Mitochondria-rich cells as experimental model in studies of epithelial chloride channels

First Bioprospecting Study of Skin Host-Defense Peptides in Odontophrynus americanus

The adaptation of amphibians to diverse environments is closely related to the characteristics of their skin. The complex glandular system of frog skin plays a pivotal role in enabling these animals to thrive in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats and consists of crucial functions such as respiration and water balance as well as serving as a defensive barrier due to the secretion of bioactive compounds. We herein report the first investigation on the skin secretion of Odontophrynus americanus, as a potential source of bioactive peptides and also as an indicator of its evolutionary adaptations to changing environments. Americanin-1 was isolated and identified as a neutral peptide exhibiting moderate antibacterial activity against E. coli. Its amphipathic sequence including 19 amino acids and showing a propensity for α-helix structure is discussed. Comparisons of the histomorphology of the skin of O. americanus with other previously documented species within the same genus revealed distinctive features in the Patagonian specimen, differing from conspecifics from other Argentine provinces. The presence of the Eberth-Katschenko layer, a prevalence of iridophores, and the existence of glycoconjugates in its serous glands suggest that the integument is adapted to retain skin moisture. This adaptation is consistent with the prevailing aridity of its native habitat.

RNA-seq analysis provides insight into molecular adaptations of Andrias davidianus

The Chinese giant salamander Andrias davidianus is regarded as an ideal model for studying local adaptations, such as longevity, tolerance to starvation, and cutaneous respiration. Transcriptome analysis is useful for studying the large and complex genomes of amphibians. Based on the coding gene set of adult A. davidianus, dozens of A. davidianus-specific genes were identified and three signaling pathway (JAK-STAT, HIF-1, and FoxO) genes were expanded as compared with other amphibians. The results of the pathway analysis of A. davidianus-specific genes indicated that the molecular adaptation of A. davidianus may have required a more rapid evolution of the immune system. Additionally, for the first time, the gene expressions in different parts of the skin tissue were compared. The results of the comparison analysis demonstrated that lateral skin could be more focused on mucus secretion, dorsal skin on immunity and melanogenesis, and abdominal skin on water and salt metabolism. This study provides the first insight into studying longevity and starvation tolerance in A. davidianus, and offers a basis for further investigation of the molecular mechanisms of adaptations in amphibians.

CFTR is restricted to a small population of high expresser cells that provide a forskolin-sensitive transepithelial Cl- conductance in the proximal colon of the possum, Trichosurus vulpecula

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is central to anion secretion in both the possum and eutherian small intestine. Here, we investigated its role in the possum proximal colon, which has novel transport properties compared with the eutherian proximal colon. Despite considerable CFTR expression, high doses of the CFTR activator forskolin (EC(50)≈10 μmol l(-1)) were required for a modest, CFTR-dependent increase in short-circuit current (I(sc)) in the proximal colon. Presumably, this is because CFTR is restricted to the apical membrane of a small population of CFTR high expresser (CHE) cells in the surface and upper crypt epithelium. Furthermore, although the forskolin-stimulated I(sc) was dependent on serosal Na(+), Cl(-) and HCO(3)(-), consistent with anion secretion, inhibition of the basolateral Na-K-2Cl(-) (NKCC1) or Na-HCO(3) (pNBCe1) cotransporters did not prevent it. Therefore, although NKCC1 and pNBCe1 are expressed in the colonic epithelium they do not appear to be expressed in CHE cells. At low doses (IC(50)≈1 μmol l(-1)), forskolin also decreased the transepithelial conductance (G(T)) of the colon through inhibition of a 4,4'-diisothiocyano-2,2'-stilbenedisulphonic acid-sensitive anion conductance in the basolateral membrane of the CHE cells. This conductance is arranged in series with CFTR in the CHE cells and, therefore, the CHE cells provide a transepithelial Cl(-) conductance for passive Cl(-) absorption across the epithelium. Inhibition of the basolateral Cl(-) conductance of the CHE cells by forskolin will inhibit Na(+) absorption by restricting the movement of its counter-ion Cl(-), assisting in the conversion of the tissue from an absorptive to a secretory state.

