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Nie Y, Ma Z, Zhang B, Sun M, Zhang D, Li HH, Song X. The role of the immunoproteasome in cardiovascular disease. Pharmacol Res 2024; 204:107215. [PMID: 38744399 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2024.107215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
The ubiquitinproteasome system (UPS) is the main mechanism responsible for the intracellular degradation of misfolded or damaged proteins. Under inflammatory conditions, the immunoproteasome, an isoform of the proteasome, can be induced, enhancing the antigen-presenting function of the UPS. Furthermore, the immunoproteasome also serves nonimmune functions, such as maintaining protein homeostasis and regulating signalling pathways, and is involved in the pathophysiological processes of various cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the current research on the involvement of the immunoproteasome in cardiovascular diseases, with the ultimate goal of identifying novel strategies for the treatment of these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifei Nie
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Zhao Ma
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Baoen Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Meichen Sun
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Dongfeng Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Hui-Hua Li
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Beijing Key Laboratory of Cardiopulmonary Cerebral Resuscitation, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100020, China.
| | - Xiantao Song
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100029, China.
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2
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Ott C. Mapping the interplay of immunoproteasome and autophagy in different heart failure phenotypes. Free Radic Biol Med 2024; 218:149-165. [PMID: 38570171 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2024.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/30/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
Proper protein degradation is required for cellular protein homeostasis and organ function. Particularly, in post-mitotic cells, such as cardiomyocytes, unbalanced proteolysis due to inflammatory stimuli and oxidative stress contributes to organ dysfunction. To ensure appropriate protein turnover, eukaryotic cells exert two main degradation systems, the ubiquitin-proteasome-system and the autophagy-lysosome-pathway. It has been shown that proteasome activity affects the development of cardiac dysfunction differently, depending on the type of heart failure. Studies analyzing the inducible subtype of the proteasome, the immunoproteasome (i20S), demonstrated that the i20S plays a double role in diseased hearts. While i20S subunits are increased in cardiac hypertrophy, atrial fibrillation and partly in myocarditis, the opposite applies to diabetic cardiomyopathy and ischemia/reperfusion injury. In addition, the i20S appears to play a role in autophagy modulation depending on heart failure phenotype. This review summarizes the current literature on the i20S in different heart failure phenotypes, emphasizing the two faces of i20S in injured hearts. A selection of established i20S inhibitors is introduced and signaling pathways linking the i20S to autophagy are highlighted. Mapping the interplay of the i20S and autophagy in different types of heart failure offers potential approaches for developing treatment strategies against heart failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Ott
- German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-Rehbruecke, Department of Molecular Toxicology, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558, Nuthetal, Germany; DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
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3
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Li Y, Fan H, Han X, Sun J, Ni M, Zhang L, Fang F, Zhang W, Ma P. PR-957 Suppresses Th1 and Th17 Cell Differentiation via Inactivating PI3K/AKT Pathway in Alzheimer's Disease. Neuroscience 2023; 510:82-94. [PMID: 36581132 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
PR-957 [low molecular mass polypeptide (LMP)-7 selective inhibitor] regulates T helper (Th) cell differentiation and inflammatory response in multiple neurological diseases. Hence, this study aimed to explore the effect of PR-957 on Th1/Th2/Th17 cell differentiation, therapeutic efficacy and its potential mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The LMP7 expressions in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from 30 AD patients and 30 healthy controls (HC) were detected. PR-957 was added for the incubation of naive cluster of differentiation (CD)4+ T cells from AD patients, then SC79 [phosphorylated protein kinase B (pAKT) agonist] was added. LMP7, Th1 cells, and Th17 cells were upregulated, while Th2 cells were downregulated in AD patients compared to HC. Also, LMP7 was positively related to Th1 cells and Th17 cells, but it did not correlate with Th2 cells in AD patients. PR-957 treatment downregulated Th1 cells, Th17 cells, and their secreted cytokines as well as phosphorylated phosphoinositide 3-kinase (pPI3K)/PI3K and pAKT/AKT expressions in AD CD4+ T cells. SC79 addition upregulated pAKT/AKT expression, Th1 cells, and Th17 cells, while downregulated Th2 cells; also SC79 could alleviate the effect of PR-957 on regulating PI3K/AKT pathway and Th1, Th2, and Th17 cell differentiation in AD CD4+ T cells. Furthermore, PR-957 attenuated cognitive impairment and neurofibrillary tangle; also it inhibited Th17 cell differentiation and PI3K/AKT pathway in the brain and spleen of AD mice. In conclusion, PR-957 suppresses Th1 and Th17 cell differentiation, attenuates neural injury and improves cognitive function via inactivating PI3K/AKT pathway in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanlong Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China
| | - Hua Fan
- School of Clinical Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471003, Henan, China
| | - Xiong Han
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China
| | - Jun Sun
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China
| | - Ming Ni
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Fuwai Central China Cardiovascular Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China
| | - Lulu Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China
| | - Fengqin Fang
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China
| | - Peizhi Ma
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou 450003, Henan, China.
