Differential effects of NMDA and non-NMDA antagonists on the activity of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase activity in the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway of the rat

Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1): Potential application in mood disorders: A systematic review

There is a need for innovation with respect to therapeutics in psychiatry. Available evidence indicates that the trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) agonist SEP-363856 is promising, as it improves measures of cognitive and reward function in schizophrenia. Hedonic and cognitive impairments are transdiagnostic and constitute major burdens in mood disorders. Herein, we systematically review the behavioural and genetic literature documenting the role of TAAR1 in reward and cognitive function, and propose a mechanistic model of TAAR1's functions in the brain. Notably, TAAR1 activity confers antidepressant-like effects, enhances attention and response inhibition, and reduces compulsive reward seeking without impairing normal function. Further characterization of the responsible mechanisms suggests ion-homeostatic, metabolic, neurotrophic, and anti-inflammatory enhancements in the limbic system. Multiple lines of evidence establish the viability of TAAR1 as a biological target for the treatment of mood disorders. Furthermore, the evidence suggests a role for TAAR1 in reward and cognitive function, which is attributed to a cascade of events that are relevant to the cellular integrity and function of the central nervous system.

Trace Amines and Their Receptors

Trace amines are endogenous compounds classically regarded as comprising β-phenylethyalmine, p-tyramine, tryptamine, p-octopamine, and some of their metabolites. They are also abundant in common foodstuffs and can be produced and degraded by the constitutive microbiota. The ability to use trace amines has arisen at least twice during evolution, with distinct receptor families present in invertebrates and vertebrates. The term "trace amine" was coined to reflect the low tissue levels in mammals; however, invertebrates have relatively high levels where they function like mammalian adrenergic systems, involved in "fight-or-flight" responses. Vertebrates express a family of receptors termed trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs). Humans possess six functional isoforms (TAAR1, TAAR2, TAAR5, TAAR6, TAAR8, and TAAR9), whereas some fish species express over 100. With the exception of TAAR1, TAARs are expressed in olfactory epithelium neurons, where they detect diverse ethological signals including predators, spoiled food, migratory cues, and pheromones. Outside the olfactory system, TAAR1 is the most thoroughly studied and has both central and peripheral roles. In the brain, TAAR1 acts as a rheostat of dopaminergic, glutamatergic, and serotonergic neurotransmission and has been identified as a novel therapeutic target for schizophrenia, depression, and addiction. In the periphery, TAAR1 regulates nutrient-induced hormone secretion, suggesting its potential as a novel therapeutic target for diabetes and obesity. TAAR1 may also regulate immune responses by regulating leukocyte differentiation and activation. This article provides a comprehensive review of the current state of knowledge of the evolution, physiologic functions, pharmacology, molecular mechanisms, and therapeutic potential of trace amines and their receptors in vertebrates and invertebrates.

NMDA receptor antagonism potentiates the L-DOPA-induced extracellular dopamine release in the subthalamic nucleus of hemi-parkinson rats

Long term treatment with L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) is associated with several motor complications. Clinical improvement of this treatment is therefore needed. Lesions or high frequency stimulation of the hyperactive subthalamic nucleus (STN) in Parkinson's disease (PD), alleviate the motor symptoms and reduce dyskinesia, either directly and/or by allowing the reduction of the L-DOPA dose. N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists might have similar actions. However it remains elusive how the neurochemistry changes in the STN after a separate or combined administration of L-DOPA and a NMDA receptor antagonist. By means of in vivo microdialysis, the effect of L-DOPA and/or MK 801, on the extracellular dopamine (DA) and glutamate (GLU) levels was investigated for the first time in the STN of sham and 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats. The L-DOPA-induced DA increase in the STN was significantly higher in DA-depleted rats compared to shams. MK 801 did not influence the L-DOPA-induced DA release in shams. However, MK 801 enhanced the L-DOPA-induced DA release in hemi-parkinson rats. Interestingly, the extracellular STN GLU levels remained unchanged after nigral degeneration. Furthermore, administration of MK 801 alone or combined with L-DOPA did not alter the STN GLU levels in both sham and DA-depleted rats. The present study does not support the hypothesis that DA-ergic degeneration influences the STN GLU levels neither that MK 801 alters the GLU levels in lesioned and non-lesioned rats. However, NMDA receptor antagonists could be used as a beneficial adjuvant treatment for PD by enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of l-DOPA at least in part in the STN.