Reconciling the Krogh and Ussing interpretations of epithelial chloride transport - presenting a novel hypothesis for the physiological significance of the passive cellular chloride uptake

In 1937, August Krogh discovered a powerful active Cl(-) uptake mechanism in frog skin. After WWII, Hans Ussing continued the studies on the isolated skin and discovered the passive nature of the chloride uptake. The review concludes that the two modes of transport are associated with a minority cell type denoted as the γ-type mitochondria-rich (MR) cell, which is highly specialized for epithelial Cl(-) uptake whether the frog is in the pond of low [NaCl] or the skin is isolated and studied by Ussing chamber technique. One type of apical Cl(-) channels of the γ-MR cell is activated by binding of Cl(-) to an external binding site and by membrane depolarization. This results in a tight coupling of the uptake of Na(+) by principal cells and Cl(-) by MR cells. Another type of Cl(-) channels (probably CFTR) is involved in isotonic fluid uptake. It is suggested that the Cl(-) channels serve passive uptake of Cl(-) from the thin epidermal film of fluid produced by mucosal glands. The hypothesis is evaluated by discussing the turnover of water and ions of the epidermal surface fluid under terrestrial conditions. The apical Cl(-) channels close when the electrodiffusion force is outwardly directed as it is when the animal is in the pond. With the passive fluxes eliminated, the Cl(-) flux is governed by active transport and evidence is discussed that this is brought about by an exchange of cellular HCO(3) (-) with Cl(-) of the outside bath driven by an apical H(+) V-ATPase.

Immunohistological classification of ionocytes in the external gills of larval Japanese black salamander, Hynobius nigrescens Stejneger

In this cytological and immunohistological study, we clarified the localization of the membrane transporters Na(+) , K(+) -ATPase (NKA), vacuolar-type H(+) -ATPase (VHA), and epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and distinguished ionocyte subtypes in the gill of the Japanese salamander (Hynobius nigrescens). In larvae (IY stages 43-65), NKA immunoreactivity was observed on the basolateral plasma membrane in more than 60% cells and less than 20% cells in the primary filaments and secondary lamellae of the external gills, respectively. VHA immunoreactivity was observed on the apical membrane of some epithelial cells in the secondary lamellae of the external gills. High ENaCα immunoreactivity was widely observed on the apical cell membrane of a population of squamous cells, presumably pavement cells (PVCs), and mitochondria-rich cells (MRCs), in the primary filaments and secondary lamellae of the external gills. Using double immunofluorescence microscopy, epithelial cell types involved in ionic regulation were characterized and divided into three ionocyte types: NKA-, NKA- and ENaC-, and VHA-positive cells. VHA-immunoreactive cells as well as NKA-positive cells were observed during IY stages 43-65 of the salamander larvae. During late stages of metamorphosis, NKA, VHA, and ENaCα immunoreactivities in the external gills decreased and finally disappeared during the completion of metamorphosis (IY stage 68). PVCs and MRCs in the external gills are probably involved in acid-base balance regulation and osmoregulation in urodele amphibian larvae. The results are discussed in relation to the ionocytes previously reported in fish gills and the frog skin epithelium.