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4
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Immunoproteasome Inhibition Ameliorates Aged Dystrophic Mouse Muscle Environment. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232314657. [PMID: 36498987 PMCID: PMC9739773 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232314657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Muscle wasting is a major pathological feature observed in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and is the result of the concerted effects of inflammation, oxidative stress and cell senescence. The inducible form of proteasome, or immunoproteasome (IP), is involved in all the above mentioned processes, regulating antigen presentation, cytokine production and immune cell response. IP inhibition has been previously shown to dampen the altered molecular, histological and functional features of 3-month-old mdx mice, the animal model for DMD. In this study, we described the role of ONX-0914, a selective inhibitor of the PSMB8 subunit of immunoproteasome, in ameliorating the pathological traits that could promote muscle wasting progression in older, 9-month-old mdx mice. ONX-0914 reduces the number of macrophages and effector memory T cells in muscle and spleen, while increasing the number of regulatory T cells. It modulates inflammatory markers both in skeletal and cardiac muscle, possibly counteracting heart remodeling and hypertrophy. Moreover, it buffers oxidative stress by improving mitochondrial efficiency. These changes ultimately lead to a marked decrease of fibrosis and, potentially, to more controlled myofiber degeneration/regeneration cycles. Therefore, ONX-0914 is a promising molecule that may slow down muscle mass loss, with relatively low side effects, in dystrophic patients with moderate to advanced disease.
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5
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Sakamoto S, Zhu X, Hasegawa Y, Karma S, Obayashi M, Alway E, Kamiya A. Inflamed brain: Targeting immune changes and inflammation for treatment of depression. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2021; 75:304-311. [PMID: 34227186 PMCID: PMC8683253 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.13286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Although there are a number of clinically effective treatments for depression, many patients exhibit treatment resistance. Recent clinical and preclinical studies reveal that peripheral and brain immune changes and inflammation are involved in the pathophysiology of depression. This 'Inflamed Brain' research provides critical clues for understanding of disease pathophysiology and many candidate molecules that are potentially useful for identifying novel drug targets for the treatment of depression. In this review, we will present clinical evidence on the role of inflammation in the pathophysiology of depression. We will also summarize current clinical trials which test drugs targeting inflammation for the treatment of patients with depression. Furthermore, we will briefly provide preclinical evidence demonstrating altered immune system function and inflammation in stress-induced animal models and will discuss the future potential of inflammation-related drug targets. Collectively, inflammatory signatures identified in clinical and preclinical studies may allow us to stratify depressive patients based on biotypes, contributing to the development of novel mechanism-based interventions that target specific patient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Sakamoto
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Xiaolei Zhu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yuto Hasegawa
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sadik Karma
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mizuho Obayashi
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Emily Alway
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Atsushi Kamiya
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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6
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Keane L, Antignano I, Riechers SP, Zollinger R, Dumas AA, Offermann N, Bernis ME, Russ J, Graelmann F, McCormick PN, Esser J, Tejera D, Nagano A, Wang J, Chelala C, Biederbick Y, Halle A, Salomoni P, Heneka MT, Capasso M. mTOR-dependent translation amplifies microglia priming in aging mice. J Clin Invest 2021; 131:132727. [PMID: 33108356 DOI: 10.1172/jci132727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia maintain homeostasis in the brain. However, with age, they become primed and respond more strongly to inflammatory stimuli. We show here that microglia from aged mice had upregulated mTOR complex 1 signaling controlling translation, as well as protein levels of inflammatory mediators. Genetic ablation of mTOR signaling showed a dual yet contrasting effect on microglia priming: it caused an NF-κB-dependent upregulation of priming genes at the mRNA level; however, mice displayed reduced cytokine protein levels, diminished microglia activation, and milder sickness behavior. The effect on translation was dependent on reduced phosphorylation of 4EBP1, resulting in decreased binding of eIF4E to eIF4G. Similar changes were present in aged human microglia and in damage-associated microglia, indicating that upregulation of mTOR-dependent translation is an essential aspect of microglia priming in aging and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily Keane
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany.,Centre for Tumour Microenvironment and
| | | | | | | | | | - Nina Offermann
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | - Maria E Bernis
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | - Jenny Russ
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | | | | | - Julia Esser
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | - Dario Tejera
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | - Ai Nagano
- Centre for Cancer Genomics and Computational Biology, Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jun Wang
- Centre for Cancer Genomics and Computational Biology, Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Claude Chelala
- Centre for Cancer Genomics and Computational Biology, Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Annett Halle
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | - Paolo Salomoni
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | - Michael T Heneka
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | - Melania Capasso
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany.,Centre for Tumour Microenvironment and
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7
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Wen DT, Zheng L, Lu K, Hou WQ. Physical exercise prevents age-related heart dysfunction induced by high-salt intake and heart salt-specific overexpression in Drosophila. Aging (Albany NY) 2021; 13:19542-19560. [PMID: 34383711 PMCID: PMC8386524 DOI: 10.18632/aging.203364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
