such effects.