The adrenergic receptor subtypes present in frog (Rana esculenta) skin

Frog skin transports ions and water under hormonal control. In spite of the fundamental role played by adrenergic stimulation in maintaining the water balance of the organism, the receptor subtype(s) present in the skin have not been identified yet. We measured the increase in short-circuit current (ISC, an estimate of ion transport) induced by cirazoline, clonidine, xamoterol, formoterol, or BRL 37344, in order to verify the presence of alpha1, alpha2, beta1, beta2, or beta3 receptor subtypes, respectively. Only after treatment with formoterol, BRL 37344 and, to a lesser extent, cirazoline was measured a significant increase in ISC (57%, 33.2%, and 4.7%, respectively). The formoterol and BRL 37344 concentrations producing half-maximal effect (EC50) were 1.12 and 70.1 nM, respectively. Moreover, the formoterol effect was inhibited by treatment with ICI 118551 (antagonist of beta2 receptors) while SR 59230A (antagonist of beta3 receptors) had no effect; opposite findings were obtained when the BRL 37344 stimulation was investigated. Finally, by measuring the transepithelial fluxes of 22Na+ and 36Cl-, we demonstrated that Na+ absorption is increased by activation of beta2 and beta3 and is cAMP-sensitive, whereas the Cl- secretion is only increased by activation of beta2 receptors and is cAMP- and calmodulin-sensitive.

Effects of arginine vasotocin and vasopressin receptor antagonists on Na+ and Cl- transport in the isolated skin of two frog species, Hyla japonica and Rana nigromaculata

Physiological function of arginine vasotocin (AVT) and effect of receptor antagonists of vasopressin were electrophysiologically investigated on transepithelial transport of ions in the abdominal skin of Hyla japonica and Rana nigromaculata by means of the Ussing chamber system. Administrations of AVT and forskolin (adenylate cyclase activator) in the serosal side of normal Ringer's solution significantly increased transepithelial potential difference (PD) and short-circuit current (Isc) accounting for Na(+) influx, mucosal to serosal direction, across the skin of H. japonica. In contrast, AVT administrations significantly decreased PD but not Isc on the skin of R. nigromaculata in a concentration-dependent manner ranging from 10(-11) to 10(-8)M. Administration of 10(-5)M forskolin also significantly decreased PD in normal and low Na(+) Ringer's solution and in the presence of amiloride (Na(+) channel blocker) on the mucosal side of normal Ringer's solution. On the other hand, forskolin significantly increased PD and Isc in the Cl(-) free Ringer's solution. These results suggested that AVT and forskolin stimulated mainly Cl(-) influx across the skin of R. nigromaculata. In two frog species, the AVT actions on ion transports were inhibited by pretreatment of OPC-31260 (a vasopressin V(2) receptor antagonist) but not OPC-21268 (a vasopressin V(1) receptor antagonist). These results suggested that AVT activates adenylate cyclase via V(2)-like receptor and stimulates actively net Na(+) and net Cl(-) transports in the abdominal skin of H. japonica and R. nigromaculata, respectively.

Chloride conductance in amphibian skin: regulatory control in the skin of Rana pipiens

Chloride conductance across the isolated skin of Rana pipiens shows a voltage-activated component (G(Cl)(V)) which requires the presence of mucosal Cl. G(Cl)(V) is normally low or dormant. It is stimulated by elevated intracellular cAMP, irrespective whether originating from application of ss-adrenergic agonists (isoproterenol), stimulators of the adenylyl-cyclase (forskolin), inhibitors of the phosphodiesterases (isobutyl-methyl-xanthine) or membrane-permeable cAMP analogues (CPT-cAMP). Baseline G(Cl) under inactivating conditions increases also with cAMP dose-dependently. The data indicate that cAMP is a central regulator of the passive, conductive chloride transport across amphibian skin.

Beta-adrenergic activation of solute coupled water uptake by toad skin epithelium results in near-isosmotic transport