A long-term high-salt intake (HSI) seems to accelerate cardiac aging and age-related diseases, but the molecular mechanism is still not entirely clear. Exercise is an effective way to delay cardiac aging. However, it remains unclear whether long-term exercise (LTE) can protect heart from aging induced by high-salt stress. In this study, heart CG2196(salt) specific overexpression (HSSO) and RNAi (HSSR) was constructed by using the UAS/hand-Gal4 system in Drosophila. Flies were given exercise and a high-salt diet intervention from 1 to 5 weeks of age. Results showed that HSSR and LTE remarkably prevented heart from accelerated age-related defects caused by HSI and HSSO, and these defects included a marked increase in heart period, arrhythmia index, malondialdehyde (MDA) level, salt expression, and dTOR expression, and a marked decrease in fractional shortening, SOD activity level, dFOXO expression, PGC-1α expression, and the number of mitochondria and myofibrils. The combination of HSSR and LTE could better protect the aging heart from the damage of HSI. Therefore, current evidences suggested that LTE resisted HSI-induced heart presenility via blocking CG2196(salt)/TOR/oxidative stress and activating dFOXO/PGC-1α. LTE also reversed heart presenility induced by cardiac-salt overexpression via activating dFOXO/PGC-1α and blocking TOR/oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deng-Tai Wen
- Key Laboratory of Physical Fitness and Exercise Rehabilitation of Hunan Province, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410012, Hunan Province, China.,Ludong University, Yantai 264025, Shandong Province, China
| | - Lan Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Physical Fitness and Exercise Rehabilitation of Hunan Province, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410012, Hunan Province, China
| | - Kai Lu
- Key Laboratory of Physical Fitness and Exercise Rehabilitation of Hunan Province, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410012, Hunan Province, China
| | - Wen-Qi Hou
- Ludong University, Yantai 264025, Shandong Province, China
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8
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Maiese K. New Challenges and Strategies for Cardiac Disease: Autophagy, mTOR, and AMP-activated Protein Kinase. Curr Neurovasc Res 2021; 17:111-112. [PMID: 32036783 DOI: 10.2174/1567202617999200207153935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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9
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Packer M. Longevity genes, cardiac ageing, and the pathogenesis of cardiomyopathy: implications for understanding the effects of current and future treatments for heart failure. Eur Heart J 2021; 41:3856-3861. [PMID: 32460327 PMCID: PMC7599035 DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The two primary molecular regulators of lifespan are sirtuin-1 (SIRT1) and mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1). Each plays a central role in two highly interconnected pathways that modulate the balance between cellular growth and survival. The activation of SIRT1 [along with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator (PGC-1α) and adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)] and the suppression of mTORC1 (along with its upstream regulator, Akt) act to prolong organismal longevity and retard cardiac ageing. Both activation of SIRT1/PGC-1α and inhibition of mTORC1 shifts the balance of cellular priorities so as to promote cardiomyocyte survival over growth, leading to cardioprotective effects in experimental models. These benefits may be related to direct actions to modulate oxidative stress, organellar function, proinflammatory pathways, and maladaptive hypertrophy. In addition, a primary shared benefit of both SIRT1/PGC-1α/AMPK activation and Akt/mTORC1 inhibition is the enhancement of autophagy, a lysosome-dependent degradative pathway, which clears the cytosol of dysfunctional organelles and misfolded proteins that drive the ageing process by increasing oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Autophagy underlies the ability of SIRT1/PGC-1α/AMPK activation and Akt/mTORC1 suppression to extend lifespan, mitigate cardiac ageing, alleviate cellular stress, and ameliorate the development and progression of cardiomyopathy; silencing of autophagy genes abolishes these benefits. Loss of SIRT1/PGC-1α/AMPK function or hyperactivation of Akt/mTORC1 is a consistent feature of experimental cardiomyopathy, and reversal of these abnormalities mitigates the development of heart failure. Interestingly, most treatments that have been shown to be clinically effective in the treatment of chronic heart failure with a reduced ejection fraction have been reported experimentally to exert favourable effects to activate SIRT1/PGC-1α/AMPK and/or suppress Akt/mTORC1, and thereby, to promote autophagic flux. Therefore, the impairment of autophagy resulting from derangements in longevity gene signalling is likely to represent a seminal event in the evolution and progression of cardiomyopathy. ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Milton Packer
- Baylor Heart and Vascular Institute, Baylor University Medical Center, 621 N. Hall Street, Dallas, TX 75226, USA.,Imperial College, London, UK
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10
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Takano APC, Senger N, Barreto-Chaves MLM. The endocrinological component and signaling pathways associated to cardiac hypertrophy. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2020; 518:110972. [PMID: 32777452 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2020.110972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Although myocardial growth corresponds to an adaptive response to maintain cardiac contractile function, the cardiac hypertrophy is a condition that occurs in many cardiovascular diseases and typically precedes the onset of heart failure. Different endocrine factors such as thyroid hormones, insulin, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), angiotensin II (Ang II), endothelin (ET-1), catecholamines, estrogen, among others represent important stimuli to cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. Thus, numerous endocrine disorders manifested as changes in the local environment or multiple organ systems are especially important in the context of progression from cardiac hypertrophy to heart failure. Based on that information, this review summarizes experimental findings regarding the influence of such hormones upon signalling pathways associated with cardiac hypertrophy. Understanding mechanisms through which hormones differentially regulate cardiac hypertrophy could open ways to obtain therapeutic approaches that contribute to prevent or delay the onset of heart failure related to endocrine diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nathalia Senger
- Department of Anatomy, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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11
