Wogonin, baicalin, and baicalein inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 gene expressions induced by nitric oxide synthase inhibitors and lipopolysaccharide

Herbal and Natural Treatments for the Management of the Glaucoma: An Update

Glaucoma causes the degeneration of the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons, inducing a tissue reshaping that affects both the retina and the optic nerve head. Glaucoma care especially focuses on reducing intraocular pressure, a significant risk factor for progressive damage to the optic nerve. The use of natural treatments, such as herbs, vitamins, and minerals, is becoming increasingly popular today. While plants are a rich source of novel biologically active compounds, only a small percentage of them have been phytochemically examined and evaluated for their medicinal potential. It is necessary for eye care professionals to inform their glaucoma patients about the therapy, protection, and efficacy of commonly used herbal medicines, considering the widespread use of herbal medicines. The purpose of this review is to examine evidence related to the most widely used herbal medicines for the management and treatment of glaucoma, to better understand the potential benefits of these natural compounds as supplementary therapy.

Baicalein limits osteoarthritis development by inhibiting chondrocyte ferroptosis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common degenerative disease of articular cartilage, and there is currently no effective treatment. Baicalein, a flavonoid extracted from plants of the Scutellaria genus, has frequently been used in the past as an anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic therapy. This study investigated the effect of baicalein on OA development. For in vivo study, a destabilization of the medial meniscus (DMM)-induced OA model was established in 8-week-old wild-type (WT) and AMPKα-knockout (KO) mice, while an in vitro study was performed using chondrocytes in an OA microenvironment induced by interleukin-1β (IL-1β) exposure. We found that baicalein alleviated OA development in vivo and exerted a chondroprotective effect in vitro by suppressing chondrocyte ferroptosis. Baicalein reduced OA-related pain sensitivity by inhibiting ferroptosis of chondrocytes in OA mice. Baicalein also facilitated AMPK holoenzyme assembly, stability, and activity and suppressed ferroptosis by inducing AMPKα phosphorylation in chondrocyte. In addition, AMPKα preserved nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2(Nrf2) abundance in chondrocytes and induced Nrf2 into nucleus by promoting Keap1 degradation. Meanwhile, Nrf2 increased expression of heme oxygenase-1(HO-1) to inhibit chondrocyte lipid ROS. Taken together, these results showed that baicalein alleviated OA development by improving the activity of AMPK/Nrf2/HO-1 signaling to inhibit chondrocyte ferroptosis, revealing baicalein to be a potential therapeutic strategy for OA.

Protective and therapeutic effects of Scutellaria baicalensis and its main active ingredients baicalin and baicalein against natural toxicities and physical hazards: a review of mechanisms

OBJECTIVES

Scutellaria baicalensis (SB) has been traditionally used to combat a variety of conditions ranging from ischemic heart disease to cancer. The protective effects of SB are due to the action of two main flavonoids baicalin (BA) and baicalein (BE). This paper aimed to provide a narrative review of the protective and antidotal effects of SB and its main constituents against natural toxicities and physical hazards.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

Scientific databases Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science were thoroughly searched, based on different keywords for in vivo, in vitro and clinical studies which reported protective or therapeutic effects of SB or its constituents in natural and physical toxicities.

RESULTS

Numerous studies have reported that treatment with BE, BA, or total SB extract prevents or counteracts the detrimental toxic effects of various natural compounds and physical hazards. The toxic agents include mycotoxins, lipopolysaccharide, multiple plants and animal-derived substances as well as physical factors which negatively affected vital organs such as CNS, liver, kidneys, lung and heart. Increasing the expression of radical scavenging enzymes and glutathione content as well as inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines and pro-apoptotic mediators were important mechanisms of action.

CONCLUSION

Different studies on the Chinese skullcap have exhibited that its total root extract, BA or BE can act as potential antidotes or protective agents against the damage induced by natural toxins and physical factors by alleviating oxidative stress and inflammation. However, the scarcity of high-quality clinical evidence means that further clinical studies are required to reach a more definitive conclusion.

Antitumor Potential of Immunomodulatory Natural Products

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death globally. Anticancer drugs aim to block tumor growth by killing cancerous cells in order to prevent tumor progression and metastasis. Efficient anticancer drugs should also minimize general toxicity towards organs and healthy cells. Tumor growth can also be successfully restrained by targeting and modulating immune response. Cancer immunotherapy is assuming a growing relevance in the fight against cancer and has recently aroused much interest for its wider safety and the capability to complement conventional chemotherapeutic approaches. Natural products are a traditional source of molecules with relevant potential in the pharmacological field. The huge structural diversity of metabolites with low molecular weight (small molecules) from terrestrial and marine organisms has provided lead compounds for the discovery of many modern anticancer drugs. Many natural products combine chemo-protective and immunomodulant activity, thus offering the potential to be used alone or in association with conventional cancer therapy. In this review, we report the natural products known to possess antitumor properties by interaction with immune system, as well as discuss the possible immunomodulatory mechanisms of these molecules.

Flavonoids: The Innocuous Agents Offering Protection Against Alzheimer's Disease Through Modulation Of Proinflammatory And Apoptotic Pathways

BACKGROUND

Beginning from mild cognitive impairment in patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease (AD), dementia sets in with the progress of the disease. The pathological changes in the brain begin fifteen to twenty years before AD related dementia develops. Presence of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are considered the hallmarks of AD brain. Chronic inflammation resulting from the disruption of equilibrium between anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory signalling emerges as another important feature of AD and also other neurodegenerative diseases. Substantial studies demonstrate that this sustained immune response in the brain is associated with neuronal loss, along with facilitation and aggravation of Aβ and NFT pathologies. Although it is well accepted that neuroinflammation and oxidative stress have both detrimental and beneficial influences on the brain tissues, the involvement of microglia and astrocytes in the onset and progress of the neurodegenerative process in AD is becoming increasingly recognized. The cause of neuronal loss, although, is known to be apoptosis, the mechanism of promotion of neuronal death remains undisclosed.

OBJECTIVE

Controlling the activation of the resident immune cells and/or the excessive production of pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidant factors could be effective as therapeutics. Among the phytonutrients, the neuroprotective role of flavonoids is beyond doubt. This review is an exploration of literature on the role of flavonoids in these aspects.

CONCLUSION

Flavonoids are not only effective in ameliorating the adverse consequences of oxidative stress but also impede the development of late onset Alzheimer's disease by modulating affected signalling pathways and boosting signalling crosstalk.

Prediction of the Molecular Mechanism of Eucommiae Cortex - Achyranthis Bidentatae Radix in the treatment of Osteoarthritis: Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking

OBJECTIVE

To retrieve the core drug of osteoarthritis in clinic using Data Mining, predict the drug molecular action target through the Network Pharmacology, identify the key nodes of the interaction by combining with the related targtes of osteoarthritis, explore the pharmacological mechanism of Traditional Chinese Medicine against osteoarthritis and other possible mechanisms of actions.

