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Wei M, Zhang R, Zhang F, Yang N, Zhang Y, Li G. How to Choose a Proper Theoretical Analysis Model Based on Cell Adhesion and Nonadhesion Impedance Measurement. ACS Sens 2021; 6:673-687. [PMID: 33724797 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c02710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The accurate equivalent circuit model contributes to the better fitting of required cell characteristics, such as cell impedance, cell adhesion area, and cell-electrode distance. However, so many theoretical models on specific modules make it difficult for new researchers to understand the whole model of electrode system physically. Besides, the accurate theoretical model and the simplified calculations obviously contradict each other; therefore, it is confusing for many researchers to choose the proper theoretical model to calculate the specific parameters required. In this review, we first discuss the problems and suggestions of electrode system design for cell adhesion-based measurement in terms of parasitic capacitance, detection range of cell number, electric field distribution, and interelectrode distance. The design of electrode system for cell nonadhesion measurement was analyzed in terms of microchannel size and electrode position. Then, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various equivalent circuit models according to different requirements of researchers, and simultaneously provide a corresponding theoretical model for researchers. Various factors influencing electric impedance spectroscopy (EIS) such as the parasitic capacitance between microelectrodes, the changes of cell adhesion area and cell-electrode distance, the electrode geometry, and the surface conductivity of electrode were quantitatively analyzed to contribute to better understanding of the equivalent models. Finally, we gave advice to optimize the theoretical models further and perspectives on building uniform principles of theoretical model optimization in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingji Wei
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Rongbiao Zhang
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Fei Zhang
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Ning Yang
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Yecheng Zhang
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Guoxiao Li
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
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2
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Stolwijk JA, Wegener J. Impedance analysis of adherent cells after in situ electroporation-mediated delivery of bioactive proteins, DNA and nanoparticles in µL-volumes. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21331. [PMID: 33288771 PMCID: PMC7721805 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78096-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Specific intracellular manipulation of animal cells is a persistent goal in experimental cell biology. Such manipulations allow precise and targeted interference with signaling cascades, metabolic pathways, or bi-molecular interactions for subsequent tracking of functional consequences. However, most biomolecules capable of molecular recognition are membrane impermeable. The ability to introduce these molecules into the cytoplasm and then to apply appropriate readouts to monitor the corresponding cell response could prove to be an important research tool. This study describes such an experimental approach combining in situ electroporation (ISE) as a means to efficiently deliver biomolecules to the cytoplasm with an impedance-based, time-resolved analysis of cell status using electric cell-substrate impedance sensing (ECIS). In this approach, gold-film electrodes, deposited on the bottom of regular culture dishes, are used for both electroporation and monitoring. The design of the electrode layout and measurement chamber allows working with sample volumes as small as 10 µL. A miniaturized setup for combined electroporation and impedance sensing (µISE-ECIS) was applied to load different adherent cells with bioactive macromolecules including enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids and quantum dot nanoparticles. The cell response after loading the cytoplasm with RNase A or cytochrome c (in the presence or absence of caspase inhibitors) was tracked by non-invasive impedance readings in real-time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith A Stolwijk
- Institut fuer Analytische Chemie, Chemo- & Biosensorik, Universität Regensburg, Universitaetsstr. 31, 93053, Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Joachim Wegener
- Institut fuer Analytische Chemie, Chemo- & Biosensorik, Universität Regensburg, Universitaetsstr. 31, 93053, Regensburg, Germany.
- Fraunhofer Einrichtung fuer Mikrosysteme und Festkörpertechnologien EMFT, Universitaetsstr. 31, 93053, Regensburg, Germany.
