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Wahl A, Al-Harthi L. HIV infection of non-classical cells in the brain. Retrovirology 2023; 20:1. [PMID: 36639783 PMCID: PMC9840342 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-023-00616-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV-associated neurological disorders (HAND) affect up to 50% of people living with HIV (PLWH), even in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). HIV-DNA can be detected in the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) of approximately half of aviremic ART-suppressed PLWH and its presence is associated with poorer neurocognitive performance. HIV DNA + and HIV RNA + cells have also been observed in postmortem brain tissue of individuals with sustained cART suppression. In this review, we provide an overview of how HIV invades the brain and HIV infection of resident brain glial cells (astrocytes and microglia). We also discuss the role of resident glial cells in persistent neuroinflammation and HAND in PLWH and their potential contribution to the HIV reservoir. HIV eradication strategies that target persistently infected glia cells will likely be needed to achieve HIV cure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Wahl
- grid.10698.360000000122483208International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC USA ,grid.10698.360000000122483208Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC USA ,grid.10698.360000000122483208Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Lena Al-Harthi
- grid.240684.c0000 0001 0705 3621Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL USA
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Malik S, Valdebenito S, D'Amico D, Prideaux B, Eugenin EA. HIV infection of astrocytes compromises inter-organelle interactions and inositol phosphate metabolism: A potential mechanism of bystander damage and viral reservoir survival. Prog Neurobiol 2021; 206:102157. [PMID: 34455020 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2021.102157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
HIV-associated neurological dysfunction is observed in more than half of the HIV-infected population, even in the current antiretroviral era. The mechanisms by which HIV mediates CNS dysfunction are not well understood but have been associated with the presence of long-lasting HIV reservoirs. In the CNS, macrophage/microglia and a small population of astrocytes harbor the virus. However, the low number of HIV-infected cells does not correlate with the high degree of damage, suggesting that mechanisms of damage amplification may be involved. Here, we demonstrate that the survival mechanism of HIV-infected cells and the apoptosis of surrounding uninfected cells is regulated by inter-organelle interactions among the mitochondria/Golgi/endoplasmic reticulum system and the associated signaling mediated by IP3 and calcium. We identified that latently HIV-infected astrocytes had elevated intracellular levels of IP3, a master regulator second messenger, which diffuses via gap junctions into neighboring uninfected astrocytes resulting in their apoptosis. In addition, using laser capture microdissection, we confirmed that bystander apoptosis of uninfected astrocytes and the survival of HIV-infected astrocytes were dependent on mitochondrial function, intracellular calcium, and IP3 signaling. Blocking gap junction channels did not prevent an increase in IP3 or inter-organelle dysfunction in HIV-infected cells but reduced the amplification of apoptosis into uninfected neighboring cells. Our data provide a mechanistic explanation for bystander damage induced by surviving infected cells that serve as viral reservoirs and provide potential targets for interventions to reduce the devastating consequences of HIV within the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaily Malik
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX, USA; Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Silvana Valdebenito
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Daniela D'Amico
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Brendan Prideaux
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Eliseo A Eugenin
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX, USA.
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Sil S, Periyasamy P, Thangaraj A, Niu F, Chemparathy DT, Buch S. Advances in the Experimental Models of HIV-Associated Neurological Disorders. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2021; 18:459-474. [PMID: 34427869 DOI: 10.1007/s11904-021-00570-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Involvement of the central nervous system (CNS) in HIV-1 infection is commonly associated with neurological disorders and cognitive impairment, commonly referred to as HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). Severe and progressive neurocognitive impairment is rarely observed in the post-cART era; however, asymptomatic and mild neurocognitive disorders still exist, despite viral suppression. Additionally, comorbid conditions can also contribute to the pathogenesis of HAND. RECENT FINDINGS In this review, we summarize the characterization of HAND, factors contributing, and the functional impairments in both preclinical and clinical models. Specifically, we also discuss recent advances in the animal models of HAND and in in vitro cultures and the potential role of drugs of abuse in this model system of HAND. Potential peripheral biomarkers associated with HAND are also discussed. Overall, this review identifies some of the recent advances in the field of HAND in cell culture studies, animal models, clinical findings, and the limitations of each model system, which can play a key role in developing novel therapeutics in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susmita Sil
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-5880, USA.