METHODS

to retrieve the commonly used therapeutic formulations for osteoarthritis patients in clinical with PubMed, CNKI, VIP, CBM, WanFang Database and other databases, and screen out the core drugs through the Ancient and Modern Medical Case Cloud Platform and software Gephi, filter out the core drug molecules and targets combined with TCMSP database and the targets of osteoarthritis in Genecard and OMIM database, plunge those data into R project and Cytoscape to construct the intersection model of Drug molecule-osteoarthritis, establish PPI network and GO and conduct KEGG enrichment analysis with String database. Vina molecular docking was finally implemented to draw molecular docking diagram, and the results were analyzed after comprehensive analysis.

RESULTS

The core drug pairs were identified as "Eucommiae Cortex - Achyranthis Bidentatae Radix" through correlation analysis, complex network analysis based on the coefficient. "Eucommiae Cortex - Achyranthis Bidentatae Radix" can intervene cell behavior through multiple pathways and regulate cell metabolism, cytokine synthesis, oxidative and cellular immunity with the help of topology analysis in String Database.

CONCLUSIONS

The core molecules of Quercetin and Kaempferol derived from "Eucommia bark - achyranthes" can change the spatial conformation of PTGSs by hydrogen bonding with PTGSs, the hydrophobic bonds and van der Waals forces generated by Baicalein, Wogonin and β-carotene, thereby changing the activity of PTGSs and affecting bone properties the process of osteoarthritis.

Semelil as Adjunctive Therapy in Chronic Periodontitis: A Preliminary Randomized Controlled Clinical Study

Host modulation therapy is recently employed to improve periodontal treatments outcome. This randomized controlled clinical trial aimed to evaluate the effects of Semelil (ANGIPARS) as an adjunct to non-surgical treatment in patients with chronic periodontitis. Forty-four healthy subjects with moderate to severe chronic periodontitis were enrolled in the study. After completion of phase I periodontal therapy, including oral hygiene instruction, scaling, and root planing, the patients were randomly divided into two groups to receive capsules of Semelil (test) or placebo (control), consuming two capsules a day for three months. Clinical parameters (probing depth [PD], clinical attachment level [CAL], modified sulcular bleeding index [MSBI], modified gingival index [MGI], and plaque index [PI]) and biochemical parameters (interleukin-1β [IL-1β], 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine [8-OHdG]), and lipid peroxidation [LPO]) were measured at baseline and after completion of treatment. Twenty-five patients completed the study: 15 in the test group and 10 in the control group. All clinical and biochemical parameters were significantly improved from baseline to the final measurements in both groups (p < 0.001). The changes were more pronounced in the test group in comparison to the control group. However, the differences between the groups were significant only for MGI, MSBI, PD, and CAL (p < 0.05). Semelil may reveal promising results as an adjunctive treatment for chronic periodontitis.

Protective Effect of Baicalin against Clostridioides difficile Infection in Mice

This study investigated the prophylactic and therapeutic efficacies of baicalin (BC), a plant-derived flavone glycoside, in reducing the severity of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) in a mouse model. In the prophylactic trial, C57BL/6 mice were provided with BC (0, 11, and 22 mg/L in drinking water) from 12 days before C. difficile challenge through the end of the experiment, whereas BC administration started day 1 post challenge in the therapeutic trial. Both challenge and control groups were infected with 10⁶ CFU/mL of hypervirulent C. difficile BAA 1803 spores or sterile PBS, and the clinical and diarrheal scores were recorded for 10 days post challenge. On day 2 post challenge, fecal and tissue samples were collected from mice prophylactically administered with BC for microbiome and histopathologic analysis. Both prophylactic and therapeutic supplementation of BC significantly reduced the severity of colonic lesions and improved CDI clinical progression and outcome compared with control (p < 0.05). Microbiome analysis revealed a significant increase in Gammaproteobacteria and reduction in the abundance of protective microbiota (Firmicutes) in antibiotic-treated and C. difficile-infected mice compared with controls (p < 0.05). However, baicalin supplementation favorably altered the microbiome composition, as revealed by an increased abundance in beneficial bacteria, especially Lachnospiraceae and Akkermansia. Our results warrant follow-up investigations on the use of BC as an adjunct to antibiotic therapy to control gut dysbiosis and reduce C. difficile infection in humans.

The Therapeutic Potential of Wogonin Observed in Preclinical Studies

Wogonin is a flavonoid found in different plants such as roots of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi distributed mainly in Asia and Europe. Dried root extracts of S. baicalensis with high content of wogonin, popularly known as "Huang-Qin" or Chinese or baical skullcap, have been used for long time in traditional Chinese medicine. Several health benefits are attributed to wogonin and derivatives showing anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anticancer, and antioxidant effects and more recently antineurodegenerative properties. Preclinical pharmacological activities of wogonin against diverse types of cancer such as breast, colorectal, and human gastric cancer will be presented in this review. In addition, studies on oxidative stress and bioavailability of wogonin will be discussed together with antineurodegenerative potential with special focus on Alzheimer's disease. Outcomes extracted from the last preclinical studies related to therapeutic applications of wogonin will be commented and updated in this review. The scientific evidence collected in this review aims to encourage transfer of the preclinical evidence of wogonin to new clinical studies.

Identification of 4'-Demethyltangeretin as a Major Urinary Metabolite of Tangeretin in Mice and Its Anti-inflammatory Activities

The present study showed that oral administration of tangeretin (TAN) in mice resulted in the production of 4'-demethyltangeretin (4DT) as a major urinary metabolite. The anti-inflammatory efficacy of TAN and 4DT was determined in RAW 264.7 macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharides (LPS). 4DT produced considerably stronger inhibition on the overproduction of prostaglandin E₂ and nitric oxide than TAN did at the same concentrations. Western blot and quantitative polymerase chain reaction analyses indicated that 4DT exerted more potent suppressive activity on the over-expression of interleukin-1β, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and cyclooxygenase-2 than TAN. Treatments with TAN and 4DT diminished LPS-stimulated nuclear factor κB (NFκB) translocation via suppressing the degradation of inhibitor κB (IκBα). Furthermore, both compounds attenuated mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and Akt signaling upregulated by LPS. Overall, our findings showed that TAN and 4DT inhibited the LPS-stimulated inflammatory response in macrophages by suppressing Akt/MAPKs/NFκB proinflammatory pathways, while 4DT showed more potent activity than TAN, its parent compound.

Two Promising Anti-Cancer Compounds, 2-Hydroxycinnaldehyde and 2-Benzoyloxycinnamaldehyde: Where do we stand?