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Xiao Z, Kong B, Yang H, Dai C, Fang J, Qin T, Huang H. Key Player in Cardiac Hypertrophy, Emphasizing the Role of Toll-Like Receptor 4. Front Cardiovasc Med 2020; 7:579036. [PMID: 33324685 PMCID: PMC7725871 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2020.579036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), a key pattern recognition receptor, initiates the innate immune response and leads to chronic and acute inflammation. In the past decades, accumulating evidence has implicated TLR4-mediated inflammatory response in regulation of myocardium hypertrophic remodeling, indicating that regulation of the TLR4 signaling pathway may be an effective strategy for managing cardiac hypertrophy's pathophysiology. Given TLR4's significance, it is imperative to review the molecular mechanisms and roles underlying TLR4 signaling in cardiac hypertrophy. Here, we comprehensively review the current knowledge of TLR4-mediated inflammatory response and its interaction ligands and co-receptors, as well as activation of various intracellular signaling. We also describe the associated roles in promoting immune cell infiltration and inflammatory mediator secretion, that ultimately cause cardiac hypertrophy. Finally, we provide examples of some of the most promising drugs and new technologies that have the potential to attenuate TLR4-mediated inflammatory response and prevent or reverse the ominous cardiac hypertrophy outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Xiao
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Cardiovascular Research Institute of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan, China
| | - Bin Kong
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Cardiovascular Research Institute of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan, China
| | - Hongjie Yang
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Cardiovascular Research Institute of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan, China
| | - Chang Dai
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Cardiovascular Research Institute of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jin Fang
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Cardiovascular Research Institute of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan, China
| | - Tianyou Qin
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Cardiovascular Research Institute of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan, China
| | - He Huang
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Cardiovascular Research Institute of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan, China
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12
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Xie X, Wang HX, Li N, Deng YW, Bi HL, Zhang YL, Xia YL, Li HH. Selective Inhibition of the Immunoproteasome β5i Prevents PTEN Degradation and Attenuates Cardiac Hypertrophy. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:885. [PMID: 32595507 PMCID: PMC7303343 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiac hypertrophy without appropriate treatment eventually progresses to heart failure. Our recent data demonstrated that the immunoproteasome subunit β5i promotes cardiac hypertrophy. However, whether β5i is a promising therapeutic target for treating hypertrophic remodeling remains unknown. Here, we investigated the effects of PR-957, a β5i-specific inhibitor, on angiotensin II (Ang II)-induced hypertrophic remodeling in the murine heart. The infusion of Ang II increased immunoproteasome chymotrypsin-like activity and β5i catalytic subunit expression in the heart, whereas PR-957 treatment fully blocked the enhanced immunoproteasome activity caused by Ang II. Moreover, the administration of PR-957 significantly suppressed Ang II-induced cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, and inflammation. Mechanistically, PR-957 treatment inhibited phosphatase and tensin homolog on chromosome ten (PTEN) degradation, thereby inhibiting multiple signals including AKT/mTOR, ERK1/2, transforming growth factor-β, and IKB/NF-kB. Furthermore, PTEN blocking by its specific inhibitor VO-OHpic markedly attenuated the inhibitory effect of PR-957 on Ang II-induced cardiac hypertrophy in mice. We conclude that PR-957 blocks PTEN degradation and activates its downstream mediators, thereby attenuating Ang II-induced cardiac hypertrophy. These findings highlight that PR-957 may be a potential therapeutic agent for Ang II-induced hypertrophic remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Xie
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Hong-Xia Wang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Beijing Key Laboratory of Cardiopulmonary Cerebral Resuscitation, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Nan Li
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Beijing Key Laboratory of Cardiopulmonary Cerebral Resuscitation, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ya-Wen Deng
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Hai-Lian Bi
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Yun-Long Zhang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Beijing Key Laboratory of Cardiopulmonary Cerebral Resuscitation, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yun-Long Xia
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Hui-Hua Li
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.,Department of Emergency Medicine, Beijing Key Laboratory of Cardiopulmonary Cerebral Resuscitation, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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Promiscuous Roles of Autophagy and Proteasome in Neurodegenerative Proteinopathies. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21083028. [PMID: 32344772 PMCID: PMC7215558 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21083028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alterations in autophagy and the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) are commonly implicated in protein aggregation and toxicity which manifest in a number of neurological disorders. In fact, both UPS and autophagy alterations are bound to the aggregation, spreading and toxicity of the so-called prionoid proteins, including alpha synuclein (α-syn), amyloid-beta (Aβ), tau, huntingtin, superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD-1), TAR-DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43) and fused in sarcoma (FUS). Recent biochemical and morphological studies add to this scenario, focusing on the coordinated, either synergistic or compensatory, interplay that occurs between autophagy and the UPS. In fact, a number of biochemical pathways such as mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), transcription factor EB (TFEB), Bcl2-associated athanogene 1/3 (BAG3/1) and glycogen synthase kinase beta (GSk3β), which are widely explored as potential targets in neurodegenerative proteinopathies, operate at the crossroad between autophagy and UPS. These biochemical steps are key in orchestrating the specificity and magnitude of the two degradation systems for effective protein homeostasis, while intermingling with intracellular secretory/trafficking and inflammatory pathways. The findings discussed in the present manuscript are supposed to add novel viewpoints which may further enrich our insight on the complex interactions occurring between cell-clearing systems, protein misfolding and propagation. Discovering novel mechanisms enabling a cross-talk between the UPS and autophagy is expected to provide novel potential molecular targets in proteinopathies.