| | - Palsamy Periyasamy
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-5880, USA.
| | - Annadurai Thangaraj
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-5880, USA
| | - Fang Niu
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-5880, USA
| | - Divya T Chemparathy
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-5880, USA
| | - Shilpa Buch
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-5880, USA
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Silvana V, Paul C, Ajasin D, Eugenin EA. Astrocytes are HIV reservoirs in the brain: A cell type with poor HIV infectivity and replication but efficient cell-to-cell viral transfer. J Neurochem 2021; 158:429-443. [PMID: 33655498 PMCID: PMC11102126 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The major barrier to eradicating Human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV) infection is the generation of tissue-associated quiescent long-lasting viral reservoirs refractory to therapy. Upon interruption of anti-retroviral therapy (ART), HIV replication can be reactivated. Within the brain, microglia/macrophages and a small population of astrocytes are infected with HIV. However, the role of astrocytes as a potential viral reservoir is becoming more recognized because of the improved detection and quantification of HIV viral reservoirs. In this report, we examined the infectivity of human primary astrocytes in vivo and in vitro, and their capacity to maintain HIV infection, become latently infected, be reactivated, and transfer new HIV virions into neighboring cells. Analysis of human brain tissue sections obtained from HIV-infected individuals under effective and prolonged ART indicates that a small population of astrocytes has integrated HIV-DNA. In vitro experiments using HIV-infected human primary astrocyte cultures confirmed a low percentage of astrocytes had integrated HIV-DNA, with poor to undetectable replication. Even in the absence of ART, long-term culture results in latency that could be transiently reactivated with histone deacetylase inhibitor, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), or methamphetamine. Reactivation resulted in poor viral production but efficient cell-to-cell viral transfer into cells that support high viral replication. Together, our data provide a new understanding of astrocytes' role as viral reservoirs within the central nervous system (CNS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Valdebenito Silvana
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Castellano Paul
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - David Ajasin
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Eliseo A. Eugenin
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, Texas, USA
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Lutgen V, Narasipura SD, Barbian HJ, Richards M, Wallace J, Razmpour R, Buzhdygan T, Ramirez SH, Prevedel L, Eugenin EA, Al-Harthi L. HIV infects astrocytes in vivo and egresses from the brain to the periphery. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008381. [PMID: 32525948 PMCID: PMC7289344 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV invades the brain during acute infection. Yet, it is unknown whether long-lived infected brain cells release productive virus that can egress from the brain to re-seed peripheral organs. This understanding has significant implication for the brain as a reservoir for HIV and most importantly HIV interplay between the brain and peripheral organs. Given the sheer number of astrocytes in the human brain and their controversial role in HIV infection, we evaluated their infection in vivo and whether HIV infected astrocytes can support HIV egress to peripheral organs. We developed two novel models of chimeric human astrocyte/human peripheral blood mononuclear cells: NOD/scid-IL-2Rgc null (NSG) mice (huAstro/HuPBMCs) whereby we transplanted HIV (non-pseudotyped or VSVg-pseudotyped) infected or uninfected primary human fetal astrocytes (NHAs) or an astrocytoma cell line (U138MG) into the brain of neonate or adult NSG mice and reconstituted the animals with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). We also transplanted uninfected astrocytes into the brain of NSG mice and reconstituted with infected PBMCs to mimic a biological infection