Natural bioactive compounds with anti-carcinogenic activity are gaining tremendous interest in the field of oncology. Cinnamon, an aromatic condiment commonly used in tropical regions, appeared incredibly promising as adjuvant for cancer therapy. Indeed, its whole or active parts (e.g., bark, leaf) exhibited significant anti-carcinogenic activity, which is mainly due to two cinnamaldehyde derivatives, namely 2-hydroxycinnaldehyde (HCA) and 2-benzoyloxycinnamaldehyde (BCA). In addition to their anti-cancer activity, HCA and BCA exert immunomodulatory, anti-platelets, and anti-inflammatory activities. Highly reactive α,ß-unsaturated carbonyl pharmacophore, called Michael acceptor, contribute to their therapeutic effects. The molecular mechanisms, underlying their anti-tumoral and anti-metastatic effects are miscellaneous, strongly suggesting that these compounds are multi-targeting compounds. Nevertheless, unravelling the exact molecular mechanisms of HCA and BCA remain a challenging matter which is necessary for optimal controlled-drug targeting delivery, safety, and efficiency. Eventually, their poor pharmacological properties (e.g., systemic bioavailability and solubility) represent a limitation, and depend both on their administration route (e.g., per os, intravenously) and the nature of the formulation (e.g., free, smart nano-). This concise review focused on the potential of HCA and BCA as adjuvants in Cancer. We described their medicinal effects as well as provide an update about their molecular mechanisms reported either in-vitro, ex-vivo, or in animal models.

Protective Role of Natural Products in Glioblastoma Multiforme: A Focus on Nitric Oxide Pathway

In spite of therapeutic modalities such as surgical resection, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) remains an incurable fatal disease. This necessitates further therapeutic options that could enhance the efficacy of existing modalities. Nitric Oxide (NO), a short-lived small molecule, has been revealed to play a crucial role in the pathophysiology of GBM. Several studies have demonstrated that NO is involved in apoptosis, metastasis, cellular proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion, and many other processes implicated in GBM pathobiology. Herein, we elaborate on the role of NO as a therapeutic target in GBM and discuss some natural products affecting the NO signaling pathway.

The main bioactive compounds of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. for alleviation of inflammatory cytokines: A comprehensive review

Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi., a plant used in traditional Chinese medicine, has multiple biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antitumor, antioxidant, and antibacterial effects, and can be used to treat respiratory tract infections, pneumonia, colitis, hepatitis, and allergic diseases. The main active substances of S. baicalensis, baicalein, baicalin, wogonin, wogonoside, and oroxylin A, can act directly on immune cells such as lymphocytes, macrophages, mast cells, dendritic cells, monocytes, and neutrophils, and inhibit the production of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α, and other inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and reactive oxygen species. The molecular mechanisms underlying the immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of the active compounds of S. baicalensis include downregulation of toll-like receptors, activation of the Nrf2 and PPAR signaling pathways, and inhibition of the nuclear thioredoxin system and inflammation-associated pathways such as those of MAPK, Akt, NFκB, and JAK-STAT. Given that in addition to the downregulation of cytokine production, the active constituents of S. baicalensis also have antiviral and antibacterial effects, they may be more promising candidate therapeutics for the prevention of infection-related cytokine storms than are drugs having only antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory activities.

Scutellaria baicalensis Flavones as Potent Drugs against Acute Respiratory Injury during SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Structural Biology Approaches

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection can result in severe damage to the respiratory system. With no specific treatment to date, it is crucial to identify potent inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 Chymotrypsin-like protease (3CLpro) that could also modulate the enzymes involved in the respiratory damage that accompanies SARS-CoV-2 infection. Here, flavones isolated from Scutellaria baicalensis (baicalein, baicalin, wogonin, norwogonin, and oroxylin A) were studied as possible compounds in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV-2-induced acute lung injuries. We used structural bioinformatics and cheminformatics to (i) identify the critical molecular features of flavones for their binding activity at human and SARS-CoV-2 enzymes; (ii) predict their drug-likeness and lead-likeness features; (iii) calculate their pharmacokinetic profile, with an emphasis on toxicology; (iv) predict their pharmacodynamic profiles, with the identification of their human body targets involved in the respiratory system injuries; and (v) dock the ligands to SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro. All flavones presented appropriate drug-like and kinetics features, except for baicalin. Flavones could bind to SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro at a similar site, but interact slightly differently with the protease. Flavones’ pharmacodynamic profiles predict that (i) wogonin strongly binds at the cyclooxygenase2 and nitric oxide synthase; (ii) baicalein and norwogonin could modulate lysine-specific demethylase 4D-like and arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase; and (iii) baicalein, wogonin, norwogonin, and oroxylin A bind to SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro. Our results propose these flavones as possible potent drugs against respiratory damage that occurs during SARS-CoV-2 infections, with a strong recommendation for baicalein.

Potential therapeutic and pharmacological effects of Wogonin: an updated review

Flavonoids are members of polyphenolic compounds, which are naturally presented in fruits, vegetables, and some medicinal plants. Traditionally, the root of Scutellaria baicalensis is widely used as Chinese herbal medicine and contains several major bioactive compounds such as Wogonin, Scutellarein, Baicalein, and Baicalin. Experimental and clinical evidence has been proving that Wogonin exhibits diverse biological activities such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammation, and treatment of bacterial and viral infections. In this review, we summarize and emphasize the benefits of Wogonin as a therapeutic adjuvant for anti-viral infection, anti-inflammation, neuroprotection as well as anxiolytic and anticonvulsant. Moreover, the molecular mechanism(s) how Wogonin mediates the cellular signal pathways and immune responses are also discussed and highlighted valuable properties of Wogonin in multiple therapies.

Baicalin improves the survival in endotoxic mice and inhibits the inflammatory responses in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages

Introduction:

Sepsis is a severe disease with a high morbidity and mortality. Baicalin, an active compound of Chinese medicine, Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qui), exhibits several beneficial effects. In this study, we examined whether administration of baicalin increases the survival in mice with endotoxemia and investigated its anti-inflammatory mechanisms in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Methods:

The production of NOx, PGE2, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, the mRNA and protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB in LPS-stimulated macrophages or endotoxic mice were determined. The model of severe endotoxic mice was established by injection of LPS (60 mg/kg, i.p.).

Results:

Baicalin significantly inhibited the production of NO, PGE2, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in LPS-stimulated macrophages. Baicalin treatment also markedly suppressed LPS-induced iNOS and COX-2 expression at the transcriptional and translational levels, and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB in macrophages. Similarly, the serum concentrations of NOx, PGE2, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, and the lung myeloperoxidase activity were greatly reduced in baicalin-treated endotoxic mice. Notably, after LPS injection, the 3-day survival rate of mice treated with pre- or post-administration of baicalin (50 mg/kg, i.p.) remarkably increased to 100% and 90%, respectively compared with LPS-injected alone mice with a survival rate of 0%.

