Heterogeneous platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptors and calcium increase in platelets and macrophages

Ether lipids from archaeas in nano-drug delivery and vaccination

Archaea are microorganisms more closely related to eukaryotes than bacteria. Almost 50 years after being defined as a new domain of life on earth, new species continue to be discovered and their phylogeny organized. The study of the relationship between their genetics and metabolism and some of their extreme habitats has even positioned them as a model of extraterrestrial life forms. Archaea, however, are deeply connected to the life of our planet: they can be found in arid, acidic, warm areas; on most of the earth's surface, which is cold (below 5 °C), playing a prominent role in the cycles of organic materials on a global scale and they are even part of our microbiota. The constituent materials of these microorganisms differ radically from those produced by eukaryotes and bacteria, and the nanoparticles that can be manufactured using their ether lipids as building blocks exhibit unique properties that are of interest in nanomedicine. Here, we present for the first time a complete overview of the pre-clinical applications of nanomedicines based on ether archaea lipids, focused on drug delivery and adjuvancy over the last 25 years, along with a discussion on their pros, cons and their future industrial implementation.

A gatekeeper helix determines the substrate specificity of Sjögren-Larsson Syndrome enzyme fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase

Mutations in the gene coding for membrane-bound fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase (FALDH) lead to toxic accumulation of lipid species and development of the Sjögren-Larsson Syndrome (SLS), a rare disorder characterized by skin defects and mental retardation. Here, we present the crystallographic structure of human FALDH, the first model of a membrane-associated aldehyde dehydrogenase. The dimeric FALDH displays a previously unrecognized element in its C-terminal region, a 'gatekeeper' helix, which extends over the adjacent subunit, controlling the access to the substrate cavity and helping orientate both substrate cavities towards the membrane surface for efficient substrate transit between membranes and catalytic site. Activity assays demonstrate that the gatekeeper helix is important for directing the substrate specificity of FALDH towards long-chain fatty aldehydes. The gatekeeper feature is conserved across membrane-associated aldehyde dehydrogenases. Finally, we provide insight into the previously elusive molecular basis of SLS-causing mutations.

Orphan enzymes in ether lipid metabolism

Ether lipids are an emerging class of lipids which have so far not been investigated and understood in every detail. They have important roles as membrane components of e.g. lens, brain and testis, and as mediators such as platelet-activating factor. The metabolic enzymes for biosynthesis and degradation have been investigated to some extent. As most involved enzymes are integral membrane proteins they are tricky to handle in biochemical protocols. The sequence of some ether lipid metabolising enzymes has only recently been reported and other sequences still remain obscure. Defined enzymes without assigned sequence are known as orphan enzymes. One of these enzymes with uncharacterised sequence is plasmanylethanolamine desaturase, a key enzyme for the biosynthesis of one of the most abundant phospholipids in our body, the plasmalogens. This review aims to briefly summarise known functions of ether lipids, give an overview on their metabolism including the most prominent members, platelet-activating factor and the plasmalogens. A special focus is set on the description of orphan enzymes in ether lipid metabolism and on the successful strategies how four previous orphans have recently been assigned a sequence. Only one of these four was characterised by classical protein purification and sequencing, whereas the other three required alternative strategies such as bioinformatic candidate gene selection and recombinant expression or development of an inhibitor and multidimensional metabolic profiling.

Ether lipids

The naturally occurring 1-O-alkyl-sn-glycerols and their methoxylated congeners, 1-O-(2'-methoxyalkyl)-sn-glycerols, are biologically active compounds, ubiquitously found in nature as diacyl glyceryl ether lipids and phosphoether lipids. The chief objective of this article is to provide a comprehensive and up to date review on such ether lipids. The occurrence and distribution of these compounds in nature are extensively reviewed, their chemical structure and molecular variety, their biosynthesis and chemical synthesis and, finally, their various biological effects are described and discussed. An unprecedented biosynthesis of the 2'-methoxylated alkylglycerols is proposed. The first synthesis of enantiopure (Z)-(2'R)-1-O-(2'-methoxyhexadec-4'-enyl)-sn-glycerol, the most prevalent 2'-methoxylated type alkylglycerol present in cartilaginous fish, is described. It was accomplished by a highly convergent five step process.