course. As expected, the xenotransplanted astrocytes did not escape/migrate out of the brain and the blood brain barrier (BBB) was intact in this model. We demonstrate that astrocytes support HIV infection in vivo and egress to peripheral organs, at least in part, through trafficking of infected CD4+ T cells out of the brain. Astrocyte-derived HIV egress persists, albeit at low levels, under combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). Egressed HIV evolved with a pattern and rate typical of acute peripheral infection. Lastly, analysis of human cortical or hippocampal brain regions of donors under cART revealed that astrocytes harbor between 0.4–5.2% integrated HIV gag DNA and 2–7% are HIV gag mRNA positive. These studies establish a paradigm shift in the dynamic interaction between the brain and peripheral organs which can inform eradication of HIV reservoirs. HIV latency and residual low-level HIV replication is a major obstacle towards an HIV cure. HIV infects the brain in acute disease yet it is unknown whether long lived-infected brain cells release productive virus that can egress from the brain to re-seed peripheral organs and whether astrocytes are productively infected in vivo. We demonstrate astrocyte-initiated HIV spread from the brain to the spleen and lymph nodes, likely through T cell trafficking out of CNS and into peripheral organs. Additionally, brain sections from patients on cART show HIV integration in astrocytes. Collectively, given that astrocytes constitute ~60% of brain cells and even with a conservative rate of infection at >3%, astrocytes can be a significant reservoir for HIV. As such, cure initiatives must consider the contribution of the CNS to ongoing HIV replication within and outside of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Lutgen
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Srinivas D. Narasipura
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Hannah J. Barbian
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Maureen Richards
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Jennillee Wallace
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Roshanak Razmpour
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Tetyana Buzhdygan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Servio H. Ramirez
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Lisa Prevedel
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology and Anatomy, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Eliseo A. Eugenin
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology and Anatomy, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Lena Al-Harthi
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Al-Harti L, Joseph J, Nath A. Astrocytes as an HIV CNS reservoir: highlights and reflections of an NIMH-sponsored symposium. J Neurovirol 2018; 24:665-669. [PMID: 30397827 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-018-0691-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
This a summary of a National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) sponsored symposium that was focused on the role of astrocytes as a reservoir of the human immunodeficiency virus in the brain. The talks were grouped into four themes. The first theme reviewed the evidence for HIV infection of astrocytes and discussed the challenges in the use of traditional methods of immunostaining and in situ hybridization for detection of infected astrocytes. The second theme focused on mechanisms of HIV entry into astrocytes and discussed CD4 independent mechanisms, such as receptor-mediated endocytosis and transmission of HIV by cell-to-cell contact with infected lymphocytes. The third theme focused on epigenetic regulation of HIV latency in astrocytes and other factors, such as cytokines and transcriptional factors regulating HIV replication in astrocytes. The fourth theme focused on therapeutic approaches, such as gene editing to block persistently infected astrocytes. A discussion that followed was focused on major unanswered questions in the field and future directions for research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena Al-Harti
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, 1735 West Harrison Street, Room 614 Cohn, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA.
