Endocrine effects in female weight lifters who self-administer testosterone and anabolic steroids

Physiology of Health and Performance: Enabling Success of Women in Combat Arms Roles

INTRODUCTION

The modern female soldier has yet to be fully characterized as she steps up to fill new combat roles that have only recently been opened to women. Both U.S. and U.K. military operational research efforts are supporting a science-based evolution of physical training and standards for female warfighters. The increasing representation of women in all military occupations makes it possible to discover and document the limits of female physiological performance.

METHOD

An informal Delphi process was used to synthesize an integrated concept of current military female physiological research priorities and emerging findings using a panel of subject matter experts who presented their research and perspectives during the second Women in Combat Summit hosted by the TriService Nursing Research Program in February 2021.

RESULTS

The physical characteristics of the modern soldier are changing as women train for nontraditional military roles, and they are emerging as stronger and leaner. Capabilities and physique will likely continue to evolve in response to new Army standards and training programs designed around science-based sex-neutral requirements. Strong bones may be a feature of the female pioneers who successfully complete training and secure roles traditionally reserved for men. Injury risk can be reduced by smarter, targeted training and with attention directed to female-specific hormonal status, biomechanics, and musculoskeletal architecture. An "estrogen advantage" appears to metabolically support enhanced mental endurance in physically demanding high-stress field conditions; a healthy estrogen environment is also essential for musculoskeletal health. The performance of female soldiers can be further enhanced by attention to equipment that serves their needs with seemingly simple solutions such as a suitable sports bra and personal protective equipment that accommodates the female anatomy.

CONCLUSIONS

Female physiological limits and performance have yet to be adequately defined as women move into new roles that were previously developed and reserved for men. Emerging evidence indicates much greater physical capacity and physiological resilience than previously postulated.

Disruption by stealth - Interference of endocrine disrupting chemicals on hormonal crosstalk with thyroid axis function in humans and other animals

Thyroid hormones (THs) are important regulators of growth, development, and homeostasis of all vertebrates. There are many environmental contaminants that are known to disrupt TH action, yet their mechanisms are only partially understood. While the effects of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) are mostly studied as "hormone system silos", the present critical review highlights the complexity of EDCs interfering with TH function through their interactions with other hormonal axes involved in reproduction, stress, and energy metabolism. The impact of EDCs on components that are shared between hormone signaling pathways or intersect between pathways can thus extend beyond the molecular ramifications to cellular, physiological, behavioral, and whole-body consequences for exposed organisms. The comparatively more extensive studies conducted in mammalian models provides encouraging support for expanded investigation and highlight the paucity of data generated in other non-mammalian vertebrate classes. As greater genomics-based resources become available across vertebrate classes, better identification and delineation of EDC effects, modes of action, and identification of effective biomarkers suitable for HPT disruption is possible. EDC-derived effects are likely to cascade into a plurality of physiological effects far more complex than the few variables tested within any research studies. The field should move towards understanding a system of hormonal systems' interactions rather than maintaining hormone system silos.

Women's Experiences of Using Anabolic Androgenic Steroids

Anabolic androgenic steroids are used by women to increase their muscle mass and because of their performance-enhancing effects. Despite permanent/high risk of side effects, knowledge is inadequate. Our aim has been to deepen understanding about women's use of anabolic androgenic steroids. This phenomenological study is based on the reflective lifeworld research (RLR) approach. Lifeworld interviews were conducted with 12 women, aged 21-56 years, about their experiences of using anabolic steroids. The results show that women experience a sense of pride when they successfully achieve their goals. This is the driving force, triggering tension between suffering and success. Our research adds important knowledge from a reflective lifeworld perspective and shows that women's use of anabolic androgenic steroids is a complex phenomenon. Understanding and knowledge are important in order to be able to meet and support women in their fears and difficulties.