Vimentin autoantibodies induce platelet activation and formation of platelet-leukocyte conjugates via platelet-activating factor

Anti-vimentin antibodies (AVA) are associated with autoimmunity and solid organ transplantation, conditions associated with vascular disease, but their contribution to disease pathogenesis is unknown. Here, we have examined interactions between AVA (mAb and serum from patients) and various leukocyte populations using whole blood and flow cytometry. Normal blood treated with patient sera containing high AVA-IgM titers or with a vimentin-specific monoclonal IgM led to activation of platelets and other leukocytes, as demonstrated by induced expression of P-selectin, fibrinogen, tissue factor, and formation of platelet:leukocyte (P:L) conjugates and a reduction in platelet counts. This activity was antigen (vimentin)-specific and was not mediated by irrelevant IgM antibodies. Flow cytometry demonstrated that AVA do not bind directly to resting platelets in whole blood, but they bind to approximately 10% of leukocytes. Supernatant, derived from AVA-treated leukocytes, induced platelet activation, as measured by the generation of platelet microparticles, when added to platelet-rich plasma. When AVA were added to whole blood in the presence of CV-6209, a platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor inhibitor, platelet depletion was inhibited. This suggests that PAF is one of the mediators released from AVA-activated leukocytes that leads to P:L conjugation formation and platelet activation. In summary, AVA bind to leukocytes, resulting in release of a PAF and prothrombotic factor that exert a paracrine-activating effect on platelets. Overall, this proposed mechanism may explain the pathogenesis of thrombotic events in autoimmune diseases associated with AVA.

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Oxygen-dependent PAF receptor binding and intracellular signaling in ovine fetal pulmonary vascular smooth muscle

Circulating levels of platelet-activating factor (PAF) are high in the fetus, and PAF is active in maintaining high PVR in fetal hypoxia (Ibe BO, Hibler S, Raj J. J Appl Physiol 85: 1079-1085, 1998). PAF synthesis by fetal pulmonary vascular smooth muscle cells (PVSMC) is high in hypoxia, but how oxygen tension affects PAF receptor (PAF-r) binding in PVSMC is not known. We studied the effect of oxygen tension on PAF-r binding and signaling in fetal PVSMC. PAF binding was saturable. PAF-r density (B(max): fmol/10(6) cells; means +/- SE, n = 6), 25.2 +/- 0.77 during hypoxia (Po(2) <40 Torr), was higher than 13.9 +/- 0.44 during normoxia (Po(2) approximately 100 Torr). K(d) was twofold lower in hypoxia than normoxia. PAF-r protein expression, 35-40% greater in hypoxia, was inhibited by cycloheximide, a protein synthesis inhibitor, suggesting translational regulation. IP(3) release, an index of PAF-r-mediated cell signaling, was greater in hypoxia (EC(50): hypoxia, 2.94 +/- 0.61; normoxia, 5.85 +/- 0.51 nM). Exogenous PAF induced 50-90% greater intracellular calcium flux in cells during hypoxia, indicating hypoxia augments PAF-r-mediated cell signaling. PAF-r phosphorylation, with or without 5 nM PAF, was 40% greater in hypoxia. These data show 1) hypoxia upregulates PAF-r binding, PAF-r phosphorylation, and PAF-r-mediated intracellular signaling, evidenced by augmented IP(3) production and intracellular Ca(2+) flux; and 2) hypoxia-induced PAF-r phosphorylation results in activation of PAF-r-mediated signal transduction. The data suggest the fetal hypoxic environment facilitates PAF-r binding and signaling, thereby promoting PAF-mediated pulmonary vasoconstriction and maintenance of high PVR in utero.

Microglial Calcium Responses to Platelet-Activating Factor are Inhibited by Analogue CAS 99103-16-9 and Dihydropyridine PCA 4248 but Not by Ginkgolide A

Calcium signals evoked in N9 microglial cells were monitored using the calcium indicator dye Fluo-4 in a fluorescence imaging plate reader. Platelet activating factor in the range 100 nM to 20 microM elicited graded calcium responses. The analogue CAS 99103-16-9 inhibited the evoked calcium rise with an apparent KB of 1.3 +/- 0.4 microM. The dihydropyridine PCA 4248 inhibited the evoked calcium rise with an apparent KB of 1.2 +/- 0.2 microM. Ginkgolide A at concentrations up to 18 microM had no effect on the evoked calcium rise. While CAS 99103-16-9 and PCA 4248 appear to be simple competitive inhibitors of platelet-activating factor responses, the efficacy of ginkgolide in more complex pharmacological situations may result from an action at a site other than the platelet-activating factor receptor.