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3
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Wei M, Zhang Y, Li G, Ni Y, Wang S, Zhang F, Zhang R, Yang N, Shao S, Wang P. A cell viability assessment approach based on electrical wound-healing impedance characteristics. Biosens Bioelectron 2019; 124-125:25-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2018.09.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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4
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Batista Napotnik T, Miklavčič D. In vitro electroporation detection methods – An overview. Bioelectrochemistry 2018; 120:166-182. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2017.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 12/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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5
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Ghosh PM. WOMEN IN CANCER PROFILE: From physics to cancer biology and everywhere in between. Endocr Relat Cancer 2016; 23:P15-P21. [PMID: 27605444 DOI: 10.1530/erc-16-0382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paramita M Ghosh
- Research ServiceVA Northern California Health Care System, Sacramento, California, USA
- Department of UrologyUniversity of California at Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular MedicineUniversity of California at Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
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6
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García-Sánchez T, Azan A, Leray I, Rosell-Ferrer J, Bragós R, Mir LLM. Interpulse multifrequency electrical impedance measurements during electroporation of adherent differentiated myotubes. Bioelectrochemistry 2015; 105:123-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2015.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2014] [Revised: 05/25/2015] [Accepted: 05/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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7
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Rivnay J, Leleux P, Hama A, Ramuz M, Huerta M, Malliaras GG, Owens RM. Using white noise to gate organic transistors for dynamic monitoring of cultured cell layers. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11613. [PMID: 26112429 PMCID: PMC4481393 DOI: 10.1038/srep11613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Impedance sensing of biological systems allows for monitoring of cell and tissue properties, including cell-substrate attachment, layer confluence, and the “tightness” of an epithelial tissue. These properties are critical for electrical detection of tissue health and viability in applications such as toxicological screening. Organic transistors based on conducting polymers offer a promising route to efficiently transduce ionic currents to attain high quality impedance spectra, but collection of complete impedance spectra can be time consuming (minutes). By applying uniform white noise at the gate of an organic electrochemical transistor (OECT), and measuring the resulting current noise, we are able to dynamically monitor the impedance and thus integrity of cultured epithelial monolayers. We show that noise sourcing can be used to track rapid monolayer disruption due to compounds which interfere with dynamic polymerization events crucial for maintaining cytoskeletal integrity, and to resolve sub-second alterations to the monolayer integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Rivnay
- Department of Bioelectronics, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines, CMP-EMSE, MOC, 13541 Gardanne, France
| | - Pierre Leleux
- 1] Department of Bioelectronics, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines, CMP-EMSE, MOC, 13541 Gardanne, France [2] Microvitae Technologies, Hôtel Technologique, Europarc Sainte Victoire Bât 6 Route de Valbrillant, 13590 Meyreuil, France
| | - Adel Hama
- Department of Bioelectronics, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines, CMP-EMSE, MOC, 13541 Gardanne, France
| | - Marc Ramuz
- Department of Bioelectronics, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines, CMP-EMSE, MOC, 13541 Gardanne, France
| | - Miriam Huerta
- Department of Bioelectronics, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines, CMP-EMSE, MOC, 13541 Gardanne, France
| | - George G Malliaras
- Department of Bioelectronics, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines, CMP-EMSE, MOC, 13541 Gardanne, France
| | - Roisin M Owens
- Department of Bioelectronics, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines, CMP-EMSE, MOC, 13541 Gardanne, France
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8
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Skolucka N, Daczewska M, Saczko J, Chwilkowska A, Choromanska A, Kotulska M, Kaminska I, Kulbacka J. ETM study of electroporation influence on cell morphology in human malignant melanoma and human primary gingival fibroblast cells. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2014; 1:94-8. [PMID: 23569735 DOI: 10.1016/s2221-1691(11)60003-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2011] [Revised: 02/22/2011] [Accepted: 03/13/2011] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To estimate electroporation (EP) influence on malignant and normal cells. METHODS Two cell lines including human malignant melanoma (Me-45) and normal human gingival fibroblast (HGFs) were used. EP parameters were the following: 250, 1 000, 1 750, 2 500 V/cm; 50 µs by 5 impulses for every case. The viability of cells after EP was estimated by MTT assay. The ultrastructural analysis was observed by transmission electron microscope (Zeiss EM 900). RESULTS In the current study we observed the intracellular effect following EP on Me-45 and HGF cells. At the conditions applied, we did not observe any significant damage of mitochondrial activity in both cell lines treated by EP. Conversely, we showed that EP in some conditions can stimulate cells to proliferation. Some changes induced by EP were only visible in electron microscopy. In fibroblast cells we observed significant changes in lower parameters of EP (250 and 1 000 V/cm). After applying higher electric field intensities (2 500 V/cm) we detected many vacuoles, myelin-like bodies and swallowed endoplasmic reticulum. In melanoma cells such strong pathological modifications after EP were not observed, in comparison with control cells. The ultrastructure of both treated cell lines was changed according to the applied parameters of EP. CONCLUSIONS We can claim that EP conditions are cell line dependent. In terms of the intracellular morphology, human fibroblasts are more sensitive to electric field as compared with melanoma cells. Optimal conditions should be determined for each cell line. Summarizing our study, we can conclude that EP is not an invasive method for human normal and malignant cells. This technique can be safely applied in chemotherapy for delivering drugs into tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Skolucka
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University, Chalubinskiego 10 St., 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland
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9
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Pasqualotto E, Ferrario A, Scaramuzza M, De Toni A, Maschietto M. Monitoring Electropermeabilization of Adherent Mammalian Cells Through Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.proche.2012.10.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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10
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Stolwijk JA, Hartmann C, Balani P, Albermann S, Keese CR, Giaever I, Wegener J. Impedance analysis of adherent cells after in situ electroporation: Non-invasive monitoring during intracellular manipulations. Biosens Bioelectron 2011; 26:4720-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2011.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2011] [Revised: 05/14/2011] [Accepted: 05/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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11
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Newbold C, Richardson R, Millard R, Seligman P, Cowan R, Shepherd R. Electrical stimulation causes rapid changes in electrode impedance of cell-covered electrodes. J Neural Eng 2011; 8:036029. [PMID: 21572219 PMCID: PMC3147028 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2560/8/3/036029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Animal and clinical observations of a reduction in electrode impedance following electrical stimulation encouraged the development of an in vitro model of the electrode-tissue interface. This model was used previously to show an increase in impedance with cell and protein cover over electrodes. In this paper, the model was used to assess the changes in electrode impedance and cell cover following application of a charge-balanced biphasic current pulse train. Following stimulation, a large and rapid drop in total impedance (Z(t)) and access resistance (R(a)) occurred. The magnitude of this impedance change was dependent on the current amplitude used, with a linear relationship determined between R(a) and the resulting cell cover over the electrodes. The changes in impedance due to stimulation were shown to be transitory, with impedance returning to pre-stimulation levels several hours after cessation of stimulation. A loss of cells over the electrode surface was observed immediately after stimulation, suggesting that the level of stimulation applied was creating localized changes to cell adhesion. Similar changes in electrode impedance were observed for in vivo and in vitro work, thus helping to verify the in vitro model, although the underlying mechanisms may differ. A change in the porosity of the cellular layer was proposed to explain the alterations in electrode impedance in vitro. These in vitro studies provide insight into the possible mechanisms occurring at the electrode-tissue interface in association with electrical stimulation.
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12
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Shawki MM. Effect of different low electric field conditions on the dielectric properties of Ehrlich tumor. Electromagn Biol Med 2011; 30:1-13. [PMID: 21554098 DOI: 10.3109/15368378.2011.566771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Studies of low electric fields (LEFs) effects on the permeability of the cell membrane are of great interest in molecular medicine. Electroendocytosis is a novel technique depends on using LEFs to incorporate macromolecules as anticancer drugs or genes into the cells. There are wide debates about the optimum electric conditions for electroendocytosis. In this article, Ehrlich tumor tissues were exposed to different LEFs voltages and frequencies in vitro. Dielectric properties before and after the exposure were determined. The results indicated that the exposed groups have significant high permittivity and conductivity compared to unexposed group, as well as having significant low impedance. The results indicated that dielectric measurements can be used to indicate the efficiency of electroendocytosis that as permittivity and conductivity of cell membranes increase, more molecules can passed into the cells. It was also indicated that, as the pulse amplitude increases, the LEFs influence increases, while changing pulse frequency has no obvious effect on dielectric properties of Ehrlich tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamdouh M Shawki
- Bio-Medical Physics Department, Medical Research Institute, Alexandria University, Egypt.