An FT-Raman, FT-IR, and Quantum Chemical Investigation of Stanozolol and Oxandrolone

We have studied the Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) and the Fourier transform Raman (FT-Raman) spectra of stanozolol and oxandrolone, and we have performed quantum chemical calculations based on the density functional theory (DFT) with a B3LYP/6-31G (d, p) level of theory. The FT-IR and FT-Raman spectra were collected in a solid phase. The consistency between the calculated and experimental FT-IR and FT-Raman data indicates that the B3LYP/6-31G (d, p) can generate reliable geometry and related properties of the title compounds. Selected experimental bands were assigned and characterized on the basis of the scaled theoretical wavenumbers by their total energy distribution. The good agreement between the experimental and theoretical spectra allowed positive assignment of the observed vibrational absorption bands. Finally, the calculation results were applied to simulate the Raman and IR spectra of the title compounds, which show agreement with the observed spectra.

Recruitment to doping and help-seeking behavior of eight female AAS users

BACKGROUND

Doping with anabolic androgenic steroids in sports has now developed to a widespread use of these agents among young people outside the sport. This is of major concern to the society. The purpose of the use is mainly for aesthetic reasons and is seen as a male phenomenon. But use also occurs in women where the knowledge is scarce. Our aim was to identify the pattern of doping agents in eight female cases and compare them with similar data from men.

METHODS

Eight female users were recruited through Anti-Doping Hot-Line, a national telephone counseling service on doping issues during the years 1998-2004. The use was confirmed with urine doping analysis at the Doping Laboratory. The characteristic of use, co-use of narcotics/other doping agents, exercise pattern, adverse-side effects, family history and reason to begin was evaluated.

RESULTS

The women used on average 1.9 different anabolic androgenic steroids and clenbuterol preparations. Ephedrine and growth hormone were co-used in five and one of the women, respectively. Three women reported co-use of narcotics (cannabis and cocaine). The average duration of anabolic agent use before contacting health care was 58 weeks (range 7-104). Side effects for anabolic androgenic steroids (n = 5) included voice changes, clitoral enlargement, body hair growth, whereas women using clenbuterol (n = 2) reported tachycardia and depression. All women except one had a man in close relationship encouraging them to begin with the doping agents.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of doping agents in our eight women was different from that in male users. The women used less doping agents and were more prone to contact the health care, at an earlier stage, probably due to the adverse effects. The co-use with ephedrine, growth hormone and cannabis appeared to be in the same range as in men. This is the first study showing that a man in close relationship may motivate a woman to use anabolic agents.

Acceleration of neutrophil precursors' maturation and immunostimulation of CD3+, CD4+ lymphocytes by stanozolol in mice

The abuse of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) for improved physical performance is associated with many deleterious effects. The present study aims to evaluate the short-term effect of an AAS compound stanozolol, on lipoprotein profile, granulopoiesis and immune response in adult female mice. The mice were assigned to five experimental groups and different doses of stanozolol (low - 0.05 mg, medium - 0.5 mg, high - 5 mg and highest dose - 7.5 mg/kg bwt or only vehicle respectively) were administered s.c. for 15 days. A decrease in high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) as well as total cholesterol (TC) in all the stanozolol treated groups and an increase in low density lipoprotein (LDL-c) in high and the highest dose treated groups indicate that stanozolol alters serum lipoprotein profile. A significant increase in the percentage of myelocytes, metamyelocytes and neutrophils in all the treated mice unveils the stimulation of granulopoiesis through the acceleration of neutrophil precursors' maturation in the bone marrow of mice. The stimulation of erythropoiesis was also noted in all the treated groups. The flow cytometry analysis of lymphocyte subpopulations (CD3(+) and CD4(+)) revealed immunoenhancing response of stanozolol at optimum physiological dose, however, it is immunosuppressive at supraphysiologic level. We conclude that stanozolol accelerates granulopoiesis and stimulates immune response (at physiologic level only), though it alters the lipoprotein profile in mice.

Women and anabolic steroids: an analysis of a dozen users

OBJECTIVE

To provide an in-depth analysis of 12 female self-reported anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) users.

DESIGN

Web-based survey.