Conclusion:

Baicalin has a potent anti-inflammatory activity in LPS-stimulated macrophages and endotoxic mice. Moreover, treatment with baicalin dramatically increased the survival in the severe septic mice, suggesting that baicalin may be a potential agent for sepsis therapy.

Uncovering Synergistic Mechanism of Chinese Herbal Medicine in the Treatment of Atrial Fibrillation with Obstructive Sleep Apnea Hypopnea Syndrome by Network Pharmacology

Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (AF) combined with obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS) is very common in clinical practice. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) rule of regulating the liver based on psycho-cardiology shows satisfactory effectiveness in the treatment of paroxysmal AF combined with OSAHS. However, its underlying pharmacological mechanism has not yet been elucidated. This study applied network pharmacology to identify 94 active components in the six TCM liver-regulating herbs and 182 corresponding targets from several databases and comprehensive literature studies, as well as retrieved AF combined with OSAHS-related targets. Cytoscape software was adopted to construct the component-component target network and component-putative target-AF combined with OSAHS target network. Then, we obtained 38 putative therapeutic targets against AF combined with OSAHS. After the production of a putative therapeutic target interaction network, topological analysis was adopted to determine the core targets of TCM liver-regulating herbs in the treatment of paroxysmal AF combined with OSAHS. For all putative therapeutic targets, biological process analysis and pathway enrichment analysis were utilized to investigate the possible mechanism of TCM liver-regulating herbs in the treatment of paroxysmal AF combined with OSAHS. Mechanistically, it included positive regulation of nitric oxide biosynthetic process, aging, response to hypoxia, TNF signaling pathway, HIF-1 signaling pathway, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, and calcium signaling pathway. Especially, six core targets of TCM liver-regulating herbs, namely, TNF, STAT3, AKT1, IL-6, TP53, and INS, were significant in the regulation of the above biological processes and pathways. This study demonstrates the multicomponent, multitarget, and multipathway feature of TCM liver-regulating herbs, provides an extensional foundation for further research, and facilitates the reasonable application of TCM liver-regulating herbs in treating paroxysmal AF combined with OSAHS.

Baicalin Attenuates Mycoplasma gallisepticum-Induced Inflammation via Inhibition of the TLR2-NF-κB Pathway in Chicken and DF-1 Cells

Background

Previous reports demonstrated that baicalin possesses potential anti-inflammatory properties. The present study was conducted to determine the effects of baicalin against inflammatory responses in chicken and DF-1 cells infected with Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG).

Methods

An MG infection model was developed in chickens to study the anti-inflammatory mechanism of baicalin. Baicalin was mixed in water at a dose of 450 mg/kg per day, and the treatment is continued for 7 consecutive days. Samples were taken at 1, 4, and 7 days post treatment.

Results

By using transmission electron microscopy, ultrastructure of lung and tracheal cells has been examined. It can be seen that the cilia cells in the MG-infected group have pyknosis, degeneration, and necrosis. In the lung tissues, alveolar type-I epithelial cells were severely damaged. In the baicalin-treated group, cilia were swollen, mushroom-shaped edema bubbles formed on the apex, and fused together. Alveolar type I epithelial cells injury was significantly reduced. Compared to MG-infection group, the levels of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α were significantly decreased (P < 0.01). The corresponding proteins TLR2 and P-p65 decreased in the baicalin-treated group after 1 (p > 0.05), 4 (p < 0.05), and 7 days (p < 0.05), respectively.

Conclusion

The results showed that baicalin can interfere with inflammatory injury by suppressing the release of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α during MG infection both in vivo and in vitro. Meanwhile, baicalin suppressed TLR2-NFκB signaling pathway by inhibiting the phosphorylation of p65 and IκB, thereby affecting the expression of inflammatory factors. The results suggested that baicalin acts as a potential anti-inflammatory agent against MG infection in chicken and DF-1 cells.

Combinatorial Action of Triterpenoid, Flavonoid, and Alkaloid on Inflammation

In the present study, the synergistic effects of BASk, a combination of betulinic acid (B), apigenin (A), and skimmianine (Sk) in the ratio of 1:1:1, were studied to construct a novel drug mixture against inflammation via the TLR4-nuclear factor Kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB) signaling pathway. In silico drug likeness and docking studies recommended 3 bioactive compounds as suitable ligands for drug development. BASk inhibited TLR4 from its dimerization with MD2 and blocked the TLR4 signaling cascade. Reduced nuclear translocation of NFκB inhibited the release of pro-inflammatory mediators (IL-1β and TNF-α), COX-2 expression, and PGE2. Similarly, BASk exerted its protective role by reducing pro-inflammatory mediators and elevating anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10. This confirms the inhibiting potential of BASk in the activation of the TLR4-NFκB signaling cascade. Thus, BASk was superior in its anti-inflammatory effect on oxidized low density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) induced human peripheral blood mononuclear cells than its individual components synergistically. Since BASk inhibited COX-2 expression and further release of PGE2, it is a potent therapeutic agent with better efficacy against inflammation because COX-2 is the target site for treating inflammatory diseases. Thus, it can be clearly stated that this innovation will be a breakthrough in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

The Therapeutic Effects of Baicalin on Vitiligo Mice

Vitiligo is a commom disease of skin. Its pathogenesis is complex, resulting in the incapacity to find a targeted cure. Baicalin, which is isolated from Scutellariae radix, has been known to exhibit a number of pharmacological effects on autoimmune diseases. In this study, we explored the effects of Baicalin on the recovery of vitiligo stimulated by monophenylketone in mice. We observed that Baicalin slowed down the progression of depigmentation, decreased the incidence of depigmentation, and reduced the area of depigmentation. Moreover, reflectance confocal microscopy (RCM) shown that Baicalin increased the epidermal melanocytes in depigmented skin. Baicalin decreased CD8 + T cell infiltration in mice skin, and decreased the expression of CXCL10 and CXCR3. Baicalin significantly decreased the levels of serum cytokine (interleukin [IL]-6, tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-α, interferon-γ [IFN-γ], and IL-13). Collectively, these data suggest that Baicalin play an important role in the occurrence and development of vitiligo.