| | - Jeymohan Joseph
- Section of Infections of the Nervous System, National Institutes of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Avindra Nath
- HIV Neuropathogenesis, Genetics and Therapeutics Branch, Division of AIDS Research, National Institute of Mental Health, Bldg 10, Room 7C-103, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
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Luo X, He JJ. Cell-cell contact viral transfer contributes to HIV infection and persistence in astrocytes. J Neurovirol 2015; 21:66-80. [PMID: 25522787 PMCID: PMC4861053 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-014-0304-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Revised: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Astrocytes are the most abundant cells in the central nervous system and play important roles in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/neuro-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Detection of HIV proviral DNA, RNA, and early gene products but not late structural gene products in astrocytes in vivo and in vitro indicates that astrocytes are susceptible to HIV infection albeit in a restricted manner. We as well as others have shown that cell-free HIV is capable of entering CD4- astrocytes through human mannose receptor-mediated endocytosis. In this study, we took advantage of several newly developed fluorescence protein-based HIV reporter viruses and further characterized HIV interaction with astrocytes. First, we found that HIV was successfully transferred to astrocytes from HIV-infected CD4+ T cells in a cell-cell contact- and gp120-dependent manner. In addition, we demonstrated that, compared to endocytosis-mediated cell-free HIV entry and subsequent degradation of endocytosed virions, the cell-cell contact between astrocytes and HIV-infected CD4+ T cells led to robust HIV infection of astrocytes but retained the restricted nature of viral gene expression. Furthermore, we showed that HIV latency was established in astrocytes. Lastly, we demonstrated that infectious progeny HIV was readily recovered from HIV latent astrocytes in a cell-cell contact-mediated manner. Taken together, our studies point to the importance of the cell-cell contact-mediated HIV interaction with astrocytes and provide direct evidence to support the notion that astrocytes are HIV latent reservoirs in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Luo
- Department of Cell Biology and Immunology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX 76107
| | - Johnny J. He
- Department of Cell Biology and Immunology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX 76107
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Proteomic modeling for HIV-1 infected microglia-astrocyte crosstalk. PLoS One 2008; 3:e2507. [PMID: 18575609 PMCID: PMC2429966 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2008] [Accepted: 05/15/2008] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background HIV-1-infected and immune competent brain mononuclear phagocytes (MP; macrophages and microglia) secrete cellular and viral toxins that affect neuronal damage during advanced disease. In contrast, astrocytes can affect disease by modulating the nervous system's microenvironment. Interestingly, little is known how astrocytes communicate with MP to influence disease. Methods and Findings MP-astrocyte crosstalk was investigated by a proteomic platform analysis using vesicular stomatitis virus pseudotyped HIV infected murine microglia. The microglial-astrocyte dialogue was significant and affected microglial cytoskeleton by modulation of cell death and migratory pathways. These were mediated, in part, through F-actin polymerization and filament formation. Astrocyte secretions attenuated HIV-1 infected microglia neurotoxicity and viral growth linked to the regulation of reactive oxygen species. Conclusions These observations provide unique insights into glial crosstalk during disease by supporting astrocyte-mediated regulation of microglial function and its influence on the onset and progression of neuroAIDS. The results open new insights into previously undisclosed pathogenic mechanisms and open the potential for biomarker discovery and therapeutics that may influence the course of HIV-1-mediated neurodegeneration.
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Abstract
During the clinical course of acquired immune deficiency syndrome, infection of the CNS by human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) may ultimately result in the impairment of cognitive, behavioral and motor functions. Viral neuropathogenesis involves inflammatory molecules and neurotoxins produced from infected and immune-activated lymphocytes, microglial cells and astrocytes. Here, we discuss the current understanding of HIV-1 infection of the CNS and various cell culture systems from the developing human brain in order to study the neurobiology of HIV-1 infection, the mechanisms contributing to HIV-1 infection, and disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Seth
- Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, National Brain Research Centre, Manesar, India