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13
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Monitoring of Cellular Dynamics with Electrochemical Detection Techniques. MODERN ASPECTS OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-0347-0_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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14
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Ivorra A, Al-Sakere B, Rubinsky B, Mir LM. In vivoelectrical conductivity measurements during and after tumor electroporation: conductivity changes reflect the treatment outcome. Phys Med Biol 2009; 54:5949-63. [DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/54/19/019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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15
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Vassanelli S, Bandiera L, Borgo M, Cellere G, Santoni L, Bersani C, Salamon M, Zaccolo M, Lorenzelli L, Girardi S, Maschietto M, Dal Maschio M, Paccagnella A. Space and time-resolved gene expression experiments on cultured mammalian cells by a single-cell electroporation microarray. N Biotechnol 2008; 25:55-67. [PMID: 18504020 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2008.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2007] [Revised: 02/07/2008] [Accepted: 03/03/2008] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Single-cell experiments represent the next frontier for biochemical and gene expression research. Although bulk-scale methods averaging populations of cells have been traditionally used to investigate cellular behavior, they mask individual cell features and can lead to misleading or insufficient biological results. We report on a single-cell electroporation microarray enabling the transfection of pre-selected individual cells at different sites within the same culture (space-resolved), at arbitrarily chosen time points and even sequentially to the same cells (time-resolved). Delivery of impermeant molecules by single-cell electroporation was first proven to be finely tunable by acting on the electroporation protocol and then optimized for transfection of nucleic acids into Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO-K1) cells. We focused on DNA oligonucleotides (ODNs), short interfering RNAs (siRNAs), and DNA plasmid vectors, thus providing a versatile and easy-to-use platform for time-resolved gene expression experiments in single mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Vassanelli
- University of Padova, Department of Human Anatomy and Physiology, Section of Physiology, via Marzolo 3 - 35131, Padova, Italy.
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16
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Zaharoff DA, Henshaw JW, Mossop B, Yuan F. Mechanistic analysis of electroporation-induced cellular uptake of macromolecules. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2008; 233:94-105. [PMID: 18156311 DOI: 10.3181/0704-rm-113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulsed electric field has been widely used as a nonviral gene delivery platform. The delivery efficiency can be improved through quantitative analysis of pore dynamics and intracellular transport of plasmid DNA. To this end, we investigated mechanisms of cellular uptake of macromolecules during electroporation. In the study, fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled dextran (FD) with molecular weight of 4,000 (FD-4) or 2,000,000 (FD-2000) was added into suspensions of a murine mammary carcinoma cell (4T1) either before or at different time points (ie, 1, 2, or 10 sec) after the application of different pulsed electric fields (in high-voltage mode: 1.2-2.0 kV in amplitude, 99 microsec in duration, and 1-5 pulses; in low-voltage mode: 100-300 V in amplitude, 5-20 msec in duration, and 1-5 pulses). The intracellular concentrations of FD were quantified using a confocal microscopy technique. To understand transport mechanisms, a mathematical model was developed for numerical simulation of cellular uptake. We observed that the maximum intracellular concentration of FD-2000 was less than 3% of that in the pulsing medium. The intracellular concentrations increased linearly with pulse number and amplitude. In addition, the intracellular concentration of FD-2000 was approximately 40% lower than that of FD-4 under identical pulsing conditions. The numerical simulations predicted that the pores larger than FD-4 lasted <10 msec after the application of pulsed fields if the simulated concentrations were on the same order of magnitude as the experimental data. In addition, the simulation results indicated that diffusion was negligible for cellular uptake of FD molecules. Taken together, the data suggested that large pores induced in the membrane by pulsed electric fields disappeared rapidly after pulse application and convection was likely to be the dominant mode of transport for cellular uptake of uncharged macromolecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Zaharoff
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 136 Hudson Hall, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
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17
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Spegel C, Heiskanen A, Skjolding L, Emnéus J. Chip Based Electroanalytical Systems for Cell Analysis. ELECTROANAL 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.200704130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Anagnostopoulou A, Cao J, Vultur A, Firth K, Raptis L. Examination of gap junctional, intercellular communication by in situ electroporation on two co-planar indium-tin oxide electrodes. Mol Oncol 2007; 1:226-31. [PMID: 19383296 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2007.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2007] [Revised: 06/13/2007] [Accepted: 06/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Gap junctions are plasma membrane channels between neighboring cells. We previously described a powerful technique where gap junctional, intercellular communication (GJIC) of adherent cells can be examined by in situ electroporation on a slide, part of which is coated with electrically conductive and transparent indium-tin oxide. An electric pulse is applied through an electrode placed on the cells in the presence of the tracking dye, Lucifer yellow (LY). The pulse causes LY's penetration into the cells growing on the conductive part of the slide, and the subsequent migration of the dye to the non-electroporated cells growing on the non-conductive area is microscopically observed under fluorescence illumination. Although this technique is adequate for a number of cell lines, the turbulence generated as the electrode is removed can cause cell detachment, which makes GJIC examination problematic. In this communication, we describe a slide configuration where junctional communication can be examined in the absence of an upper electrode: Cells are grown on two co-planar electrodes separated by a barrier which diverts the electric field, rendering it vertical to the cell layer. The elimination of an upper electrode is especially valuable for the electroporation of sensitive cells, such as terminally differentiated adipocytes. This technique can also be used for the introduction of other non-permeant molecules such as peptides or siRNA, followed by examination of the cellular phenotype or gene expression levels in situ.