Targeting Inflammatory Pathways in Alzheimer's Disease: A Focus on Natural Products and Phytomedicines

Studies of the brains of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients have revealed key neuropathological features, such as the deposition of aggregates of insoluble amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). These pathological protein deposits, including Aβ peptides (which form senile plaques) and hyperphosphorylated tau (which aggregates into NFTs), have been assumed to be 'the cause of AD'. Aβ has been extensively targeted to develop an effective disease-modifying therapy, but with limited clinical success. Emerging therapies are also now targeting further pathological processes in AD, including neuroinflammation. This review focuses on the inflammatory and oxidative stress-related changes that occur in AD, and discusses some emerging anti-inflammatory natural products and phytomedicines. Many of the promising compounds are cytokine-suppressive anti-inflammatory drugs (CSAIDs), which target the proinflammatory AP1 and nuclear factor-κB signalling pathways and inhibit the expression of many proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, tumour necrosis factor-α, or nitric oxide produced by inducible nitric oxide synthase. However, many of these phytomedicines have not been tested in rigorous clinical trials in AD patients. It is not yet clear if the active compounds reach an effective concentration in the brain (due to limited bioavailability) or if they can slow down AD progression in long-term trials. The authors suggest that it is crucial for both the pharmacological and complementary medicine industries to conduct and fund those studies to significantly advance the field.

Effects of Atmospheric and Room Temperature Plasma (ARTP) Mutagenesis on Physicochemical Characteristics and Immune Activity In Vitro of Hericium erinaceus Polysaccharides

The polysaccharide is the main active substance contained in Hericium erinaceus and is commonly used in the treatment of neurasthenia, tumors, and digestive diseases. Six intracellular polysaccharide components were obtained from H. erinaceus fruiting bodies cultivated by ARTP (atmospheric and room temperature plasma) mutagenic strain (321) and the original strain (0605), respectively. This study was designed to investigate the physicochemical characteristics of these polysaccharide components and their potential immunomodulatory activities on RAW264.7 macrophages. The results showed that the yield of fruiting body cultivated by mutated strain increased by 22% and the polysaccharide content improved by 16% compared with the original one owing to ARTP mutagenesis. The molecular weight distribution and the monosaccharide compositions of polysaccharide components from H. erinaceus induced by ARTP mutagenesis were significantly different from that of the original one. The NO, IL-6, IL-10, IL-1β, and TNF-α production activities of macrophages were enhanced by stimulation of 20% ethanol precipitated polysaccharides from H. erinaceus induced by ARTP mutagenesis. These results indicated that ARTP is an efficient and practical method for high polysaccharide content breeding of the H. erinaceus strain and this provided a reference for obtaining high quality resources and healthy product development from H. erinaceus.

Systems Pharmacology Dissection of Multi-Scale Mechanisms of Action of Huo-Xiang-Zheng-Qi Formula for the Treatment of Gastrointestinal Diseases

Multi-components Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) treats various complex diseases (multi-etiologies and multi-symptoms) via herbs interactions to exert curative efficacy with less adverse effects. However, the ancient Chinese compatibility theory of herbs formula still remains ambiguous. Presently, this combination principle is dissected through a systems pharmacology study on the mechanism of action of a representative TCM formula, Huo-xiang-zheng-qi (HXZQ) prescription, on the treatment of functional dyspepsia (FD), a chronic or recurrent clinical disorder of digestive system, as typical gastrointestinal (GI) diseases which burden human physical and mental health heavily and widely. In approach, a systems pharmacology platform which incorporates the pharmacokinetic and pharmaco-dynamics evaluation, target fishing and network pharmacological analyses is employed. As a result, 132 chemicals and 48 proteins are identified as active compounds and FD-related targets, and the mechanism of HXZQ formula for the treatment of GI diseases is based on its three function modules of anti-inflammation, immune protection and gastrointestinal motility regulation mainly through four, i.e., PIK-AKT, JAK-STAT, Toll-like as well as Calcium signaling pathways. In addition, HXZQ formula conforms to the ancient compatibility rule of "Jun-Chen-Zuo-Shi" due to the different, while cooperative roles that herbs possess, specifically, the direct FD curative effects of GHX (serving as Jun drug), the anti-bacterial efficacy and major accompanying symptoms-reliving bioactivities of ZS and BZ (as Chen), the detoxication and ADME regulation capacities of GC (as Shi), as well as the minor symptoms-treating efficacy of the rest 7 herbs (as Zuo). This work not only provides an insight of the therapeutic mechanism of TCMs on treating GI diseases from a multi-scale perspective, but also may offer an efficient way for drug discovery and development from herbal medicine as complementary drugs.

The Biological Efficacy of Natural Products against Acute and Chronic Inflammatory Diseases in the Oral Region

The oral inflammatory diseases are divided into two types: acute and chronic inflammatory diseases. In this review, we summarize the biological efficacy of herbal medicine, natural products, and their active ingredients against acute and chronic inflammatory diseases in the oral region, especially stomatitis and periodontitis. We review the effects of herbal medicines and a biscoclaurin alkaloid preparation, cepharamthin, as a therapy against stomatitis, an acute inflammatory disease. We also summarize the effects of herbal medicines and natural products against periodontitis, a chronic inflammatory disease, and one of its clinical conditions, alveolar bone resorption. Recent studies show that several herbal medicines such as kakkonto and ninjinto reduce LPS-induced PGE2 production by human gingival fibroblasts. Among herbs constituting these herbal medicines, shokyo (Zingiberis Rhizoma) and kankyo (Zingiberis Processum Rhizoma) strongly reduce PGE2 production. Moreover, anti-osteoclast activity has been observed in some natural products with anti-inflammatory effects used against rheumatoid arthritis such as carotenoids, flavonoids, limonoids, and polyphenols. These herbal medicines and natural products could be useful for treating oral inflammatory diseases.

Baicalin attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in murine macrophage cell line RAW264.7 through miR-124-STAT3 axis

Baicalin, a flavonoid isolated from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, has shown a wide range of anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, antiviral, and antitumor properties. However, the molecular mechanism of how baicalin exerts its effects, especially on inflammation regulation, has not been fully investigated. In this article, we report the effects of baicalin on the mouse macrophage cell line RAW264.7. Our results demonstrate that baicalin inhibits the production of inflammatory factors interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation of macrophages. We observed that baicalin inhibits STAT3 activation through retarding its expression and phosphorylation. Interestingly, baicalin treatment promotes the elevation of miR-124 in lipopolysaccharide-treated macrophages. Overexpression of the miR-124 mimic in RAW264.7 reduced STAT3 expression and phosphorylation. Furthermore, inhibition of miR-124 attenuated the dysregulation of STAT3 and reduction of inflammatory factors upon baicalin treatment. Our results revealed the molecular mechanism that baicalin attenuates pro-inflammatory cytokine production through miR-124-STAT3 signaling pathway, suggesting that miR-124 is an important modulator in regulating anti-inflammation by baicalin in macrophages.