SETTING

A Web-based survey was posted on 38 discussion boards of various fitness, bodybuilding, weightlifting, and steroid Web sites between February and June 2009.

INTERVENTIONS

Participants completed a survey regarding demographics and use of AAS and other performance-enhancing agents (PEAs).

PARTICIPANTS

A cohort of 1519 strength-trained subjects fully completed and submitted a valid survey. Five hundred eighteen subjects were self-reported AAS users consisting of 12 women and 506 men. One thousand one subjects were non-AAS users consisting of 230 women and 771 men.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Demographic data and use of AAS and other PEAs.

RESULTS

The female AAS users reported using an average of 8.8 PEAs in their routine. Compared with male AAS users and female non-AAS users, respectively, female AAS users were more likely to have met criteria for substance-dependence disorder (58.3% vs 23.4%; P = 0.01; 58.3% vs 9.1%; P < 0.001), have been diagnosed with a psychiatric illness (50.0% vs 17.4%; P = 0.01; 50.0% vs 22.2%; P = 0.04), and have reported a history of sexual abuse (41.7% vs 6.1%; P < 0.001; 41.7% vs 15.3%; P = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

Female AAS users practice polypharmacy. Female AAS users are more likely to have qualified for substance-dependence disorder, have been diagnosed with a psychiatric illness, and have a history of sexual abuse than both male AAS users and female non-AAS users.

Cardiac and metabolic effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse on lipids, blood pressure, left ventricular dimensions, and rhythm

Recent surveys and reports suggest that many athletes and bodybuilders abuse anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS). However, scientific data on the cardiac and metabolic complications of AAS abuse are divergent and often conflicting. A total of 49 studies describing 1,467 athletes were reviewed to investigate the cardiovascular effects of the abuse of AAS. Although studies were typically small and retrospective, some associated AAS abuse with unfavorable effects. Otherwise healthy young athletes abusing AAS may show elevated levels of low-density lipoprotein and low levels of high-density lipoprotein. Although data are conflicting, AAS have also been linked with elevated systolic and diastolic blood pressure and with left ventricular hypertrophy that may persist after AAS cessation. Finally, in small case studies, AAS abuse has been linked with acute myocardial infarction and fatal ventricular arrhythmias. In conclusion, recognition of these adverse effects may improve the education of athletes and increase vigilance when evaluating young athletes with cardiovascular abnormalities.

Steroid use and human performance: Lessons for integrative biologists

While recent studies have begun to address how hormones mediate whole-animal performance traits, the field conspicuously lags behind research conducted on humans. Recent studies of human steroid use have revealed that steroid use increases muscle cross-sectional area and mass, largely due to increases in protein synthesis, and muscle fiber hypertrophy attributable to an increased number of satellite cells and myonuclei per unit area. These biochemical and cellular effects on skeletal muscle morphology translate into increased power and work during weight-lifting and enhanced performance in burst, sprinting activities. However, there are no unequivocal data that human steroid use enhances endurance performance or muscle fatigability or recovery. The effects of steroids on human morphology and performance are in general consistent with results found for nonhuman animals, though there are notable discrepancies. However, some of the discrepancies may be due to a paucity of comparative data on how testosterone affects muscle physiology and subsequent performance across different regions of the body and across vertebrate taxa. Therefore, we advocate more research on the basic relationships among hormones, morphology, and performance. Based on results from human studies, we recommend that integrative biologists interested in studying hormone regulation of performance should take into account training, timing of administration, and dosage administered when designing experiments or field studies. We also argue that more information is needed on the long-term effects of hormone manipulation on performance and fitness.

Exposure to an anabolic steroid changes female mice's sexual responses according to sex partner

INTRODUCTION

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) affect human female sexual behaviors. Animal models have been useful in uncovering the neural mechanisms governing changes in female sexual response upon AAS exposure.

AIM

We quantify the sexual response of AAS-exposed gonadally intact female mice when paired with gonadally intact female or male pairs.