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Pavselj N, Bregar Z, Cukjati D, Batiuskaite D, Mir LM, Miklavcic D. The course of tissue permeabilization studied on a mathematical model of a subcutaneous tumor in small animals. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2005; 52:1373-81. [PMID: 16119232 DOI: 10.1109/tbme.2005.851524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
One of the ways to potentiate antitumor effectiveness of chemotherapeutic drugs is by local application of short intense electric pulses. This causes an increase of the cell membrane permeability and is called electropermeabilization. In order to study the course of tissue permeabilization of a subcutaneous tumor in small animals, a mathematical model was built with the commercial program EMAS, which uses the finite element method. The model is based on the tissue specific conductivity values found in literature, experimentally determined electric field threshold values of reversible and irreversible tissue permeabilization, and conductivity changes in the tissues. The results obtained with the model were then compared to experimental results from the treatment of subcutaneous tumors in mice and a good agreement was obtained. Our results and the reversible and irreversible thresholds used coincide well with the effectiveness of the electrochemotherapy in real tumors where experiments show antitumor effectiveness for amplitudes higher than 900 V/cm ratio and pronounced antitumor effects at 1300 V/cm ratio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasa Pavselj
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia.
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20
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Davalos RV, Otten DM, Mir LM, Rubinsky B. Electrical impedance tomography for imaging tissue electroporation. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2004; 51:761-7. [PMID: 15132502 DOI: 10.1109/tbme.2004.824148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Electroporation is a method to introduce molecules, such as gene constructs or small drugs, into cells by temporarily permeating the cell membrane with electric pulses. In molecular medicine and biotechnology, tissue electroporation is performed with electrodes placed in the target area of the body. Currently, tissue electroporation, as with all other methods of molecular medicine, is performed without real-time control or near-term information regarding the extent and degree of electroporation. This paper expands the work from our previous study by implementing new ex vivo experimental data with "front-tracking" analysis for the image reconstruction algorithm. The experimental data is incorporated into numerical simulations of electroporation procedures and images are generated using the new reconstruction algorithm to demonstrate that electrical impedance tomography (EIT) can produce an image of the electroporated area. Combining EIT with electroporation could become an important biotechnological and medical technique to introduce therapeutic molecules into cells in tissue at predetermined areas of the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael V Davalos
- Biomedical Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 6178 Etcheverry Hall, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1740, USA.
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21
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Keese CR, Wegener J, Walker SR, Giaever I. Electrical wound-healing assay for cells in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:1554-9. [PMID: 14747654 PMCID: PMC341773 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0307588100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 275] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Confluent cell monolayers in tissue culture are fragile and can easily be mechanically disrupted, often leaving an area devoid of cells. This opening in the cell sheet is then repopulated, because the cells on the fringe of the damage, which are no longer contact-inhibited, move into the available space. This mechanical disruption is often done deliberately in a "wound-healing" assay as a means to assess the migration of the cells. In such assays, a scrape is made in the cell layer followed by microscopy to monitor the advance of the cells into the wound. We have found that these types of assays can also be accomplished electrically. In this approach, cells growing on small electrodes and monitored by using electric cell-substrate impedance sensing are subjected to currents, resulting in severe electroporation and subsequent cell death. After this invasive treatment, the electrode's impedance is again monitored to chart the migration and ultimate healing of the wound. We report here that this procedure to study cell behavior is both highly reproducible, quantitative, and provides data similar to that acquired with traditional measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles R Keese
- School of Science, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 8th Street, Troy, NY 12180, USA
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22