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Lino CA, Demasi M, Barreto-Chaves ML. Ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) activation in the cardiac hypertrophy of hyperthyroidism. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2019; 493:110451. [PMID: 31112742 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2019.110451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) is the main proteolytic pathway in eukaryotic cells. Changes in proteasome expression and activity have been associated to cardiovascular diseases as cardiac hypertrophy. Considering that cardiac hypertrophy is commonly associated to hyperthyroidism condition, the present study aimed to investigate the contribution of UPS in cardiac hypertrophy induced by thyroid hormones. Hyperthyroidism was induced in male Wistar rats by intraperitoneal injections of triiodothyronine (T3; 7 μg/100 g of body weight) for 7 days and confirmed by raised levels of total T3 and decreased levels of total T4. In addition, systolic blood pressure and heart rate were significantly increased in hyperthyroid group. Cardiac hypertrophy was confirmed in hyperthyroid group by increased heart weight/tibia length ratio and by increased α-MHC/β-MHC relative expression. Both catalytic (20SPT) and regulatory subunits (19SPT) of the constitutive proteasome were upregulated in hyperthyroid hearts. In addition, the transcripts that encode immunoproteasome subunits were also elevated. Furthermore, ATP-dependent chymotrypsin-like activity (26SPT) was significantly increased in hyperthyroid group. Despite the upregulation and activation of UPS in hyperthyroid hearts, the content of polyubiquitinated proteins was unaltered in relation to control. Together, these results evidence the activation of cardiac proteasome by thyroid hormones, which possibly contribute to the maintenance of protein quality control and regulation of cardiac hypertrophy in response to thyroid hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Antunes Lino
- Laboratory of Cellular Biology and Functional Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marilene Demasi
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Butantan Institute, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Luiza Barreto-Chaves
- Laboratory of Cellular Biology and Functional Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
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15
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Cell Clearing Systems Bridging Neuro-Immunity and Synaptic Plasticity. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20092197. [PMID: 31060234 PMCID: PMC6538995 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20092197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, functional interconnections emerged between synaptic transmission, inflammatory/immune mediators, and central nervous system (CNS) (patho)-physiology. Such interconnections rose up to a level that involves synaptic plasticity, both concerning its molecular mechanisms and the clinical outcomes related to its behavioral abnormalities. Within this context, synaptic plasticity, apart from being modulated by classic CNS molecules, is strongly affected by the immune system, and vice versa. This is not surprising, given the common molecular pathways that operate at the cross-road between the CNS and immune system. When searching for a common pathway bridging neuro-immune and synaptic dysregulations, the two major cell-clearing cell clearing systems, namely the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) and autophagy, take center stage. In fact, just like is happening for the turnover of key proteins involved in neurotransmitter release, antigen processing within both peripheral and CNS-resident antigen presenting cells is carried out by UPS and autophagy. Recent evidence unravelling the functional cross-talk between the cell-clearing pathways challenged the traditional concept of autophagy and UPS as independent systems. In fact, autophagy and UPS are simultaneously affected in a variety of CNS disorders where synaptic and inflammatory/immune alterations concur. In this review, we discuss the role of autophagy and UPS in bridging synaptic plasticity with neuro-immunity, while posing a special emphasis on their interactions, which may be key to defining the role of immunity in synaptic plasticity in health and disease.
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Zhou L, Miao K, Yin B, Li H, Fan J, Zhu Y, Ba H, Zhang Z, Chen F, Wang J, Zhao C, Li Z, Wang DW. Cardioprotective Role of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Heart Failure. Circulation 2018; 138:181-197. [PMID: 29437117 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.117.030811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a heterogeneous population of cells that expand in cancer, inflammation, and infection and negatively regulate inflammation and the immune response. Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome wherein inflammation induction and incomplete resolution can potentially contribute to HF development and progression. However, the role of MDSCs in HF remains unclear. METHODS The percentage of MDSCs in patients with HF and in mice with pressure overload-induced HF using isoproterenol infusion or transverse aortic constriction (TAC) was detected by flow cytometry. The effects of MDSCs on isoproterenol- or TAC-induced HF were observed on depleting MDSCs with 5-fluorouracil (50 mg/kg) or gemcitabine (120 mg/kg), transferring purified MDSCs, or enhancing endogenous MDSCs with rapamycin (2 mg·kg-1·d-1). Hypertrophic markers and inflammatory factors were detected by ELISA, real-time polymerase chain reaction, or Western blot. Cardiac functions were determined by echocardiography and hemodynamic analysis. RESULTS The percentage of human leukocyte antigen-D-related (HLA-DR)-CD33+CD11b+ MDSCs in the blood of patients with HF was significantly increased and positively correlated with disease severity and increased plasma levels of cytokines, including interleukin-6, interleukin-10, and transforming growth factor-β. Furthermore, MDSCs derived from patients with HF inhibited T-cell proliferation and interferon-γ secretion. Similar results were observed in TAC- and isoproterenol-induced HF in mice. Pharmaceutical depletion of MDSCs significantly exacerbated isoproterenol- and TAC-induced pathological cardiac remodeling and inflammation, whereas adoptive transfer of MDSCs prominently rescued isoproterenol- and TAC-induced HF. Consistently, administration of rapamycin significantly increased endogenous MDSCs by suppressing their differentiation and improved isoproterenol- and TAC-induced HF, but MDSC depletion mostly blocked beneficial rapamycin-mediated effects. Mechanistically, MDSC-secreted molecules suppressed isoproterenol-induced hypertrophy and proinflammatory gene expression in cardiomyocytes in a coculture system. Neutralization of interleukin-10 blunted both monocytic MDSC- and granulocytic MDSC-mediated anti-inflammatory and antihypertrophic effects, but treatment with a nitric oxide inhibitor only partially blocked the antihypertrophic effect of monocytic MDSCs. CONCLUSIONS Our findings revealed a cardioprotective role of MDSCs in HF by their antihypertrophic effects on cardiomyocytes and anti-inflammatory effects through interleukin-10 and nitric oxide. Pharmacological targeting of MDSCs by rapamycin constitutes a promising therapeutic strategy for HF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Zhou
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.)
| | - Kun Miao
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.)
| | - Bingjiao Yin
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.).,Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medicine (B.Y., Y.Z., H.B., Z.Z., F.C., J.W., and Z.L.), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Huaping Li
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.)
| | - Jiahui Fan
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.)
| | - Yazhen Zhu
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.).,Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medicine (B.Y., Y.Z., H.B., Z.Z., F.C., J.W., and Z.L.), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Hongping Ba
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.).,Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medicine (B.Y., Y.Z., H.B., Z.Z., F.C., J.W., and Z.L.), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zunyue Zhang
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.).,Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medicine (B.Y., Y.Z., H.B., Z.Z., F.C., J.W., and Z.L.), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Fang Chen
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.).,Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medicine (B.Y., Y.Z., H.B., Z.Z., F.C., J.W., and Z.L.), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.).,Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medicine (B.Y., Y.Z., H.B., Z.Z., F.C., J.W., and Z.L.), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Chunxia Zhao
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.)
| | - Zhuoya Li
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.) .,Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medicine (B.Y., Y.Z., H.B., Z.Z., F.C., J.W., and Z.L.), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Dao Wen Wang
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiologic Disorders, Tongji Hospital (L.Z., K.M., H.L., J.F., C.Z., D.W.W.)