METHODS

C57Bl/6 female mice were systemically exposed to the AAS 17alpha-methyltestosterone (7.5 mg/kg) for 17 days via a subcutaneous osmotic implant. On days 15-17, these females were allowed to mate with males or proestrus female partners in familiar and unfamiliar testing arenas for 10 minutes.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The following behavioral responses were registered: parameters related to mounting behavior such as the frequency of mounts, attempts to mount, and the latency to the first mount, anogenital investigation, fights and escapes, rejections, pelvic thrusts, and lordotic responses.

RESULTS

We found that males displayed a significant decrease in the frequency of mounts to AAS-exposed females, when compared with mating encounters with control females. We found no difference in the lordosis strength when control females were mounted by either a male or AAS-exposed females. However, females under androgen exposure attempted to mount control females, but not males, and their behavior was accompanied by significant increases in the number of fights, escapes, and rejections to the male. There were no differences between AAS-exposed females and males when the frequency of mounts and pelvic thrusts toward control females were compared. The lordotic quotient of control females was similar for either partner.

CONCLUSIONS

Aside from showing a male-like pattern, AAS-exposed females displayed a higher frequency of anogenital investigations toward control females than males, and their latency to the first mount was as fast as that of males. Taken together, we conclude that the sex partner greatly influences the sexual response of AAS-exposed female mice.

Effects of Androgenic-Anabolic Steroids in Athletes

Androgenic-anabolic steroids (AAS) are synthetic derivatives of the male hormone testosterone. They can exert strong effects on the human body that may be beneficial for athletic performance. A review of the literature revealed that most laboratory studies did not investigate the actual doses of AAS currently abused in the field. Therefore, those studies may not reflect the actual (adverse) effects of steroids. The available scientific literature describes that short-term administration of these drugs by athletes can increase strength and bodyweight. Strength gains of about 5-20% of the initial strength and increments of 2-5 kg bodyweight, that may be attributed to an increase of the lean body mass, have been observed. A reduction of fat mass does not seem to occur. Although AAS administration may affect erythropoiesis and blood haemoglobin concentrations, no effect on endurance performance was observed. Little data about the effects of AAS on metabolic responses during exercise training and recovery are available and, therefore, do not allow firm conclusions. The main untoward effects of short- and long-term AAS abuse that male athletes most often self-report are an increase in sexual drive, the occurrence of acne vulgaris, increased body hair and increment of aggressive behaviour. AAS administration will disturb the regular endogenous production of testosterone and gonadotrophins that may persist for months after drug withdrawal. Cardiovascular risk factors may undergo deleterious alterations, including elevation of blood pressure and depression of serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-, HDL2- and HDL3-cholesterol levels. In echocardiographic studies in male athletes, AAS did not seem to affect cardiac structure and function, although in animal studies these drugs have been observed to exert hazardous effects on heart structure and function. In studies of athletes, AAS were not found to damage the liver. Psyche and behaviour seem to be strongly affected by AAS. Generally, AAS seem to induce increments of aggression and hostility. Mood disturbances (e.g. depression, [hypo-]mania, psychotic features) are likely to be dose and drug dependent. AAS dependence or withdrawal effects (such as depression) seem to occur only in a small number of AAS users. Dissatisfaction with the body and low self-esteem may lead to the so-called 'reverse anorexia syndrome' that predisposes to the start of AAS use. Many other adverse effects have been associated with AAS misuse, including disturbance of endocrine and immune function, alterations of sebaceous system and skin, changes of haemostatic system and urogenital tract. One has to keep in mind that the scientific data may underestimate the actual untoward effects because of the relatively low doses administered in those studies, since they do not approximate doses used by illicit steroid users. The mechanism of action of AAS may differ between compounds because of variations in the steroid molecule and affinity to androgen receptors. Several pathways of action have been recognised. The enzyme 5-alpha-reductase seems to play an important role by converting AAS into dihydrotestosterone (androstanolone) that acts in the cell nucleus of target organs, such as male accessory glands, skin and prostate. Other mechanisms comprises mediation by the enzyme aromatase that converts AAS in female sex hormones (estradiol and estrone), antagonistic action to estrogens and a competitive antagonism to the glucocorticoid receptors. Furthermore, AAS stimulate erythropoietin synthesis and red cell production as well as bone formation but counteract bone breakdown. The effects on the cardiovascular system are proposed to be mediated by the occurrence of AAS-induced atherosclerosis (due to unfavourable influence on serum lipids and lipoproteins), thrombosis, vasospasm or direct injury to vessel walls, or may be ascribed to a combination of the different mechanisms. AAS-induced increment of muscle tissue can be attributed to hypertrophy and the formation of new muscle fibres, in which key roles are played by satellite cell number and ultrastructure, androgen receptors and myonuclei.