Transepithelial potential (V(T)), conductance (G(T)), and water flow (J(V)) were measured simultaneously with good time resolution (min) in isolated toad (Bufo bufo) skin epithelium with Ringer on both sides. Inside application of 5 microM isoproterenol resulted in the fast increase in G(T) from 1.2+/-0.3 to 2.4+/-0.4 mS x cm(-2) and slower increases in equivalent short circuit current, I(SC)(Eqv) = -G(T) x V(T), from 12.7+/-3.2 to 33.1+/-6.8 microA cm(-2), and J(V) from 0.72+/-0.17 to 3.01+/-0.49 nL cm(-2) s(-1). Amiloride in the outside solution abolished I(SC)(Eqv) (-1.6+/-0.1 microA cm(-2)) while J(V) decreased to 0.50+/-0.15 nL cm(-2) x s(-1), which is significantly different from zero. Isoproterenol decreased the osmotic concentration of the transported fluid, C(osm) approximately 2 x I(SC)(Eqv)/J(V), from 351+/-72 to 227+/-28 mOsm (Ringer's solution: 252.8 mOsm). J(V) depicted a saturating function of [Na+]out in agreement with Na+ self-inhibition of ENaC. Ouabain on the inside decreased I(SC)(Eqv) from 60+/-10 to 6.1+/-1.7 microA cm(-2), and J(V) from 3.34+/-0.47 to 1.40+/-0.24 nL cm(-2) x s(-1). Short-circuited preparations exhibited a linear relationship between short-circuit current and J(V) with a [Na+] of the transported fluid of 130+/-24 mM ([Na+]Ringer's solution = 117.4 mM). Addition of bumetanide to the inside solution reduced J(V). Water was transported uphill and J(V) reversed at an excess outside osmotic concentration, deltaC(S,rev) = 28.9+/-3.9 mOsm, amiloride decreased deltaC(S,rev) to 7.5+/-1.5 mOsm. It is concluded that water uptake is accomplished by osmotic coupling in the lateral intercellular space (lis), and hypothesized that a small fraction of the Na+ flux pumped into lis is recirculated via basolateral NKCC transporters.

Application of the Na+ recirculation theory to ion coupled water transport in low- and high resistance osmoregulatory epithelia

The theory of Na+ recirculation for isosmotic fluid absorption follows logically from Hertz's convection-diffusion equation applied to the exit of water and solutes from the lateral intercellular space. Experimental evidence is discussed indicating Na+ recirculation based upon the following approaches: (i) An isotope tracer method in small intestine. Simultaneous measurement of water flow and ion transport in toad skin epithelium demonstrating, (ii) occasional hyposmotic absorbates, and (iii) reduced fluid absorption in the presence of serosal bumetanide. (iv) Studies of the metabolic cost of net Na+ absorption demonstrating an efficiency that is lower than the 18 Na+ per O2 consumed given by the stoichiometry of the Na+/K+-pump. Mathematical modeling predicts a significant range of observations such as isosmotic transport, hyposmotic transport, solvent drag, anomalous solvent drag, the residual hydraulic permeability in proximal tubule of AQP1(-/-) mice, the adverse relationship between hydraulic permeability and the concentration difference needed to reverse transepithelial water flow, and in a non-contradictory way the wide range of metabolic efficiencies from above to below 18 Na+/O2. Certain types of observations are poorly or not at all reproduced by the model. It is discussed that such lack of agreement between model and experiment is due to cellular regulations of ion permeabilities that are not incorporated in the modeling. Clarification of these problems requires further experimental studies.

Amphibian aquaporins and adaptation to terrestrial environments: A review

In many anurans, the pelvic patch of the ventral skin and the urinary bladder are important osmoregulatory organs. Since the discovery of water channel protein, aquaporin (AQP), in mammalian erythrocytes, 17 distinct full sequences of AQP mRNAs have been identified in anurans. Phylogenetic tree of AQP proteins from amphibians and mammals suggested that anuran AQPs can be divided into six types: i.e. types 1, 2, 3, and 5, and anuran-specific types a1 and a2. Among them, two types of anuran AQPs (types 1 and a2) are localized in the skin and urinary bladder by immunohistochemistry. Tree frog type-a2 AQPs, AQP-h2 and AQP-h3, are vasotocin-regulated water channels predominant in the osmoregulatory organs. Both the AQP-h2 and AQP-h3 are expressed at the granular cells underneath the keratinized layer in the pelvic patch, whereas only AQP-h2 is detected at the granular cells in the urinary bladder. In response to vasotocin, both the molecules seem to be translocated from the cytoplasmic pool to the apical plasma membrane of the granular cells. On the other hand, type-1 AQPs, Rana FA-CHIP and Hyla AQP-h1, are detected at the endothelial cells of blood capillaries in frog osmoregulatory organs. These findings suggest that AQP-h2 and AQP-h3 are key players for transepithelial water movement, and that FA-CHIP and AQP-h1 might be important for the transport of absorbed water into the blood flow. Comparative investigation of type-a2 AQPs in anurans further revealed that AQP-h2 and -h3-like molecules might exist at the urinary bladder and the pelvic skin, respectively, in various anurans from aquatic species to arboreal dwellers. AQP-h2-like protein is also detected in the pelvic skin of terrestrial and arboreal species. It is possible that this molecule might have occurred in the pelvic skin as anurans penetrated into drier environments.