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Dev SB, Dhar D, Krassowska W. Electric field of a six-needle array electrode used in drug and DNA delivery in vivo: analytical versus numerical solution. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2003; 50:1296-300. [PMID: 14620000 DOI: 10.1109/tbme.2003.818467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
We present an analytical solution for the electrical potential and field established by a six-needle array electroporation electrode, which is used in vivo for cancer treatment and DNA delivery. The analytical solution closely matches the numerical solution obtained with the finite element method: the mean error is less than 0.6%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukhendu B Dev
- Gene Delivery & Expression Sciences, San Diego, CA 92122, USA
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23
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Bilska AO, DeBruin KA, Krassowska W. Theoretical modeling of the effects of shock duration, frequency, and strength on the degree of electroporation. Bioelectrochemistry 2000; 51:133-43. [PMID: 10910161 DOI: 10.1016/s0302-4598(00)00066-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Electroporation is becoming an increasingly important tool for introducing biologically active compounds into living cells, yet the effectiveness of this technique can be low, particularly in vivo. One way to improve the success rate is to optimize the shock protocols, but experimental studies are costly, time consuming, and yield only an indirect measurement of pore creation. Alternatively, this study models electroporation in two geometries, a space-clamped membrane and a single cell, and investigates the effects of pulse duration, frequency, shape, and strength. The creation of pores is described by a first order differential equation derived from the Smoluchowski equation. Both the membrane and the cell are exposed to monophasic and biphasic shocks of varying duration (membrane, 10 micros-100 s; cell, 0.1 micros-200 ms) and to trains of monophasic and biphasic pulses of varying frequency (membrane, 50 Hz-4 kHz; cell, 200 kHz-6 MHz). The effectiveness of each shock is measured by the fractional pore area (FPA). The results indicate that FPA is sensitive to shock duration only in a very narrow range (membrane, approximately 1 ms; cell, approximately 0.25 micros). In contrast, FPA is sensitive to shock strength and frequency of the pulse train, increasing linearly with shock strength and decreasing slowly with frequency. In all cases, monophasic shocks were at least as effective as biphasic shocks, implying that varying the strength and frequency of a monophasic pulse train is the most effective way to control the creation of pores.
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Affiliation(s)
- A O Bilska
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke Unicersity, Durham, NC 27708-0281, USA
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Takahashi N, Seko Y, Noiri E, Tobe K, Kadowaki T, Sabe H, Yazaki Y. Vascular endothelial growth factor induces activation and subcellular translocation of focal adhesion kinase (p125FAK) in cultured rat cardiac myocytes. Circ Res 1999; 84:1194-202. [PMID: 10347094 DOI: 10.1161/01.res.84.10.1194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been proposed to be among the candidate factors with the most potential to play a role in ischemia-induced collateral vessel formation. Recently, we found that VEGF activated the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade in cultured rat cardiac myocytes. To elucidate how VEGF affects adhesive interaction of cardiac myocytes with the extracellular matrix (ECM), one of the important cell functions, we investigated the molecular mechanism of activation of focal adhesion-related proteins, especially focal adhesion kinase (p125(FAK)), in cultured rat cardiac myocytes. We found that the 2 VEGF receptors, KDR/Flk-1 and Flt-1, were expressed in cardiac myocytes and that KDR/Flk-1 was significantly tyrosine phosphorylated on VEGF stimulation. VEGF induced tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of p125(FAK) as well as tyrosine phosphorylation of paxillin; this was accompanied by subcellular translocation of p125(FAK) from perinuclear sites to the focal adhesions. This VEGF-induced activation of p125(FAK) was inhibited partially by the tyrosine kinase inhibitors genistein and tyrphostin. Activation of p125(FAK) was accompanied by its increased association with adapter proteins GRB2, Shc, and nonreceptor type tyrosine kinase p60(c-src). Furthermore, we confirmed that VEGF induced a significant increase in adhesive interaction between cardiac myocytes and ECM using an electric cell-substrate impedance sensor. These results strongly suggest that p125(FAK) is one of the most important components in VEGF-induced signaling in cardiac myocytes, playing a critical role in adhesive interaction between cardiac myocytes and ECM.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Takahashi
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo.