Raging the War Against Inflammation With Natural Products

Over the last few decade Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) are the drugs of choice for treating numerous inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis. The NSAIDs produces anti-inflammatory activity via inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzyme, responsible for the conversation of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins. Likewise, cyclooxegenase-2 inhibitors (COX-2) selectively inhibit the COX-2 enzyme and produces significant anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anti-pyretic activity without producing COX-1 associated gastrointestinal and renal side effects. In last two decades numerous selective COX-2 inhibitors (COXIBs) have been developed and approved for various inflammatory conditions. However, data from clinical trials have suggested that the prolong use of COX-2 inhibitors are also associated with life threatening cardiovascular side effects including ischemic heart failure and myocardial infection. In these scenario secondary metabolites from natural product offers a great hope for the development of novel anti-inflammatory compounds. Although majority of the natural product based compounds exhibit more selectively toward COX-1. However, the data suggest that slight structural modification can be helpful in developing COX-2 selective secondary metabolites with comparative efficacy and limited side effects. This review is an effort to highlight the secondary metabolites from terrestrial and marine source with significant COX-2 and COX-2 mediated PGE2 inhibitory activity, since it is anticipated that isolates with ability to inhibit COX-2 mediated PGE2 production would be useful in suppressing the inflammation and its classical sign and symptoms. Moreover, this review has highlighted the potential lead compounds including berberine, kaurenoic acid, α-cyperone, curcumin, and zedoarondiol for further development with the help of structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies and their current status.

Structural Properties and Macrophage Activation of Cell Wall Polysaccharides from the Fruiting Bodies of Hericium erinaceus

In this study, water-soluble and alkali-soluble cell wall polysaccharides were obtained from fruiting body extracted residual micropowders of Hericium erinaceus, harvested at seven different growing stages. The structural properties and in vitro immunity activities of cell wall polysaccharides extracted successively by hot water and sodium hydroxide solution were studied, and the results indicated that the yield and content of polysaccharides increased during the reproductive growth stage and decreased with the maturity of the fruiting body. Water-soluble cell wall polysaccharides mainly composed of glucose and galactose at a molar ratio of 3.4⁻14:1.0, and also contained a small ratio of glucuronic acid. The alkali-soluble cell wall polysaccharides were glucans with lower molecular weight and higher macrophage activation activity in vitro than water-soluble ones. Our findings suggest that the growth stages (H4 and H5) are suitable for harvesting H. erinaceus fruiting bodies with higher cell wall polysaccharide yield and functional benefits.

Semi-Mechanism-Based Pharmacodynamic Model for the Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Baicalein in LPS-Stimulated RAW264.7 Macrophages

Monitoring of the inhibition of TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS, and NO is used to effectively evaluate anti-inflammatory drugs. Baicalein was found to have good anti-inflammatory activities, but its detailed cellular pharmacodynamic events have not been expatiated by any other study. The inflammatory mediators, including TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS, and NO production in RAW264.7 macrophage induced by LPS, were measured. It was found that these data showed a sequential pattern on time and based on these points a cellular pharmacodynamic model was developed and tested. TNF-α and IL-6 were quantified by ELISA, NO was detected by Griess and iNOS expression was measured by Western blot. The pharmacodynamic model was developed using a NLME modeling program Monolix® 2016R1.¹The results showed that baicalein quickly suppressed release of TNF-α in a concentration-dependent manner, and consequently causing the diminution of IL-6 and iNOS/NO. The pharmacodynamic model simulation successfully described the experimental data, supporting the hypothesis that IL-6 and iNOS /NO release after LPS stimulation is mediated by TNF-α rather than LPS directly. The pharmacodynamic model allowed a well understanding of the cellular pharmacodynamic mechanism of baicalein in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Metabolism of Phenolic Compounds in LPS-stimulated Raw264.7 Cells Can Impact Their Anti-inflammatory efficacy: Indication of Hesperetin

Raw264.7 is a murine macrophage-like cell line commonly used to study the anti-inflammatory efficacy of natural compounds. However, the impacts of long-time incubation on the tested compounds are often inappropriately ignored. Among 77 natural phenolic compounds (mainly flavonoids), only 36 remain more than 70% after a 15-h incubation in cell culture medium at 37 °C. Interestingly, for those compounds with a relatively good chemical stability, the presence of Raw264.7 cells could accelerate their disappearance in the medium, indicating that cellular metabolism occurred. As a representative phenolic, hesperetin was found to be efficiently metabolized by Raw264.7 cells and the metabolite was identified as a glucuronide in the further investigation. The glucuronidation activity is constitutive in this cell line. At certain concentration levels of hesperetin, the ability of hesperetin to inhibit PGD₂ production in LPS-induced Raw264.7 cells was significantly enhanced by introducing β-glucuronidase, which can hydrolyze hesperetin glucuronide, into the incubation medium. The results indicate that glucuronidation and excretion of hesperetin can significantly impact its bioactivity in Raw264.7 cells.

LL202 protects against dextran sulfate sodium-induced experimental colitis in mice by inhibiting MAPK/AP-1 signaling

LL202, a newly-synthesized flavonoid derivative, has been reported to inhibit inflammatory-induced angiogenesis. However, the exact role of LL202 in inflammation along with its mechanism has not been explored. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of LL202 on intestinal inflammation by establishing dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced experimental colitis. LL202 attenuated DSS-induced body weight loss, colon length shortening and colonic pathological damage. The inflammatory cells infiltration, myeloperoxidase (MPO) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) activities were decreased by LL202 in a dose-dependent manner. LL202 reduced the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in serum and colon of DSS-induced mice as well. Mechanically, LL202 could decrease the expression and nuclear translation of AP-1 to protect against DSS-induced colitis. In lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced THP-1 cells, LL202 markedly decreased the secretion, mRNA level and protein expression of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α via inhibiting ERK/JNK/p38 MAPK pathways and the nuclear translocation of AP-1. Furthermore, these findings were confirmed in LPS-induced bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDM). In conclusion, our study demonstrated that LL202 could exert its anti-inflammatory effect via inhibiting MAPK/AP-1 signaling, which suggested that LL202 might be a potential effective drug for the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases.

Preventive effect of oral hangeshashinto (TJ-14) on the development of reflux-induced esophageal cancer

BACKGROUND

Prostaglandin E2 is one of the potential products that promotes development of tumors and also is a strong inducer of M2 phenotype macrophages, which contribute to tumor development in the immunosuppressed microenvironment. Hangeshashinto (TJ-14), a Japanese traditional medicine (Kampo medicine), has been reported to be effective in preventing chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis through the reduction of prostaglandin E2. We previously developed a surgical rat reflux model of esophageal cancer and used this well-established animal model to investigate the action of TJ-14 in preventing esophageal cancer. We also assessed the effect of TJ-14 on the downregulation of prostaglandin E2 production, utilizing esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cell line exposed to bile acid.