Molecular and cellular characterization of a new aquaporin, AQP-x5,specifically expressed in the small granular glands of Xenopusskin

A new toad aquaporin (AQP) cDNA was cloned from a cDNA library constructed from the ventral skin of Xenopus laevis. This AQP (XenopusAQP-x5) consisted of 273 amino acid residues with a high sequence homology to mammalian AQP5. The predicted amino acid sequence contained the two conserved Asn-Pro-Ala motifs found in all major intrinsic protein (MIP) family members and six putative transmembrane domains. The sequence also contained a mercurial-sensitive cysteine and a putative phosphorylation motif site for protein kinase A at Ser-257. The swelling assay using Xenopus oocytes revealed that AQP-x5 facilitated water permeability. Expression of AQP-x5 mRNA was restricted to the skin, brain, lungs and testes. Immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopical studies using an anti-peptide antibody (ST-156)against the C-terminal region of the AQP-x5 protein revealed the presence of immunopositive cells in the skin, with the label predominately localized in the apical plasma membrane of the secretory cells of the small granular glands. These glands are unique both in being close to the epidermal layer of the skin and in containing mitochondria-rich cells with vacuolar H+-ATPase dispersed among its secretory cells. Results from immunohistochemical experiments on the mucous or seromucous glands of several other anurans verified this result. We conclude that the presence of AQP-x5 in the apical plasma membrane of the small granular glands suggests its involvement in water secretion from the skins. The physiological roles of the AQP-x5 protein in the small or mucous glands are discussed.

Hormonal regulation of ion and water transport in anuran amphibians

Amphibians occupy a wide variety of ecological habitats, and their adaptation is made possible through the specialization of the epithelia of their osmoregulatory organs, such as the skin, kidney, and urinary bladder, which control the hydromineral and acid-base balance of their internal medium. Amphibians can change drastically plasma Na+, Cl-, and urea levels and excretion rates in response to environmental stimuli such as acute desiccation and changes in external salinity. Several hormones and the autonomic nervous system act to control osmoregulation. Several ion channels including an epithelial sodium channel (ENaC), a urea transporter (UT), and water channels (AQPs) are found in epithelial tissues of their osmoregulatory organs. This mini review examines the currents status of our knowledge about hormone receptors for arginine vasotocin, angiotensin II and aldosterone, and membrane ion channels and transporters, such as ENaC, UT, and AQPs in amphibians.

Morphology of Bufo ictericus integument (Amphibia, Bufonidae)

Bufo ictericus integument was investigated by stereoscopic, low vacuum scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and light microscopy. The studies revealed, that the dorsal integument surface is rougher than ventral. Three types of projections are visualized: larger rounded verrucae, smaller conical cornified tubercles, and conical short spines. Prominent verrucae are observed on the dorsal surface, being flatter on the ventral surface. The tubercles are visualized only on the dorsal surface. The verrucae are separated by grooves that may contribute spreading and retention of the glandular secretion upon the integument. The pattern of the epidermal grooves is also important for water distribution, protecting the animal against desiccation. The epidermis is composed of a stratified epithelium with intraepithelial blood vessels, where keratinocytes predominate, but flask cells, and Merkel cells also occur. In the spongious dermis, cutaneous glands are visualized. The compact dermis is a series of alternating layers of bundles of collagenous fibers, and between spongious and compact dermis there are basophilic areas that correspond to Eberth-Katschenko layer. The dorsal and the ventral surfaces of B. ictericus are morphologically distinct. The integument structure is related to the physiology of each surface and represents an adaptation to habitat, reflecting a lifestyle of the animal.