Central causes of hypogonadism--functional and organic

Whether caused by environmental factors, lesions, genetic mutations, drug interactions, or unknown origins, the path of the central causes of hypogonadism frequently leads back to the GnRH pulse generator. In some cases, the cause can be unequivocally traced to a single factor, such as some of the congenital syndromes previously described. In most instances, however, hypogonadism is occult or functional. Because of the wide spectrum and complexity of underlying causes, a definitive diagnosis, especially in functional causes of the disorder, is not always attainable.

Chronic administration of anabolic steroids disrupts pubertal onset and estrous cyclicity in rats

Use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) is becoming increasingly popular among adolescent girls, yet the effects of AASs on female physiology and development are not well understood. The present study compared the effects of chronic exposure to three individual AASs, stanozolol (0.05-5 mg/kg), 17alpha-methyltestosterone (0.5-5 mg/kg), and methandrostenolone (0.5-5 mg/kg) on the onset of puberty and estrous cyclicity in the rat. Female rats received daily injections of AASs for 30 days (Postnatal Day [PN] 21-51). Rats receiving the highest dose of each of the AASs (5 mg/kg) displayed vaginal opening at a younger age than rats receiving the oil vehicle. The day of first vaginal estrus was delayed in rats receiving stanozolol (5 mg/kg) or 17alpha-methyltestosterone (0.5-5 mg/kg) but not in rats receiving methandrostenolone. At the highest dose (5 mg/kg), each of the AASs reduced the incidence of regular estrous cyclicity during the treatment period. Concurrent administration (on PN21-51) of the androgen receptor antagonist, flutamide (10 mg/kg, twice daily), reversed the effects of 17alpha-methyltestosterone (5 mg/kg) on vaginal opening. Flutamide administration also eliminated the effects of stanozolol (5 mg/kg) and 17alpha-methyltestosterone (5 mg/kg) on the day of first vaginal estrus. In contrast, rats receiving flutamide and methandrostenolone (5 mg/kg) exhibited first vaginal estrus earlier than controls. The present results indicate that chronic exposure to AASs during development has deleterious effects on the female neuroendocrine axis and that these effects appear be mediated via multiple mechanisms.

Atrial fibrillation and anabolic steroids

A young male bodybuilder, consuming large doses of anabolic steroids (AS), presented to the Emergency Department (ED) with symptomatic rapid atrial fibrillation (AF). Echocardiogram revealed significant septal hypokinesis, and posterior and septal wall thickness at the upper limit of normal for highly trained athletes. The atrial fibrillation had not recurred at 10 weeks after discontinuation of AS use. Consumption of these agents in athletes has been associated with hypertension, ischemic heart disease, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and sudden death.

Steroids and steroid-like compounds

Athletes have been searching for an "edge" in competition as long as there has been a reward for success. Anabolic-androgenic steroids have been the most popular of these ergogenic aids when winning is the only goal. The authors present a concise review of these substances, their prevalence, efficacy, adverse effects, and legality. This article also presents a steroid user profile and discusses physician perception and management of a patient who uses these drugs. The popular precursors of testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone, and androstenedione are discussed with a review of the limited available data on these substances.