METHODS

An end-to-side esophagojejunostomy was performed for the reflux model. A daily oral diet was subsequently administered, consisting of either diet-incorporated TJ-14 or standard diet as a control group. The rats were killed at 40 weeks after surgery. The incidence of esophageal cancer, Barrett's metaplasia, and proliferative hyperplasia were assessed histologically. CD163, a M2 phenotype macrophage marker, was assessed with immunohistochemistry. Prostaglandin E2 enzyme immunoassay and lactate dehydrogenase assay were performed on chenodeoxycholic acid or gastroesophageal reflux contents exposed to esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cell line.

RESULTS

Sixty-seven percent of the controls (n = 12) developed esophageal cancer, but animals that received TJ-14 (n = 10) had a cancer incidence of 10% (P=.007). Barrett's metaplasia was found in 83% of the rats in the control group and 50% of the rats in the TJ-14 indicating a protective tendency of TJ-14 (P=.095). All of the rats developed proliferative hyperplasia. The number of M2 phenotype macrophage were significantly decreased in the TJ-14 group compared to the control group in both Barrett's metaplasia and esophageal cancer lesions. TJ-14 inhibited chenodeoxycholic acid or gastroesophageal reflux content-induced prostaglandin E2 production in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cell.

CONCLUSION

TJ-14 reduced the incidence of reflux-induced esophageal cancer and the infiltration of M2 macrophages in a surgical rat model or suppressed prostaglandin E2 production in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cell. Further investigation is required regarding the potential clinical use of TJ-14 as an esophageal cancer chemopreventive agent.

Systems Pharmacology Based Strategy for Q-Markers Discovery of HuangQin Decoction to Attenuate Intestinal Damage

The quality control research of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is lagged far behind the space of progress in modernization and globalization. Thus the concept of quality marker (Q-marker) was proposed recently to guide the quality investigations of TCM. However, how to discover and validate the Q-marker is still a challenge. In this paper, a system pharmacology based strategy was proposed to discover Q-marker of HuangQin decoction (HQD) to attenuate Intestinal Damage. Using this strategy, nine measurable compounds including paeoniflorin, baicalin, scutellarein, liquiritigenin, norwogonin, baicalein, glycyrrhizic acid, wogonin, and oroxylin A were screened out as potential markers. Standard references of these nine compounds were pooled together as components combination according to their corresponding concentration in HQD. The bioactive equivalence between components combination and HQD was validated using wound healing test and inflammatory factor determination experiment. The comprehensive results indicated that components combination is almost bioactive equivalent to HQD and could serve as the Q-markers. In conclusion, our study put forward a promising strategy for Q-markers discovery.

Regulatory effect of baicalin on the imbalance of Th17/Treg responses in mice with allergic asthma

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

Baicalin, a flavonoid compound, was isolated from traditional Chinese medicine Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. The study aimed to explore the regulatory effect of baicalin on immunological balance of Th17/Treg responses and the possible mechanisms in mice with allergic asthma.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mice were sensitized and challenged with OVA+LPS by intranasal instillation, and were intragastrically treated with baicalin from days 22-36 after sensitization. The organ coefficient of lung was determined. Immunoglobulin E (IgE) level in serum and cytokine IL-17A, IL-6, IL-10 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were measured by ELISA. Histological changes in lung and airway tissues were observed by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and periodic acid-Schiff staining (PAS). The expressions of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and forkhead box P3 (FOXP3) in lung tissues were evaluated by immunohistochemistry and western blot methods.

RESULTS

Baicalin obviously decreased OVA+LPS-induced organ coefficient of lung, inhibited serum IgE and BALF IL-7A and IL-6 secrection, promoted BALF IL-10 secrection in a dose-dependent manner. Histological studies demonstrated that baicalin significantly alleviated OVA+LPS-induced inflammatory responses and mucus secretion in lung and airway tissues. Immunohistochemistry and western blot studies showed that baicalin substantially suppressed STAT3 expression and promoted FOXP3 expression in lung tissues of mice.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that baicalin effectively protects against OVA+LPS-induced allergic asthma in mice by regulating the immunological imbalance of Th17/Treg responses.

Therapeutic Potential of Baicalein in Alzheimer's Disease and Parkinson's Disease

Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease are the two most common, progressive central neurodegenerative diseases affecting the population over the age of 60 years. Apart from treatments that temporarily improve symptoms, there is no medicine currently available to inhibit or reverse the progression of Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. In traditional Chinese medicine, the root of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi is a classic compatible component in the decoction of herbal medicine used for treating central nervous system diseases. Modern pharmacokinetic studies have confirmed that baicalein (5,6,7-trihydroxyflavone) is a major bioactive flavone constituent root of S. baicalensis Georgi. Studies showed that baicalein possesses a range of key pharmacological properties, such as reducing oxidative stress, anti-inflammatory properties, inhibiting aggregation of disease-specific amyloid proteins, inhibiting excitotoxicity, stimulating neurogenesis and differentiation action, and anti-apoptosis effects. Based on these properties, baicalein shows therapeutic potential for Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. In this review, we summarize the pharmacological protective actions of baicalein that make it suitable for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, and discuss the potential mechanisms underlying the effects.

Hangeshashinto (TJ-14) prevents radiation-induced mucositis by suppressing cyclooxygenase-2 expression and chemotaxis of inflammatory cells

PURPOSE

Radiation-induced oral mucositis is the most common side effect of radiotherapy in head and neck cancer; however, effective modalities for its prevention have not been established. In this study, we evaluated the effectiveness of Hangeshashinto (TJ-14), a Japanese herbal medicine, for preventing radiation-induced mucositis and elucidated its effect on inflammatory responses, including inflammatory cell chemotaxis and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) expression, in an animal model.

METHODS

Syrian hamsters, 8-9 weeks old, were enrolled in this study. Animals were irradiated with a single 40 Gy dose to the buccal mucosa. Hamsters freely received a treatment diet mixed with 2% TJ-14 or a normal diet daily. The therapeutic effect was determined based on the visual mucositis score, body weight, and histological examination of infiltrated neutrophils and COX2 expression.

RESULTS

TJ-14 significantly reduced the severity of mucositis. The percentage with severe mucositis (score ≥3) was 100% in the untreated group and 16.7% in the TJ-14 group (P < 0.05). There was no difference in body weight change between the groups; however, weight gain in the untreated group tended to be suppressed compared to that in the TJ-14 group during the peak period of mucositis. In addition, TJ-14 inhibited the infiltration of neutrophils and COX2 expression in irradiated mucosa (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

TJ-14 reduced the severity of mucositis in an animal model by suppressing the inflammatory response. Because TJ-14 is inexpensive and its safety is established, it is a promising candidate for the standard treatment of radiation-induced mucositis in cancer patients.