Enhancing aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase activity: implications for L-DOPA treatment in Parkinson's disease

Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AAAD) is an essential enzyme for the formation of catecholamines, indolamines, and trace amines. Moreover, it is a required enzyme for converting L-DOPA to dopamine when treating patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). There is now substantial evidence that the activity of AAAD in striatum is regulated by activation and induction, and second messengers play a role. Enzyme activity can be modulated by drugs acting on a number of neurotransmitter receptors including dopamine (D1-4), glutamate (NMDA), serotonin (5-HT(1A), 5-HT(2A)) and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Generally, antagonists enhance AAAD activity; while, agonists may diminish it. Enhancement of AAAD activity is functional, as the formation of dopamine from exogenous L-DOPA mirrors activity. Following a lesion of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons, AAAD in striatum responds more robustly to pharmacological manipulations, and this is true for the decarboxylation of exogenous L-DOPA as well. We review the evidence for parallel modulation of AAAD activity and L-DOPA decarboxylation and propose that this knowledge can be exploited to optimize the formation of dopamine from exogenous L-DOPA. This information can be used as a blue print for the design of novel L-DOPA treatment adjuvants to benefit patients with PD.

Modulation of L-DOPA-induced abnormal involuntary movements by clinically tested compounds: further validation of the rat dyskinesia model

L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID) is a major complication of the pharmacotherapy of Parkinson's Disease. A model of LID has recently been described in rats with unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesions. In the present study, the model was used in order to compare the efficacies of some clinically available compounds that have shown antidyskinetic effects in nonhuman primate models of LID and/or in patients, namely, amantadine (20 and 40 mg/kg), buspirone (1, 2 and 4 mg/kg), clonidine (0.01, 0.1 and 1 mg/kg), clozapine (4 and 8 mg/kg), fluoxetine (2.5 and 5 mg/kg), propranolol (5, 10 and 20mg/kg), riluzole (2 and 4 mg/kg), and yohimbine (2 and 10 mg/kg). Rats were treated for 3 weeks with L-DOPA for an induction and monitoring of abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) prior to the drug screening experiments. The antidyskinetic drugs or their vehicles were administered together with L-DOPA, and their effects were evaluated according to a randomized cross-over design both on the AIM rating scale and on the rotarod test. Most of the compounds under investigation attenuated the L-DOPA-induced axial, limb and orolingual AIM scores. However, the highest doses of many of these substances (but for amantadine and riluzole) had also detrimental motor effects, producing a reduction in rotarod performance and locomotor scores. Since the present results correspond well to existing clinical and experimental data, this study indicates that axial, limb and orolingual AIMs possess predictive validity for the preclinical screening of novel antidyskinetic treatments. Combining tests of general motor performance with AIMs ratings in the same experiment allows for selecting drugs that specifically reduce dyskinesia without diminishing the anti-akinetic effect of L-DOPA.

Behavioral effects of aminoadamantane class NMDA receptor antagonists on schedule-induced alcohol and self-administration of water in mice

RATIONALE

Aminoadamantanes represent a class of NMDA glutamate receptor antagonists that reduce alcohol consumption and may prevent alcohol-induced neuronal adaptations and side effects.

OBJECTIVE

Behavioral specificity of memantine and amantadine on alcohol drinking in a schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP) task was investigated in mice.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6J mice were food-deprived and divided into four groups: 5% alcohol SIP, water SIP, 1 h limited access regulatory water drinking, and a control group to determine if either drug altered ethanol drinking. Behavioral specificity of memantine (5, 10, and 25 mg/kg, ip) and amantadine (20, 40, and 60 mg/kg, ip) was determined by comparing alterations in alcohol or water consumption in SIP and regulatory water drinking. Drug effects on SIP drinking-specific measures (grams per kilogram consumption) were also compared to nondrinking measures (locomotion, head-entries for food, and lick efficiency).

RESULTS

Compared to saline, memantine reduced alcohol SIP drinking (10 and 25 mg/kg). Memantine increased locomotion during alcohol SIP (25 mg/kg) and during water SIP (5 and 25 mg/kg). In contrast, amantadine reduced both alcohol SIP (40 mg/kg) and water SIP (40 and 60 mg/kg). Both drugs reduced regulatory water consumption over the entire dose range tested. Blood alcohol concentrations indicated consumption of physiologically meaningful amounts of alcohol during SIP, and that changes in alcohol metabolism did not account for drug-induced reductions in alcohol drinking.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to reducing alcohol drinking, both drugs had other behavioral effects that included reductions in regulatory drinking. These results suggest that the therapeutic utility of these drugs for ameliorating human alcohol addiction remains questionable.