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Lawrence DMP, Durham LC, Schwartz L, Seth P, Maric D, Major EO. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection of human brain-derived progenitor cells. J Virol 2004; 78:7319-28. [PMID: 15220405 PMCID: PMC434111 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.14.7319-7328.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although cells of monocytic lineage are the primary source of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in the brain, other cell types in the central nervous system, including astrocytes, can harbor a latent or persistent HIV-1 infection. In the present study, we examined whether immature, multipotential human brain-derived progenitor cells (nestin positive) are also permissive for infection. When exposed to IIIB and NL4-3 strains of HIV-1, progenitor cells and progenitor-derived astrocytes became infected, with peak p24 levels of 100 to 500 pg/ml at 3 to 6 days postinfection. After 10 days, virus production was undetectable but could be stimulated by the addition of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha). To bypass limitations to receptor entry, we compared the fate of infection in these cell populations by transfection with the infectious HIV-1 clone, pNL4-3. Again, transfected progenitors and astrocytes produced virus for 7 days but diminished to low levels beyond 8 days posttransfection. During the nonproductive phase, TNF-alpha stimulated virus production from progenitors as late as 5 weeks posttransfection. Astrocytes produced 5- to 20-fold more infectious virus (27 ng of p24/10(6) cells) than progenitors at the peak of 3 days posttransfection. Differentiation of infected progenitors toward an astrocyte phenotype increased virus production to levels consistent with infected astrocytes, suggesting a phenotypic difference in viral replication. Using this cell culture system of multipotential human brain-derived progenitor cells, we provide evidence that progenitor cells may be a reservoir for HIV-1 in the brains of AIDS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane M P Lawrence
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Neuroscience, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Liu Y, Liu H, Kim BO, Gattone VH, Li J, Nath A, Blum J, He JJ. CD4-independent infection of astrocytes by human immunodeficiency virus type 1: requirement for the human mannose receptor. J Virol 2004; 78:4120-33. [PMID: 15047828 PMCID: PMC374297 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.8.4120-4133.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection occurs in the central nervous system and causes a variety of neurobehavioral and neuropathological disorders. Both microglia, the residential macrophages in the brain, and astrocytes are susceptible to HIV-1 infection. Unlike microglia that express and utilize CD4 and chemokine coreceptors CCR5 and CCR3 for HIV-1 infection, astrocytes fail to express CD4. Astrocytes express several chemokine coreceptors; however, the involvement of these receptors in astrocyte HIV-1 infection appears to be insignificant. In the present study using an expression cloning strategy, the cDNA for the human mannose receptor (hMR) was found to be essential for CD4-independent HIV-1 infectivity. Ectopic expression of functional hMR rendered U87.MG astrocytic cells susceptible to HIV-1 infection, whereas anti-hMR serum and hMR-specific siRNA blocked HIV-1 infection in human primary astrocytes. In agreement with these findings, hMR bound to HIV-1 virions via the abundant and highly mannosylated sugar moieties of HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 in a Ca(2+)-dependent fashion. Moreover, hMR-mediated HIV-1 infection was dependent upon endocytic trafficking as assessed by transmission electron microscopy, as well as inhibition of viral entry by endosomo- and lysosomotropic drugs. Taken together, these results demonstrate the direct involvement of hMR in HIV-1 infection of astrocytes and suggest that HIV-1 interaction with hMR plays an important role in HIV-1 neuropathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Liu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Walther Oncology Center, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Walther Cancer Institute, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, People's Republic of China, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21287
| | - Hao Liu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Walther Oncology Center, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Walther Cancer Institute, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, People's Republic of China, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21287
| | - Byung Oh Kim
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Walther Oncology Center, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Walther Cancer Institute, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, People's Republic of China, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21287
| | - Vincent H. Gattone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Walther Oncology Center, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Walther Cancer Institute, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, People's Republic of China, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21287
| | - Jinliang Li
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Walther Oncology Center, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Walther Cancer Institute, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, People's Republic of China, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21287