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17
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Wang Y, Guo Z, Liu M, Zhao K, Feng X, Zheng X, Wang X, Hao H, Guo X, Wang Z. Proteasome subunit beta type 1 interacts directly with Rheb and regulates the cell cycle in Cashmere goat fetal fibroblasts. Anim Cells Syst (Seoul) 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/19768354.2017.1371072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yanfeng Wang
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhixin Guo
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, People’s Republic of China
| | - Mingtao Liu
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, People’s Republic of China
| | - Keyu Zhao
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xue Feng
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xu Zheng
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hulunbeir Municipal People’s Hospital, Hailar, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaojing Wang
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Chifeng Municipal Hospital, Chifeng, People’s Republic of China
| | - Huifang Hao
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xudong Guo
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhigang Wang
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, People’s Republic of China
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18
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Sands WA, Page MM, Selman C. Proteostasis and ageing: insights from long-lived mutant mice. J Physiol 2017; 595:6383-6390. [PMID: 28718225 PMCID: PMC5638872 DOI: 10.1113/jp274334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The global increase in life expectancy is creating significant medical, social and economic challenges to current and future generations. Consequently, there is a need to identify the fundamental mechanisms underlying the ageing process. This knowledge should help develop realistic interventions capable of combatting age‐related disease, and thus improving late‐life health and vitality. While several mechanisms have been proposed as conserved lifespan determinants, the loss of proteostasis – where proteostasis is defined here as the maintenance of the proteome – appears highly relevant to both ageing and disease. Several studies have shown that multiple proteostatic mechanisms, including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)‐induced unfolded protein response (UPR), the ubiquitin–proteasome system (UPS) and autophagy, appear indispensable for longevity in many long‐lived invertebrate mutants. Similarly, interspecific comparisons suggest that proteostasis may be an important lifespan determinant in vertebrates. Over the last 20 years a number of long‐lived mouse mutants have been described, many of which carry single‐gene mutations within the growth‐hormone, insulin/IGF‐1 or mTOR signalling pathways. However, we still do not know how these mutations act mechanistically to increase lifespan and healthspan, and accordingly whether mechanistic commonality occurs between different mutants. Recent evidence supports the premise that the successful maintenance of the proteome during ageing may be linked to the increased lifespan and healthspan of long‐lived mouse mutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A Sands
- Glasgow Ageing Research Network (GARNER), Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Melissa M Page
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Colin Selman
- Glasgow Ageing Research Network (GARNER), Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
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19
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Broekaart DWM, van Scheppingen J, Geijtenbeek KW, Zuidberg MRJ, Anink JJ, Baayen JC, Mühlebner A, Aronica E, Gorter JA, van Vliet EA. Increased expression of (immuno)proteasome subunits during epileptogenesis is attenuated by inhibition of the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway. Epilepsia 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/epi.13823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diede W. M. Broekaart
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Jackelien van Scheppingen
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Karlijne W. Geijtenbeek
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Mark R. J. Zuidberg
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Jasper J. Anink
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Johannes C. Baayen
- Department of Neurosurgery; VU University Medical Center; Vrije Universiteit; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Angelika Mühlebner
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Eleonora Aronica
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences; Center for Neuroscience; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
- Stichting Epilepsie Instellingen Nederland (SEIN); Heemstede The Netherlands
| | - Jan A. Gorter
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences; Center for Neuroscience; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Erwin A. van Vliet
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
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20
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van Scheppingen J, Broekaart DWM, Scholl T, Zuidberg MRJ, Anink JJ, Spliet WG, van Rijen PC, Czech T, Hainfellner JA, Feucht M, Mühlebner A, van Vliet EA, Aronica E. Dysregulation of the (immuno)proteasome pathway in malformations of cortical development. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:202. [PMID: 27566410 PMCID: PMC5002182 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0662-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The proteasome is a multisubunit enzyme complex involved in protein degradation, which is essential for many cellular processes. During inflammation, the constitutive subunits are replaced by their inducible counterparts, resulting in the formation of the immunoproteasome. Methods We investigated the expression pattern of constitutive (β1, β5) and immunoproteasome (β1i, β5i) subunits using immunohistochemistry in malformations of cortical development (MCD; focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) IIa and b, cortical tubers from patients with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), and mild MCD (mMCD)). Glial cells in culture were used to elucidate the mechanisms regulating immunoproteasome subunit expression. Results Increased expression was observed in both FCD II and TSC; β1, β1i, β5, and β5i were detected (within cytosol and nucleus) in dysmorphic neurons, balloon/giant cells, and reactive astrocytes. Glial and neuronal nuclear expression positively correlated with seizure frequency. Positive correlation was also observed between the glial expression of constitutive and immunoproteasome subunits and IL-1β. Accordingly, the proteasome subunit expression was modulated by IL-1β in human astrocytes in vitro. Expression of both constitutive and immunoproteasome subunits in FCD II-derived astroglial cultures was negatively regulated by treatment with the immunomodulatory drug rapamycin (inhibitor of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, which is activated in both TSC and FCD II). Conclusions These observations support the dysregulation of the proteasome system in both FCD and TSC and provide new insights on the mechanism of regulation the (immuno)proteasome in astrocytes and the molecular links between inflammation, mTOR activation, and epilepsy. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-016-0662-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- J van Scheppingen
- Academic Medical Center, Department of (Neuro)Pathology, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - D W M Broekaart
- Academic Medical Center, Department of (Neuro)Pathology, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - T Scholl
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - M R J Zuidberg
- Academic Medical Center, Department of (Neuro)Pathology, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J J Anink
- Academic Medical Center, Department of (Neuro)Pathology, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - W G Spliet
- Department of Pathology, Rudolf Magnus Institute for Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - P C van Rijen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Rudolf Magnus Institute for Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - T Czech
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - J A Hainfellner
- Department of Pathology, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - M Feucht
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - A Mühlebner
- Academic Medical Center, Department of (Neuro)Pathology, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - E A van Vliet
- Academic Medical Center, Department of (Neuro)Pathology, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - E Aronica
- Academic Medical Center, Department of (Neuro)Pathology, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. .,Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Center for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. .,Stichting Epilepsie Instellingen Nederland (SEIN), ᅟ, The Netherlands.