Influence of various modes of androgen substitution on serum lipids and lipoproteins in hypogonadal men

We investigated whether the androgen type or application mode or testosterone (T) serum levels influence serum lipids and lipoprotein levels differentially in 55 hypogonadal men randomly assigned to the following treatment groups: mesterolone 100 mg orally daily ([MES] n = 12), testosterone undecanoate 160 mg orally daily ([TU] n = 13), testosterone enanthate 250 mg intramuscularly every 21 days ([TE] n = 15), or a single subcutaneous implantation of crystalline T 1,200 mg ([TPEL] n = 15). The dosages were based on standard treatment regimens. Previous androgen substitution was suspended for at least 3 months. Only metabolically healthy men with serum T less than 3.6 nmol/L and total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) less than 200 mg/dL were included. After a screening period of 2 weeks, the study medication was taken from days 0 to 189, with follow-up visits on days 246 and 300. Before substitution, all men were clearly hypogonadal, with mean serum T less than 3 nmol/L in all groups. Androgen substitution led to no significant increase of serum T in the MES group, subnormal T in the TU group (5.7 +/- 0.3 nmol/L), normal T in the TE group (13.5 +/- 0.7 nmol/L), and high-normal T in the TPEL group (23.2 +/- 1.1 nmol/L). 5 alpha-Dihydrotestosterone significantly increased in all treatment groups compared with baseline. Compared with presubstitution levels, a significant increase of TC was observed in all treatment groups (TU, 14.4% +/- 3.0%; MES, 18.8% +/- 2.5%; TE, 20.4% +/- 3.0%; TPEL, 20.2% +/- 2.6%). Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) also increased significantly by 34.3% +/- 5.5% (TU), 46.4% +/- 4.1% (MES), 65.2% +/- 5.7% (TE), and 47.5% +/- 4.3% (TPEL). High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) showed a significant decrease by -30.9% +/- 2.8% (TU), -34.9% +/- 2.5% (MES), -35.7% +/- 2.6% (TE), and -32.5% +/- 3.5% (TPEL). Serum TG significantly increased by 37.3% +/- 11.3% (TU), 46.4% +/- 10.3% (MES), 29.4% +/- 6.5% (TE), and 22.9% +/- 6.7% (TPEL). TU caused a smaller increase of TC than TE and TPEL, whereas the parenteral treatment modes showed a lower increase of TG. There was no correlation between serum T and lipid concentrations. Despite the return of serum T to pretreatment levels, serum lipid and lipoprotein levels did not return to baseline during follow-up evaluation. In summary, androgen substitution in hypogonadal men increases TC, LDL-C, and TG and decreases HDL-C independently of the androgen type and application made and the serum androgen levels achieved. Due to the extended washout period for previous androgen medication and the exclusion of men with preexisting hyperlipidemia, this investigation demonstrates more clearly than previous studies the impact of androgen effects on serum lipids and lipoproteins. It is concluded that preexisting low serum androgens induce a "male-type" serum lipid profile, and increasing serum androgens further within the male normal range does not exert any additional effects. The threshold appears to be above the normal female androgen serum levels and far below the lower limit of normal serum T levels in adult men. These findings may have considerable implications for the use of androgens as a male contraceptive and for androgen therapy in elderly men.

Stanozolol, oxymetholone, and testosterone cypionate effects on the rat estrous cycle

Anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) effects on the estrous cycle of adult Long-Evans rats were examined in four different experiments. Sexual receptivity, vaginal cytology, and body weight were monitored throughout two-week baseline, AAS treatment, and recovery periods. In Experiments 1-3, rats were administered stanozolol, oxymetholone, or testosterone cypionate within dose ranges selected to mimic the human abuse levels of each compound. In these studies, the highest doses of stanozolol (5 mg/kg), oxymetholone (12 mg/kg), or testosterone cypionate (7.5 mg/kg) disrupted the cyclical display of sexual receptivity and vaginal estrus. To compare effects on estrous cyclicity across AAS compounds, rats in Experiment 4 received a single dose (7.5 mg/kg) of each compound for 2 weeks. At the 7.5 mg/kg dose, all AAS compounds interfered with the cyclical display of vaginal estrus, although effects on sexual receptivity were not uniform. No striking AAS effects on body weight were seen in any experiment. The short-term administration of AAS compounds at high doses disrupts female neuroendocrine function in rats.