Effect of mercuric chloride on electrical parameters and anion fluxes in the toad skin

The amphibian skin, widely used for studying the transepithelial passage of electrolytes, exhibits anion pathways relatively specific for Cl(-). We studied the effect of HgCl(2), 1.0 x 10(-4) M on its electrical parameters and unidirectional anion fluxes. In the presence of Cl(-), the transepithelial conductance (G) of the isolated skin of the Bufo arenarum toad increased considerably following exposure to HgCl(2), whereas short-circuit current (SCC)--reflecting transepithelial Na(+) transport-underwent only slight stimulation. Following the blockade of Na(+) intake by amiloride, 1.0 x 10(-4) M, the removal of Cl(-) from the solution bathing the epidermal border of the skin brought about a decrease in G, and gave rise to a gradient-induced SCC (SCCg) consistent with transepithelial passage of Cl(-) along its gradient. Addition of mercaptoethanol, 5.0 x 10(-3) M to the bath containing Hg(2+) fully reversed these effects. The increase in G was accompanied by an increase in the unidirectional (epidermal to dermal) fluxes of (36)Cl(-) and (131)I(-), and a decrease in the passage of (99m)TcO(4)(-). These results show the effects of HgCl(2) to be similar to those of theophylline, although exhibiting a different selectivity. Our data suggest that anion passage following exposure to HgCl(2) is, like that stimulated by theophylline, predominantly if not exclusively transcellular, and does not involve a significant opening of the tight junctions.

Enzymatic changes in mitochondria-rich cells of Xenopus laevis skin epithelium are induced by ionic acclimation

Morphological, biochemical and histochemical components of mitochondria-rich (MR) cells of skin epithelium of Xenopus laevis (Daudin) were investigated after acclimation in distilled water (DW) and mild solutions (50 mmol/l) of either NaCl or KCl for over 10 days. The animals readily acclimated to NaCl, but approximately 50% of the animals died in the KCl solution. Electrophysiological measurements confirmed the poor transport properties of skin in all conditions. Silver staining and exposure to methylene blue (MB) have shown that two types of MR cells can be distinguished, especially after KCl acclimation. Immunohistochemistry with the use of anti-band 3 polyclonal and anti H+-ATPase monoclonal antibodies demonstrated that band 3 and H+-ATPase enzymes were localized in MR cells in all conditions. H+-ATPase was greatly reduced during NaCl acclimation as verified with SDS gel electrophoresis. Intensity of the immunohistochemical staining differed between the various conditions of acclimation. Histochemical localization of carbonic anhydrase and alkaline phosphatase activities was more intense during NaCl acclimation. Morphological changes were also observed between the various acclimation conditions. The present findings substantiate the existence of at least two forms of MR cells in Xenopus skin epithelium but their functional significance remains to be established.