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21
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Lenzi P, Lazzeri G, Biagioni F, Busceti CL, Gambardella S, Salvetti A, Fornai F. The Autophagoproteasome a Novel Cell Clearing Organelle in Baseline and Stimulated Conditions. Front Neuroanat 2016; 10:78. [PMID: 27493626 PMCID: PMC4955296 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2016.00078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein clearing pathways named autophagy (ATG) and ubiquitin proteasome (UP) control homeostasis within eukaryotic cells, while their dysfunction produces neurodegeneration. These pathways are viewed as distinct biochemical cascades occurring within specific cytosolic compartments owing pathway-specific enzymatic activity. Recent data strongly challenged the concept of two morphologically distinct and functionally segregated compartments. In fact, preliminary evidence suggests the convergence of these pathways to form a novel organelle named autophagoproteasome. This is characterized in the present study by using a cell line where, mTOR activity is upregulated and autophagy is suppressed. This was reversed dose-dependently by administering the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin. Thus, we could study autophagoproteasomes when autophagy was either suppressed or stimulated. The occurrence of autophagoproteasome was shown also in non-human cell lines. Ultrastructural morphometry, based on the stochiometric binding of immunogold particles allowed the quantitative evaluation of ATG and UP component within autophagoproteasomes. The number of autophagoproteasomes increases following mTOR inhibition. Similarly, mTOR inhibition produces overexpression of both LC3 and P20S particles. This is confirmed by the fact that the ratio of free vs. autophagosome-bound LC3 is similar to that measured for P20S, both in baseline conditions and following mTOR inhibition. Remarkably, within autophagoproteasomes there is a slight prevalence of ATG compared with UP components for low rapamycin doses, whereas for higher rapamycin doses UP increases more than ATG. While LC3 is widely present within cytosol, UP is strongly polarized within autophagoproteasomes. These fine details were evident at electron microscopy but could not be deciphered by using confocal microscopy. Despite its morphological novelty autophagoproteasomes appear in the natural site where clearing pathways (once believed to be anatomically segregated) co-exist and they are likely to interact at molecular level. In fact, LC3 and P20S co-immunoprecipitate, suggesting a specific binding and functional interplay, which may be altered by inhibiting mTOR. In summary, ATG and UP often represent two facets of a single organelle, in which unexpected amount of enzymatic activity should be available. Thus, autophagoproteasome may represent a sophisticated ultimate clearing apparatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Lenzi
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa Pisa, Italy
| | - Gloria Lazzeri
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa Pisa, Italy
| | - Francesca Biagioni
- Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (I.R.C.C.S.), Neuromed Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Carla L Busceti
- Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (I.R.C.C.S.), Neuromed Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Stefano Gambardella
- Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (I.R.C.C.S.), Neuromed Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Alessandra Salvetti
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa Pisa, Italy
| | - Francesco Fornai
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of PisaPisa, Italy; Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (I.R.C.C.S.), NeuromedPozzilli, Italy
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22
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Kammerl IE, Meiners S. Proteasome function shapes innate and adaptive immune responses. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2016; 311:L328-36. [PMID: 27343191 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00156.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The proteasome system degrades more than 80% of intracellular proteins into small peptides. Accordingly, the proteasome is involved in many essential cellular functions, such as protein quality control, transcription, immune responses, cell signaling, and apoptosis. Moreover, degradation products are loaded onto major histocompatibility class I molecules to communicate the intracellular protein composition to the immune system. The standard 20S proteasome core complex contains three distinct catalytic active sites that are exchanged upon stimulation with inflammatory cytokines to form the so-called immunoproteasome. Immunoproteasomes are constitutively expressed in immune cells and have different proteolytic activities compared with standard proteasomes. They are rapidly induced in parenchymal cells upon intracellular pathogen infection and are crucial for priming effective CD8(+) T-cell-mediated immune responses against infected cells. Beyond shaping these adaptive immune reactions, immunoproteasomes also regulate the function of immune cells by degradation of inflammatory and immune mediators. Accordingly, they emerge as novel regulators of innate immune responses. The recently unraveled impairment of immunoproteasome function by environmental challenges and by genetic variations of immunoproteasome genes might represent a currently underestimated risk factor for the development and progression of lung diseases. In particular, immunoproteasome dysfunction will dampen resolution of infections, thereby promoting exacerbations, may foster autoimmunity in chronic lung diseases, and possibly contributes to immune evasion of tumor cells. Novel pharmacological tools, such as site-specific inhibitors of the immunoproteasome, as well as activity-based probes, however, hold promises as innovative therapeutic drugs for respiratory diseases and biomarker profiling, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona E Kammerl
- Comprehensive Pneumology Center, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians University and Helmholtz Zentrum München, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Munich, Germany
| | - Silke Meiners
- Comprehensive Pneumology Center, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians University and Helmholtz Zentrum München, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Munich, Germany