Anabolic-androgenic steroid effects on sexual receptivity in ovariectomized rats

Anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) compounds are synthetic androgens taken by athletes to increase physical strength and endurance. Recent studies in our laboratory have demonstrated that AAS administration disrupts the estrous cycle of Long-Evans rats. The present experiments examined the effects of six commonly abused AAS compounds on sexual receptivity in ovariectomized rats. Adult female Long-Evans rats received estradiol benzoate (EB; 2.0 micrograms/day s.c.) for 6 consecutive days followed by 15 days of EB concurrent with daily s.c. injections of 7.5 mg/kg of one of the following AAS compounds: 17 alpha-methyltestosterone, methandrostenolone, nandrolone decanoate, stanozolol, oxymetholone, testosterone cypionate, or the oil vehicle. On Day 15, all female rats received progesterone (1.0 mg/rat) 4 h before testing. Tests for sexual receptivity were conducted on Days 3, 6, 14, and 15 of AAS treatment. Although the time course of AAS effects on sexual receptivity varied, some overall effects were clear. For example, 17 alpha-methyltestosterone, methandrostenolone, nandrolone decanoate, and stanozolol interfered with the display of sexual receptivity on Day 14, whereas oxymetholone and testosterone cypionate had no effect. Rats in all groups displayed high levels of sexual receptivity after receiving progesterone on Day 15. Our results show that AAS compounds vary in their degree of inhibition of female sexual behavior in ovariectomized rats.

Hormonal doping and androgenization of athletes: a secret program of the German Democratic Republic government

Several classified documents saved after the collapse of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in 1990 describe the promotion by the government of the use of drugs, notably androgenic steroids, in high-performance sports (doping). Top-secret doctoral theses, scientific reports, progress reports of grants, proceedings from symposia of experts, and reports of physicians and scientists who served as unofficial collaborators for the Ministry for State Security (“Stasi”) reveal that from 1966 on, hundreds of physicians and scientists, including top-ranking professors, performed doping research and administered prescription drugs as well as unapproved experimental drug preparations. Several thousand athletes were treated with androgens every year, including minors of each sex. Special emphasis was placed on administering androgens to women and adolescent girls because this practice proved to be particularly effective for sports performance. Damaging side effects were recorded, some of which required surgical or medical intervention. In addition, several prominent scientists and sports physicians of the GDR contributed to the development of methods of drug administration that would evade detection by international doping controls.

The effects of 17 alpha-methyltestosterone, methandrostenolone, and nandrolone decanoate on the rat estrous cycle

In a series of four separate experiments, the effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) compounds on the estrous cycle of adult Long-Evans rats were examined. Sexual receptivity, vaginal cytology, and body weight were monitored throughout a 2-week baseline, AAS treatment, and recovery periods. In Experiments 1-3, subjects were administered 17 alpha-methyltestosterone, methandrostenolone, or nandrolone decanoate at doses selected to mimic the human abuse levels of each compound. In these studies, the highest doses of 17 alpha-methyltestosterone (7.5 mg/kg) and nandrolone decanoate (5.6 mg/kg) disrupted behavioral and vaginal cyclicity, whereas the highest dose of methandrostenolone (3.75 mg/kg) appeared to have slightly less robust effects. To compare effects on estrous cyclicity across AAS compounds, subjects in Experiment 4 received a single high dose (7.5 mg/kg) of each compound for 2 weeks. At this dose, all AAS compounds interfered with vaginal cyclicity, although effects on behavioral cyclicity and uterine weight were not uniform. Across all 4 experiments, AAS effects on body weight were minimal. The short-term administration of AAS compounds at levels commonly used by humans disrupts female neuroendocrine function in a dose-dependent manner.