Proton pump-driven cutaneous chloride uptake in anuran amphibia

Krogh introduced the concept of active ion uptake across surface epithelia of freshwater animals, and proved independent transports of Na(+) and Cl(-) in anuran skin and fish gill. He suggested that the fluxes of Na(+) and Cl(-) involve exchanges with ions of similar charge. In the so-called Krogh model, Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) and Na(+)/H(+) antiporters are located in the apical membrane of the osmoregulatory epithelium. More recent studies have shown that H(+) excretion in anuran skin is due to a V-ATPase in mitochondria-rich (MR) cells. The pump has been localized by immunostaining and H(+) fluxes estimated by pH-stat titration and mathematical modelling of pH-profiles in the unstirred layer on the external side of the epithelium. H(+) secretion is voltage-dependent, sensitive to carbonic-anhydrase inhibitors, and rheogenic with a charge/ion-flux ratio of unity. Cl(-) uptake from freshwater is saturating, voltage independent, and sensitive to DIDS and carbonic-anhydrase inhibitors. Depending on anuran species and probably on acid/base balance of the animal, apical exit of protons is coupled to an exchange of Cl(-) with base (HCO(3)(-)) either in the apical membrane (gamma-type of MR cell) or in the basolateral membrane (alpha-type MR cell). The gamma-cell model accounts for the rheogenic active uptake of Cl(-) observed in several anuran species. There is indirect evidence also for non-rheogenic active uptake accomplished by a beta-type MR cell with apical base secretion and basolateral proton pumping. Several studies have indicated that the transport modes of MR cells are regulated via ion- and acid/base balance of the animal, but the signalling mechanisms have not been investigated. Estimates of energy consumption by the H(+)-ATPase and the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase indicate that the gamma-cell accomplishes uptake of NaCl in normal and diluted freshwater. Under common freshwater conditions with serosa-positive or zero V(t), the K(+) conductance of the basolateral membrane would have to maintain the inward driving force for Na(+) uptake across the apical membrane. With the K(+) equilibrium potential across the basolateral membrane estimated to -105 mV, this would apply to external Na(+) concentrations down to 40-120 micromol/l. NaCl uptake from concentrations down to 10 micromol/l, as observed by Krogh, presupposes that the H(+) pump hyperpolarizes the apical membrane, which would then have to be associated with serosa-negative V(t). In diluted freshwater, exchange of cellular HCO(3)(-) with external Cl(-) seems to be possible only if the proton pump has the additional function of keeping the external concentration of HCO(3)(-) low. Quantitative considerations also lead to the conclusion that with the above extreme demand, at physiological intracellular pH of 7.2, the influx of Cl(-) via the apical antiporter and the passive exit of Cl(-) via basolateral channels would be possible within a common range of intracellular Cl(-) concentrations.

β-Adrenergic receptors couple to CFTR chloride channels of intercalated mitochondria-rich cells in the heterocellular toad skin epithelium

In the heterocellular toad skin epithelium the beta-adrenergic receptor agonist isoproterenol activates cyclic AMP-dependent Cl(-) channels that are not located in the principal cells. With four experimental approaches, in the present study, we tested the hypothesis that the signalling pathway targets apical CFTR-chloride channels of mitochondria-rich cells. (i) Serosal application of isoproterenol (log(10)EC50=-7.1+/0.2; Hill coefficient=1.1+/0.2), as well as nor-adrenaline, activated an anion pathway with an apical selectivity sequence, G(Cl)>G(Br)> or =G(NO(3))>G(I), comparable to the published selectivity sequence of cloned human CFTR expressed in Xenopus oocytes. (ii) Known modulators of human CFTR, glibenclamide (200 micromol/l) and genistein (50 micromol/l), depressed and activated, respectively, the receptor-stimulated G(Cl). Genistein did not modify the anion selectivity. (iii) Transcellular voltage clamp studies of single isolated mitochondria-rich cells revealed functional beta-adrenergic receptors on the basolateral membrane. With approximately 60,000 mitochondria-rich cells per cm(2), the saturating activation of 11.9+/-1.6 ns/cell accounted for the measured isoproterenol-activated transepithelial conductance of 600-900 micros/cm(2). In forskolin-stimulated cells, glibenclamide (200 micromol/l) reversibly inhibited the transcellular conductance by 9.6+/1.6 ns/cell. (iv) A nucleotide sequence of one third of the Bufo bufo CFTR gene corresponding to the R-domain and part of the first nucleotide binding domain (NBD1) including its Walker motif was amplified from gallbladder epithelium. Somewhat smaller sequences of the BbCFTR were cloned from lung and isolated skin epithelium. The above new results taken together with our previously identified small-conductance CFTR-like Cl(-) channel in the apical membrane of isolated mitochondria-rich cells provide compelling evidence that the toad's CFTR gene codes for a functional Cl(-) channel in the apical plasma membrane of this minority cell type.