Reversal of cisplatin resistance in human gastric cancer cells by a wogonin-conjugated Pt(IV) prodrug via attenuating Casein Kinase 2-mediated Nuclear Factor-κB pathways

Pt(IV) prodrugs, with two additional coordination sites in contrast to Pt(II) drugs, have been actively studied nowadays, for they can perform well in enhancing the accumulation and retention of the corresponding Pt(II) drugs in cancer cells. Our designed Pt(II) drug, DN604, was recently found to exhibit significant anticancer activity and low toxicity, while, wogonin, a naturally O-methylated flavones, has been widely investigated for its tumor therapeutic potential. Thus, two Pt(IV)-based prodrugs were derived by addition of a wogonin unit to the axial position of DN604 and its analogue DN603 via a linker group. In vitro cytotoxicity assay indicated that the resulting compound 8 not only inherited the genotoxicity of DN604 on gastric cancer cells, but also obtained the COX inhibitory property arising from wogonin. Further studies revealed that compound 8 caused the accumulation of ROS production and decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm). The CK2α kinase activity assay, ChIP and luciferase assays showed that CK2 plays an important role in the blockade of compound 8 on activated NF-κB survival pathways, which were established for sensitivity of cancer cells to platinum drugs. Similarly in vivo, in nude mice with SGC-7901/cDDP xenografts, compound 8 improved the effectiveness of DN604 via reversing tumor resistance and maintaining low toxicity. Overall, compound 8 is a promising Pt(IV) prodrug, which could be used to promote the anticancer activity of its counterpart Pt(II) species and reverse drug resistance via attenuating CK2-mediated NF-κB pathways during platinum-based chemotherapies.

Novel platinum(IV) complexes conjugated with a wogonin derivative as multi-targeted anticancer agents

Platinum-based complexes like cisplatin and oxaliplatin are well known the mainstay of chemotherapy regimens on clinic. Wogonin, a natural product that possesses wide biological activities, is now in phase I clinical test as an anticancer agent in China. Herein reported are a series of novel Pt(IV) complexes that conjugated a wogonin derivative (compound 3) to the axial position via a linker group. After being tethered to the platinum(IV) complexes, the wogonin derivative provided multiple anticancer effects, especially in compound 10, a fusion containing wogonin and cisplatin units. Compound 10 not only inherited the genotoxicity from cisplatin, but also obtained the COX inhibitory property from the wogonin derivative. Further mechanistic investigation revealed that compound 10 caused the accumulation of ROS, decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ_m) and then activated the p53 pathway. Overall, the research demonstrates that the "integrative" prodrug can be an effective strategy to promote the anticancer potency of Pt-based drugs for cancer treatment.

Therapeutic potentials of baicalin and its aglycone, baicalein against inflammatory disorders

The flavonoids, baicalin (5,6-dihydroxy-2-phenyl-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one-7-O-d-β-glucuronic acid) 1 and its aglycone, baicalein 2 are found in edible medicinal plants, Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi and Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz in abundant quantities. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of these flavonoids have been demonstrated in various disease models, including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases, gout and rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, neurodegenerative-, liver- and kidney diseases, encephalomyelitis, and carcinogenesis. These flavonoids have almost no toxicity to human normal epithelial, peripheral and myeloid cells. Their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities are largely due to their abilities to scavenge the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and improvement of antioxidant status by attenuating the activity of NF-κB and suppressing the expression of several inflammatory cytokines and chemokines including monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenases, lipoxygenases, cellular adhesion molecules, tumor necrosis factor and interleukins. In this review, we summarize the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of baicalin and baicalein with molecular mechanisms for their chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic applications in the treatment of inflammatory-related diseases.

Baicalin, baicalein and wogonin inhibits high glucose-induced vascular inflammation in vitro and in vivo

Vascular inflammatory process has been suggested to play a key role in initiation and progression of atherosclerosis, a major complication of diabetes mellitus. Thus, in this study, we attempted to determine whether three structurally related polyphenols found in the Chinese herb Huang Qui, namely baicalin, baicalein, and wogonin, can suppress vascular inflammatory processes induced by high glucose (HG) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and mice. Data showed that HG induced markedly increased vascular permeability, monocyte adhesion, expressions of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB. Remarkably, all of the above mentioned vascular inflammatory effects of HG were attenuated by pretreatment with baicalin, baicalein, and wogonin. Vascular inflammatory responses induced by HG are critical events underlying development of various diabetic complications, therefore, our results suggest that baicalin, baicalein, and wogonin may have significant therapeutic benefits against diabetic complications and atherosclerosis.

Protection of baicalin against lipopolysaccharide induced liver and kidney injuries based on 1H NMR metabolomic profiling

Severe sepsis and septic shock are common and lethal conditions characterized by a systemic inflammatory response that is activated by invasive infection. In this study, a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced sepsis mice model was established to investigate the toxicities of LPS and the therapeutic effect of baicalin. Sera for clinical biochemistry and NMR metabolomic investigation, and liver and kidney tissues for histopathological examination, molecular biology measurement and NMR metabolomic profiling were collected. Multivariate analysis of metabolic profiles of the serum, liver and kidney extracts of mice revealed the occurrence of a severe inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and perturbances in energy and amino acid metabolism in LPS induced sepsis mice, which could be greatly ameliorated by baicalin treatment. This integrated 1H NMR based metabolomics approach gave us a new insight into the pathology of LPS induced sepsis, and helped in understanding the therapeutic effects of baicalin in a holistic view.

Inhibition of skin inflammation by baicalin ultradeformable vesicles

The topical efficacy of baicalin, a natural flavonoid isolated from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, which has several beneficial properties, such as antioxidative, antiviral, anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative, is hindered by its poor aqueous solubility and low skin permeability. Therefore, its incorporation into appropriate phospholipid vesicles could be a useful tool to improve its local activity. To this purpose, baicalin at increasing concentrations up to saturation, was incorporated in ultradeformable vesicles, which were small in size (∼67nm), monodispersed (PI<0.19) and biocompatible, regardless of the concentration of baicalin, as confirmed by in vitro studies using fibroblasts. On the other hand, transdermal flux through human epidermis was concentration dependent. The in vivo results showed the significant anti-inflammatory activity of baicalin loaded nanovesicles irrespective of the concentration used, as they were able to reduce the skin damage induced by the phorbol ester (TPA) application, even in comparison with dexamethasone, a synthetic drug with anti-inflammatory properties. Overall results indicate that ultradeformable vesicles are promising nanosystems for the improvement of cutaneous delivery of baicalin in the treatment of skin inflammation.