| | - Avindra Nath
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Walther Oncology Center, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Walther Cancer Institute, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, People's Republic of China, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21287
| | - Janice Blum
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Walther Oncology Center, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Walther Cancer Institute, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, People's Republic of China, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21287
| | - Johnny J. He
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Walther Oncology Center, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Walther Cancer Institute, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, People's Republic of China, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21287
- Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, R2 302, 950 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202. Phone: (317) 274-7525. Fax: (317) 274-7592. E-mail:
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Bissel SJ, Wiley CA. Human immunodeficiency virus infection of the brain: pitfalls in evaluating infected/affected cell populations. Brain Pathol 2004; 14:97-108. [PMID: 14997942 PMCID: PMC1449744 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2004.tb00503.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Monocyte/macrophages and CD4 T-cells are the primary hematopoietic targets of productive HIV infection. In the brain, potential cellular targets for HIV infection include perivascular and parenchymal macrophages/microglia, oligodendrocytes, endothelia, neurons, and astrocytes. We examine evidence of productive and non-productive infection for each cell type in the brains of HIV-infected patients with and without HIV encephalitis. Despite the voluminous literature and substantial experimental effort over the past two decades, evidence for productive infection of any brain cell other than macrophages is left wanting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie J. Bissel
- Departments of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology and University of Pittsburgh, Pa
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Bodner A, Toth PT, Oh SB, Lu M, Tran PB, Chin RK, Ren D, Miller RJ. CD4 dependence of gp120IIIB-CXCR4 interaction is cell-type specific. J Neuroimmunol 2003; 140:1-12. [PMID: 12864967 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(03)00162-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The HIV-1 envelope protein gp120IIIB is selective for the CXCR4 chemokine receptor and has been shown to induce apoptosis in neurons both in vivo and in vitro. We examined the ability of gp120IIIB to signal through the rat CXCR4 (rCXCR4) receptor and its dependence on the presence of the human CD4 (hCD4) protein in a number of cell systems. SDF-1alpha potently inhibited N-type Ca channels in cultured HEK293 cells expressing both the Ca channel subunits and rCXCR4 receptors. However, gp120IIIB was ineffective in producing either Ca channel inhibition or in blocking the effects of SDF-1alpha. However, when hCD4 was coexpressed with rCXCR4 and Ca channel subunits, gp120IIIB also produced Ca channel inhibition. Similarly, in PC12 cells transfected with the rCXCR4, SDF-1alpha produced mobilization of intracellular Ca, while gp120IIIB was only effective when hCD4 was coexpressed. SDF-1alpha induced endocytosis of Yellow Fluorescent Protein (YFP)-tagged rCXCR4 expressed in PC12 cells, as did gp120IIIB, an effect which was enhanced by hCD4 coexpression. When tagged rCXCR4 was expressed in F-11 cells or in rat DRG neurons, SDF-1alpha produced extensive receptor endocytosis. However, the ability of gp120IIIB to produce endocytosis was dependent on the coexpression of hCD4. Our results demonstrate that the degree of hCD4 dependence of the agonist effects of gp120IIIB at the rCXCR4 receptor is cell-type specific.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Animals, Newborn
- Apoptosis/immunology
- CD4 Antigens/physiology
- Cell Line
- Cells, Cultured
- Endocytosis/genetics
- Endocytosis/immunology
- Ganglia, Spinal/cytology
- Ganglia, Spinal/immunology
- Ganglia, Spinal/metabolism
- HIV Envelope Protein gp120/genetics
- HIV Envelope Protein gp120/metabolism
- HIV Envelope Protein gp120/physiology
- Humans
- Immunity, Cellular/genetics
- Neurons/cytology
- Neurons/immunology
- Neurons/metabolism
- PC12 Cells
- Rats
- Receptors, CXCR4/genetics
- Receptors, CXCR4/metabolism
- Receptors, CXCR4/physiology
- Receptors, Chemokine
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- Transfection
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
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Affiliation(s)
- Amos Bodner
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, Northwestern University Medical School, 303 E. Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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Overholser ED, Coleman GD, Bennett JL, Casaday RJ, Zink MC, Barber SA, Clements JE. Expression of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) nef in astrocytes during acute and terminal infection and requirement of nef for optimal replication of neurovirulent SIV in vitro. J Virol 2003; 77:6855-66. [PMID: 12768005 PMCID: PMC156169 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.12.6855-6866.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2002] [Accepted: 03/18/2003] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