PAF-like lipids- and PAF-induced gallbladder muscle contraction is mediated by different pathways in guinea pigs

H2O2 stimulates gallbladder muscle contraction and scavengers of free radicals through the generation of PGE2. Oxidative stress causes lipid peroxidation and generation of platelet-activating factor (PAF) or PAF-like lipids. The present studies therefore were aimed at determining whether either one induced by H2O2 mediates the increased generation of PGE2. Dissociated muscle cells of guinea pig gallbladder were obtained by enzymatic digestion. Both PAF-like lipids and PAF-induced muscle contraction was blocked by the PAF receptor antagonist CV-3988. This antagonist also blocked the increased PGE2 production caused by PAF-like lipids or PAF. Actions of PAF-like lipids were completely inhibited by indomethacin, but those of PAF were only partially reduced by indomethacin or by nordihydroguaiaretic acid and completely blocked by their combination. PAF-like lipids-induced contraction was inhibited by AACOCF3 (cystolic phospholipase A2 inhibitor), whereas the actions of PAF were blocked by MJ33 (secretory phospholipase A2 inhibitor). Receptor protection studies showed that pretreatment with PAF-like lipids before N-ethylmaleimide protected the contraction induced by a second dose of PAF-like lipids or PGE2 but not by PAF. In contrast, pretreatment with PAF protected the actions of PAF and PGE2 but not that of PAF-like lipids. Both PAF-like lipids and PAF-induced contractions were inhibited by anti-Galphaq/11 antibody and by inhibitors of MAPK and PKC. In conclusion, PAF-like lipids seem to activate a pathway different from that of PAF probably by stimulating a different PAF receptor subtype.

Platelet-activating factor receptor

Platelet-activating factor (PAF, 1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) is a biologically active phospholipid mediator. Although PAF was named for its potential to induce platelet aggregation, intense investigations have elucidated potent biological actions of PAF in a broad range of cell types and tissues. PAF acts by binding to a unique G-protein-coupled seven transmembrane receptor, and activates multiple intracellular signaling pathways. In the last decade, we have identified the PAF receptor structures, intracellular signaling mechanisms, and genomic organizations. Recently, we found a single nucleotide polymorphism of the human PAF receptor (A224D) with an allele frequency of 7.8% in Japanese. Cells expressing this receptor exhibited the reduced cellular signaling, although the binding parameters remain unchanged. We have established two different types of genetically altered mice, i.e. PAF receptor-overexpressing mouse and PAF receptor-deficient mouse. These mutant mice provide a novel and specific approach for identifying the pathophysiological and physiological functions of PAF in vivo. This review focuses on phenotypes of these mutant mice and summarizes the previous reports regarding PAF and PAF receptor.

Downregulation of platelet-activating factor responsiveness during maturation of human dendritic cells

Dendritic cells (DCs) are specialized antigen-presenting cells characterized by their ability to migrate into target sites, process antigens, and activate naive T-cells. Biological activities of platelet-activating factor (PAF) and the cytokine macrophage inflammatory protein-3beta (MIP-3beta) as well as the mRNA expression of their receptors were characterized in human DCs during lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-promoted maturation. Platelet-activating factor induced calcium transients, migration-associated actin polymerization response, and chemotaxis in immature human dendritic cells differentiated in vitro from monocytes with interleukin-4 and granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor. In addition, RT-PCR experiments indicated mRNA expression of the PAF receptor in these immature DCs. Cell studies and mRNA analyses further revealed that immature DCs neither respond to MIP-3beta nor express its specific receptor, CCR7. Induction of cell differentiation by LPS led to the loss of the mRNA expression of the PAF receptor, accompanied by decreasing intracellular calcium release, actin polymerization, and migration after stimulation with PAF. In contrast, LPS treatment induced increasing responsiveness toward MIP-3beta and mRNA expression of CCR7. Comparable data regarding mRNA expression of PAF receptor and PAF responsiveness were also obtained with another maturation protocol using TNFalpha instead of LPS. The direct comparison between the two different protocols showed a slower decrease of PAF responsiveness induced by TNFalpha than by LPS. These results show the loss of PAF responsiveness associated with downregulation of PAF receptor mRNA expression during LPS- and TNFalpha-induced maturation in human DCs. Therefore, these findings point to a functional relevance of PAF in recruiting immature DCs, whereas MIP-3beta might regulate the migration of DCs at a later stage of maturation.

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor and genetically engineered PAF receptor mutant mice

Platelet-activating factor (PAF, 1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) is a biologically active phospholipid mediator. Although PAF was initially recognized for its potential to induce platelet aggregation and secretion, intense investigations have elucidated potent biological actions of PAF in a broad range of cell types and tissues, many of which also produce the molecule. PAF acts by binding to a unique G-protein-coupled seven transmembrane receptor. PAF receptor is linked to intracellular signal transduction pathways, including turnover of phosphatidylinositol, elevation in intracellular calcium concentration, and activation of kinases, resulting in versatile bioactions. On the basis of numerous pharmacological reports, PAF is thought to have many pathophysiological and physiological functions. Recently advanced molecular technics enable us not only to clone PAF receptor cDNAs and genes, but also generate PAF receptor mutant animals, i.e., PAF receptor-overexpressing mouse and PAF receptor-deficient mouse. These mutant mice gave us a novel and specific approach for identifying the pathophysiological and physiological functions of PAF. This review also describes the phenotypes of these mutant mice and discusses them by referring to previously reported pharmacological and genetical data.