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Abstract
Intracellular calcium waves in fish keratocytes are induced by the application of electric field pulses with amplitudes between 55 and 120 V/cm and full width at half-maximum of 65-100 ms. Calcium concentrations were imaged using two-photon excited fluorescence microscopy (Denk et al., 1990 Science. 248:73-76; Williams et al. 1994 FASEB J. 8:804-813) and the ratiometric calcium indicator indo-1. The applied electric field pulses induced waves with fast calcium rise times and slow decays, which nucleated in the lamellipodium at the hyperpolarized side of the cells and, less frequently, at the depolarized side. The effectiveness of wave generation was determined by the change induced in the membrane potential, which is about half the field strength times the cell width in the direction of the field. Stimulation of waves began at voltage drops across the cell above 150 mV and saturated at voltage drops above 300 mV, where almost all cells exhibited a wave. Waves were not induced in low-calcium media and were blocked by the nonselective calcium channel blockers cobalt chloride and verapamil, but not by specific organic antagonists of voltage-sensitive calcium channel conductance. Thapsigargin stopped wave propagation in the cell body, indicating that calcium release from intracellular stores is necessary. Thus a voltage pulse stimulates Ca2+ influx through calcium channels in the plasma membrane, and if the intracellular calcium concentration reaches a threshold, release from intracellular stores is induced, creating a propagating wave. These observations and the measured parameters (average velocity approximately 66 micron/s and average rise time approximately 68 ms) are consistent with a wave amplification model in which[equation, see text] determines the effective diffusivity of the propagating molecules, D approximately 300 micron2/s (Meyer, 1991. Cell. 64:675-678).
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Affiliation(s)
- I Brust-Mascher
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
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Feng J, Ci YX, Gao CM, Li YZ. Voltammetric behavior of living cells T. shanghaiensis and its bioanalytical application. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0302-4598(97)00041-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Ramos-de-Souza E, Anteneodo C, Costa-Pinto NM, Bisch PM. Nonlinear Dynamics of Lipid Films under Electric Forces. J Colloid Interface Sci 1997; 187:313-26. [PMID: 9073403 DOI: 10.1006/jcis.1996.4702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
We study the dynamics and rupture of lipid films perturbed in the symmetric mode squeezing through an electrohydrodynamical approach. The lipid phase and the two surrounding aqueous phases are considered as incompressible Newtonian viscous fluids submitted to van der Waals, steric, and electric body forces. A nonlinear evolution equation for the film thickness, at the long-wavelength limit, is obtained for two symmetric cases: a film with equally charged surfaces with no potential drop and a neutral film submitted to an external electric field. At the long-wavelength limit, the electric term only influences the film evolution when the electric field inside the film is nonvanishing. We solve numerically, as an initial value problem with periodic boundary conditions, the nonlinear evolution equation. The rupture time is obtained and compared with analytical estimates. Sufficiently strong steric forces prevent the film from narrowing beyond a minimum thickness leading the film to a steady state different from the planar one consistently with the nonlinear analytical approach. The presence of a transmembrane electric potential destabilizes the perturbed film as predicted by the linear and nonlinear approaches; however, as expected, destabilization is not relevant at physiological values of the potential drop.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Ramos-de-Souza
- Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, FRJ, CCS, sala G026, Cidade Universitaria, Ilha do Fundao, Rio de Janeiro, 21949-900, Brazil
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Noiri E, Hu Y, Bahou WF, Keese CR, Giaever I, Goligorsky MS. Permissive role of nitric oxide in endothelin-induced migration of endothelial cells. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:1747-52. [PMID: 8999856 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.3.1747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Endothelin (ET) synthesis is enhanced at sites of ischemia or in injured vessels. The purpose of this study was to explore the possibility of autocrine stimulation of endothelial cell migration by members of the endothelin family. Experiments with microvascular endothelial cell transmigration in a Boyden chemotactic apparatus showed that endothelins 1 and 3, as well as a selective agonist of ETB receptor IRL-1620, equipotently stimulated migration. Endothelial cell migration was unaffected by the blockade of ETA receptor, but it was inhibited by ETB receptor antagonism. Based on our previous demonstration of signaling from the occupied ETB receptor to constitutive nitric oxide (NO) synthase (Tsukahara, H., Ende, H., Magazine, H. I., Bahou, W. F., and Goligorsky, M. S. (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269, 21778-21785), we next examined the contribution of ET-stimulated NO production to endothelial cell migration. In three independent cellular systems, 1) migration and wound healing by microvascular endothelial cells, 2) wound healing by Chinese hamster ovary cells stably expressing ETB receptor with or without endothelial NO synthase, and 3) application of antisense oligodeoxynucleotides targeting endothelial NO synthase in human umbilical vein endothelial cells, an absolute requirement for the functional NO synthase in cell migration has been demonstrated. These findings establish the permissive role of NO synthesis in endothelin-stimulated migration of endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Noiri