As the most numerous cells in the brain, astrocytes play a critical role in maintaining central nervous system homeostasis, and therefore, infection of astrocytes by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) in vivo could have important consequences for the development of HIV encephalitis. In this study, we establish that astrocytes are infected in macaques during acute SIV infection (10 days postinoculation) and during terminal infection when there is evidence of SIV-induced encephalitis. Additionally, with primary adult rhesus macaque astrocytes in vitro, we demonstrate that the macrophage-tropic, neurovirulent viruses SIV/17E-Br and SIV/17E-Fr replicate efficiently in astrocytes, while the lymphocyte-tropic, nonneurovirulent virus SIV(mac)239 open-nef does not establish productive infection. Furthermore, aminoxypentane-RANTES abolishes virus replication, suggesting that these SIV strains utilize the chemokine receptor CCR5 for entry into astrocytes. Importantly, we show that SIV Nef is required for optimal replication in primary rhesus macaque astrocytes and that normalizing input virus by particle number rather than by infectivity reveals a disparity between the ability of a Nef-deficient virus and a virus encoding a nonmyristoylated form of Nef to replicate in these central nervous system cells. Since the myristoylated form of Nef has been implicated in functions such as CD4 and major histocompatibility complex I downregulation, kinase association, and enhancement of virion infectivity, these data suggest that an as yet unidentified function of Nef may exist to facilitate SIV replication in astrocytes that may have important implications for in vivo pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily D Overholser
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287, USA
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15
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Nesbit CE, Schwartz SA. In vitro and animal models of human immunodeficiency virus infection of the central nervous system. CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY IMMUNOLOGY 2002; 9:515-24. [PMID: 11986254 PMCID: PMC119973 DOI: 10.1128/cdli.9.3.515-524.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chadd E Nesbit
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, and Kaleida Health, Buffalo General Hospital, Buffalo, New York 14203, USA
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16
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Hao HN, Zhao J, Lotoczky G, Grever WE, Lyman WD. Induction of human β-defensin-2 expression in human astrocytes by lipopolysaccharide and cytokines. J Neurochem 2001; 77:1027-35. [PMID: 11359868 DOI: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2001.00305.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Defensins are cationic peptides with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. They are members of a supergene family consisting of alpha and beta subtypes and each subtype is comprised of a number of different isoforms. For example, human alpha-defensin (HAD) has six isoforms, which are expressed by polymorphonuclear leukocytes and Paneth cells. In contrast, human beta-defensin (HBD) has two isoforms that are expressed by epithelial cells of the skin, gut, respiratory and urogenital tracts. Recently, HBD-1 was detected in human brain biopsy tissue. However, little is known about the expression of HBD-1 or HBD-2 in the CNS and whether neural cells can secrete these peptides. For the present study, human astrocyte, microglial, meningeal fibroblast and neuronal cultures were probed for the expression of HBD-1 and HBD-2 mRNA and protein. Each cell type was either maintained in tissue culture medium alone or in medium containing lipopolysaccharide (LPS) at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 1 microgram/mL, interleukin-1 beta (IL-1beta) at 1-50 ng/mL, or tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) at the same concentrations. The expression of HBD-1 and HBD-2 mRNAs was monitored by RT-PCR. The cDNA products were sequenced to characterize the gene product. HBD-2 protein was detected by immunoblot, immunoprecipitation and immunocytochemistry. Results of these studies showed that HBD-1 mRNA was detected in all cell cultures except in those enriched for neurons. In contrast, HBD-2 mRNA was detected only in astrocyte cultures that were treated with LPS, IL-1beta or TNF-alpha. The detection of the respective proteins correlated positively with the mRNA results. As such, these data represent the first demonstration of HBD-2 expression by astrocytes and suggest that this peptide may play a role in host defense against bacterial CNS pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- H N Hao
- Departments of Pediatrics and Psychiatry & Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
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17