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Lelegren M, Liu Y, Ross C, Tardif S, Salmon AB. Pharmaceutical inhibition of mTOR in the common marmoset: effect of rapamycin on regulators of proteostasis in a non-human primate. PATHOBIOLOGY OF AGING & AGE RELATED DISEASES 2016; 6:31793. [PMID: 27341957 PMCID: PMC4920937 DOI: 10.3402/pba.v6.31793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/27/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inhibition of mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) has emerged as a viable means to lengthen lifespan and healthspan in mice, although it is still unclear whether these benefits will extend to other mammalian species. We previously reported results from a pilot experiment wherein common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) were treated orally with rapamycin to reduce mTOR signaling in vivo in line with previous reports in mice and humans. Further, long-term treatment did not significantly alter body weight, daily activity, blood lipid concentrations, or glucose metabolism in this cohort. METHODS In this study, we report on the molecular consequences of rapamycin treatment in marmosets on mechanisms that regulate protein homeostasis (proteostasis) in vivo. There is growing appreciation for the role of proteostasis in longevity and for the role that mTOR plays in regulating this process. Tissue samples of liver and skeletal muscle from marmosets in our pilot cohort were assessed for expression and activity of components of the ubiquitin-proteasome system, macroautophagy, and protein chaperones. RESULTS Rapamycin treatment was associated with increased expression of PSMB5, a core subunit of the 20S proteasome, but not PSMB8 which is involved in the formation of the immunoproteasome, in the skeletal muscle and liver. Surprisingly, proteasome activity measured in these tissues was not affected by rapamycin. Rapamycin treatment was associated with an increased expression of mitochondria-targeted protein chaperones in skeletal muscle, but not liver. Finally, autophagy was increased in skeletal muscle and adipose, but not liver, from rapamycin-treated marmosets. CONCLUSIONS Overall, these data show tissue-specific upregulation of some, but not all, components of the proteostasis network in common marmosets treated with a pharmaceutical inhibitor of mTOR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Lelegren
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, USA
- The Sam and Ann Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Yuhong Liu
- The Sam and Ann Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Corinna Ross
- The Sam and Ann Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Suzette Tardif
- The Sam and Ann Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Adam B Salmon
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, USA
- The Sam and Ann Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA;
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Nakayama H, Nishida K, Otsu K. Macromolecular Degradation Systems and Cardiovascular Aging. Circ Res 2016; 118:1577-92. [DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.115.307495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Aging-related cardiovascular diseases are a rapidly increasing problem worldwide. Cardiac aging demonstrates progressive decline of diastolic dysfunction of ventricle and increase in ventricular and arterial stiffness accompanied by increased fibrosis stimulated by angiotensin II and proinflammatory cytokines. Reactive oxygen species and multiple signaling pathways on cellular senescence play major roles in the process. Aging is also associated with an alteration in steady state of macromolecular dynamics including a dysfunction of protein synthesis and degradation. Currently, impaired macromolecular degradation is considered to be closely related to enhanced inflammation and be involved in the process and mechanism of cardiac aging. Herein, we review the role and mechanisms of the degradation system of intracellular macromolecules in the process and pathophysiology of cardiovascular aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Nakayama
- From the Laboratory of Clinical Science and Biomedicine, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan (H.N.); and Cardiovascular Division, King’s College London British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, London, United Kingdom (K.N., K.O.)
| | - Kazuhiko Nishida
- From the Laboratory of Clinical Science and Biomedicine, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan (H.N.); and Cardiovascular Division, King’s College London British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, London, United Kingdom (K.N., K.O.)
| | - Kinya Otsu
- From the Laboratory of Clinical Science and Biomedicine, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan (H.N.); and Cardiovascular Division, King’s College London British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, London, United Kingdom (K.N., K.O.)
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Xu L, Brink M. mTOR, cardiomyocytes and inflammation in cardiac hypertrophy. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2016; 1863:1894-903. [PMID: 26775585 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2016.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2015] [Revised: 12/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is an evolutionary conserved kinase that senses the nutrient and energy status of cells, the availability of growth factors, stress stimuli and other cellular and environmental cues. It responds by regulating a range of cellular processes related to metabolism and growth in accordance with the available resources and intracellular needs. mTOR has distinct functions depending on its assembly in the structurally distinct multiprotein complexes mTORC1 or mTORC2. Active mTORC1 enhances processes including glycolysis, protein, lipid and nucleotide biosynthesis, and it inhibits autophagy. Reported functions for mTORC2 after growth factor stimulation are very diverse, are tissue and cell-type specific, and include insulin-stimulated glucose transport and enhanced glycogen synthesis. In accordance with its cellular functions, mTOR has been demonstrated to regulate cardiac growth in response to pressure overload and is also known to regulate cells of the immune system. The present manuscript presents recently obtained insights into mechanisms whereby mTOR may change anabolic, catabolic and stress response pathways in cardiomocytes and discusses how mTOR may affect inflammatory cells in the heart during hemodynamic stress. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Cardiomyocyte Biology: Integration of Developmental and Environmental Cues in the Heart edited by Marcus Schaub and Hughes Abriel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lifen Xu
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel and University Hospital Basel, Hebelstrasse 20, CH-4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marijke Brink
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel and University Hospital Basel, Hebelstrasse 20, CH-4031 Basel, Switzerland.
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Ackermann MA. Links between mTOR and the immunoproteasome: Therapeutic targets for cardiac hypertrophy? J Mol Cell Cardiol 2015; 89:113-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2015.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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