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York, Stony Brook, New York 11794-8152, USA
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Moy AB, Van Engelenhoven J, Bodmer J, Kamath J, Keese C, Giaever I, Shasby S, Shasby DM. Histamine and thrombin modulate endothelial focal adhesion through centripetal and centrifugal forces. J Clin Invest 1996; 97:1020-7. [PMID: 8613524 PMCID: PMC507148 DOI: 10.1172/jci118493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
We examined the contribution of actin-myosin contraction to the modulation of human umbilical vein endothelial cell focal adhesion caused by histamine and thrombin. Focal adhesion was measured as the electrical resistance across a cultured monolayer grown on a microelectrode. Actin-myosin contraction was measured as isometric tension of cultured monolayers grown on a collagen gel. Histamine immediately decreased electrical resistance but returned to basal levels within 3-5 min. Histamine did not increase isometric tension. Thrombin also immediately decreased electrical resistance, but, however, resistance did not return to basal levels for 40-60 min. Thrombin also increased isometric tension, ML-7, an inhibitor of myosin light chain kinase, prevented increases in myosin light chain phosphorylation and increases in tension development in cells exposed to thrombin. ML-7 did not prevent a decline in electrical resistance in cells exposed to thrombin. Instead, ML-7 restored the electrical resistance to basal levels in a shorter period of time (20 min) than cells exposed to thrombin alone. Also, histamine subsequently increased electrical resistance to above basal levels, and thrombin initiated an increase in resistance during the time of peak tension development. Hence, histamine and thrombin modulate endothelial cell focal adhesion through centripetal and centrifugal forces.
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Affiliation(s)
- A B Moy
- Department of Internal medicine, University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242, USA
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Lacy F, Kadima-Nzuji M, Malveaux FJ, Carter EL. Distinguishing between activated and nonactivated eosinophils by AC impedance measurements. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1996; 43:218-21. [PMID: 8682533 DOI: 10.1109/10.481991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
A cellular electrical impedance device which can detect the activated state of eosinophils has been developed and tested. This impedance device consists of a small gold electrode (50 microns x 50 microns) and a large gold electrode (1.5 cm x 0.5 cm) on a glass substrate, and it was fabricated by standard photolithographic techniques. Eosinophils, which belong to the granulocytic class of white blood cells, exhibit different physical properties when they change from the nonactivated state to the activated state. Hypothetically, these changes should correspond to a change in the measured electrical impedance. In this paper, data from the measured electrical impedance of eosinophils is presented. The measurements show that the average impedance of the activated eosinophils is 26% lower than the average impedance of the nonactivated eosinophils. Statistical analysis of the measured data shows that there is a significant difference between the measured impedances of activated and nonactivated eosinophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Lacy
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Howard University, School of Engineering, Washington, DC 20059, USA.
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Abstract
The study of the electroporation on biomembranes has become one of the most exciting topics in the biophysical and biotechnological areas. Researchers all over the world have been focused on four major areas: measurements of transmembrane potential (TMP); dynamics of electroporation such as time sequence, properties of electropores such as size, structure, and population; membrane permeabilization and breakdown theory; and the effects of secondary factors such as ions type and cell growth stage on electroporation. This article reviews some of the recent discoveries and theories on this subject. Studies on TMP and pore dynamics remain a difficult task. Since the area of electroporation on a biomembrane is small (less than 0.1% of total surface area) and the time sequence of electropores is in the submicrosecond range measuring devices with subtle detection and time resolution are required. While more and more studies have shown the formation sequence of electropore(s) at specific locations on various biomembranes, the pore(s) widening process and the subsequent membrane breakdown mechanisms remain controversial. The influence of electromechanical stress or transmembrane potential on membrane discharge and rupture seems to be a function of various factors such as membrane properties, external medium, and the protocols of electroporators.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Y Ho
- School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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Keese C, Giaever I. A biosensor that monitors cell morphology with electrical fields. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1994. [DOI: 10.1109/51.294012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Abstract
An electrical biosensor is described that can continuously track morphological changes of adherent cells providing quantitative data from both sparse and confluent cultures. The method is capable of detecting vertical motion of cells of the order of 1 nm, much below the resolution of an optical microscope.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Giaever
- School of Science, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180-3590
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