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Torres-Muñoz J, Stockton P, Tacoronte N, Roberts B, Maronpot RR, Petito CK. Detection of HIV-1 gene sequences in hippocampal neurons isolated from postmortem AIDS brains by laser capture microdissection. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2001; 60:885-92. [PMID: 11556545 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/60.9.885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We employed laser capture microdissection to remove individual pyramidal neurons from the CA1, CA3, and CA4 regions of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded hippocampus from 8 AIDS brains and 2 HIV-1-seronegative normal brains. We amplified HIV-1 gag and nef gene sequences using separate, double round PCR reactions for each of the primer sets. In all 3 hippocampal regions, amplification efficiency was best with sequence length between 284 and 324 bp; HIV-1 nef gene sequences were more common than HIV-1 gag sequences; and rank order for percent positive amplification was CA3 > CA4 > CA1 samples. These results are the first to detect HIV-1 gene sequences in microdissected human tissue. They indicate that brain neurons in vivo contain HIV-1 DNA sequences consistent with latent infection by this virus, and suggest that neurons display a selective vulnerability for HIV infection. Neuronal HIV infection could contribute to neuronal injury and death or act as a potential viral reservoir if reactivated.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Torres-Muñoz
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami School of Medicine, Florida 33136, USA
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18
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Han Y, Ventura CL, Black KP, Cummins JE, Hall SD, Jackson S. Productive human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection of epithelial cell lines of salivary gland origin. ORAL MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY 2000; 15:82-8. [PMID: 11155170 DOI: 10.1034/j.1399-302x.2000.150203.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
To ascertain whether epithelial cells of oral cavity origin may be infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), a study to determine susceptibility to infection of salivary gland epithelial cell lines (HSY and HSG) was undertaken. Because of the potential for oral-genital transmission, an endometrial cell line, HEC-1, was also studied. Epithelial cell monolayers were infected with cell-free HTLVIIIB or a primary HIV-1 isolate. Several lines of evidence indicated that inoculation of these cell lines with HIV-1 led to productive infection: 1) p24 antigen was present in supernatants, with levels peaking on days 3-4; 2) provirus was found in cells by polymerase chain reaction; 3) virions present in supernatants were infectious as confirmed by coculture with the T-lymphoblastoid line CEM-NKr. Following a period of virus production, HIV-1 entered a latency phase over 10 weeks. All epithelial cell lines were positive for galactosylceramide (GalC) and CXCR4. HSY was weakly positive for surface CD4, and also expressed mRNA for CD4 and CCR5, as did HEC-1. Blocking studies indicated that anti-GalC, but not anti-CD4, significantly reduced productive infection, and that regulated on activation normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES) but not stromal cell-derived factor (SDF-1) could partially block infection of the M-tropic primary isolate. These results suggest that epithelial cells in the oral cavity and the genital tract might be targets of HIV-1 and potentially serve as a mediator of systemic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Han
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-2170, USA
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19
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Hao HN, Lyman WD. HIV infection of fetal human astrocytes: the potential role of a receptor-mediated endocytic pathway. Brain Res 1999; 823:24-32. [PMID: 10095008 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(98)01371-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
HIV infects microglia and astrocytes both in vivo and in vitro. Although there is a significant amount of information about microglial infection, data regarding astrocytes are more limited. For example, little is known about the initial membrane events occurring between HIV and astrocytes. Also, the mechanism by which HIV enters these cells remains to be determined. To address these questions, we exposed human astrocyte cultures to either HIV or to the HIV glycoprotein gp120. The cultures were analyzed for viral infection and gp120 binding to cultured cells by light and electron microscopy (EM) with and without immunocytochemistry, respectively; ligand-receptor biochemistry; and, Western, Northern and Southern blot analyses. The results of these studies showed that HIV binds to astrocytes via gp120 and a cell surface molecule weighing approximately 65 kDa that is neither CD4 nor galactocerebroside. Furthermore, binding of gp120 to astrocytes was concentration dependent and displayed a curve consistent with ligand-receptor binding. Additionally, radiolabeled gp120 binding was displaced by unlabeled gp120 but not by deglycosylated gp120, suggesting that the binding was specific. By EM, HIV virions were seen in clathrin-coated pits and in cytoplasmic vacuoles. This suggests linkage, in astrocytes, between a plasma membrane-associated protein that can act as a receptor for HIV and an endosomal pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- H N Hao
- Department of Pediatrics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
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