Clozapine Modulates Aromatic l-Amino Acid Decarboxylase Activity in Mouse Striatum

Clozapine is efficacious for treating dopaminergic psychosis in Parkinson's disease and ameliorates l-DOPA-induced motor complications. Based on its pharmacology and reported enhancing effects on dopamine metabolism and tyrosine hydroxylase activity, we investigated whether it could modulate the activity of aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase (AAAD), the second enzyme for the biosynthesis of catecholamines and indoleamines. A single dose of clozapine increased AAAD activity of striatum in a dose- and time-dependent manner. At 1 h, enhanced enzyme activity was characterized by an increased V(max) for substrate and cofactor and was accompanied by elevated levels of protein in striatum and mRNA in substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area, locus coeruleus, and raphe nuclei. Acute clozapine increased tyrosine hydroxylase activity in striatum but with differing temporal patterns from AAAD and heightened dopamine metabolism. Interestingly, the response of the dopaminergic markers to clozapine was greater following a 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) lesion. Chronically administered clozapine increased AAAD activity and protein and dopamine metabolism in striatum without affecting tyrosine hydroxylase. Exogenous l-DOPA decarboxylation was accelerated in the striatum of intact and MPTP-lesioned mice following acute clozapine, and the effect was exaggerated in the MPTP mice. To identify receptors involved, antagonists of receptors occupied by clozapine were employed. D4, 5-HT1(A), and 5-HT2(A), in addition to D1, D2, and D3, antagonists, augmented AAAD activity in striatum, whereas 5-HT2(C), 5-HT3, muscarinic, and alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenergic antagonists were ineffective. For the first time, these studies provide evidence that clozapine modulates AAAD activity in the brain and suggests that dopamine and serotonin receptors are involved.

Effects of pre-treatment with amantadine on morphine induced antinociception during second phase formalin responses in rats

The clinically available NMDA-receptor antagonist drug, amantadine, has been shown to result in morphine sparing effects in humans after surgery. However, no data are available to describe the exact form of interaction. The present study aims to profile the possible effects of amantadine (0, 12.5, 25 or 50 mgkg(-1) i.p.) pre-treatment on morphine (0, 0.63, 1.25, 2.5 or 5 mgkg(-1) s.c.) induced antinociception in rats. The (automated) formalin test (5% formalin, 50 microl) was used to assess if amantadine enhances the antinociceptive activity of morphine. Possible motor impairment was assessed with a rotarod test. Morphine was measured in serum of amantadine or vehicle treated rats to search for possible pharmacokinetic interactions between amantadine and morphine. Isobolographic analysis provided evidence for a synergistic interaction between amantadine and morphine in the second phase of the formalin test. No evidence was found to indicate that amantadine induced motor impairment at the doses potentiating morphine during the second phase of the formalin test. There was no evidence for a pharmacokinetic interaction between amantadine and morphine. Since, the second phase of the formalin test is dependent on activation of the NMDA receptor system it is concluded that an antagonistic activity of amantadine at the NMDA receptor most likely contributes to the synergistic interaction observed between amantadine and morphine in rats.

Age-Dependent Effects of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury on Cerebral Dopaminergic Activity in Newborn and Juvenile Pigs

There is evidence that the dopaminergic system is sensitive to traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, the age-dependency of this sensitivity has not been studied together with brain oxidative metabolism. We postulate that the acute effects of severe TBI on brain dopamine turnover are age-dependent. Therefore 18F-labelled 6-fluoro-L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (FDOPA) together with Positron-Emission-Tomography (PET) was used to estimate the activity of the aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) in the brain of 11 newborn piglets (7-10 days old) and nine juvenile pigs (6-7 weeks old). Six newborn and five juvenile animals were subjected to a severe fluid-percussion (FP) induced TBI. The remaining animals were used as sham operated untreated control groups. Simultaneously, the regional cerebral blood flow (CBF) was measured with colored microspheres and the cerebral metabolic rates of oxygen and glucose were determined. At 1 h after FP-TBI, [18F]FDOPA was infused and PET scanning was performed for 2 h. At 2 h after FP-TBI administration, a second series of measurements of physiological values including CBF and brain oxidative metabolism data had been obtained. Severe FP-TBI elicited a marked increase in the rate constant for fluorodopamine production (k3FDOPA) in all brain regions of newborn piglets studied by between 97% (mesencephalon) and 143% (frontal cortex) (p < 0.05). In contrast, brain hemodynamics and cerebral oxidative metabolism remained unaltered after TBI. Furthermore, the permeability-surface area product of FDOPA (PSFDOPA) was unchanged. In addition, regional blood flow differences between corresponding ipsi- and contralateral brain regions did not occur after TBI. Thus, it is suggested that severe FP-TBI induces an upregulation of AADC activity of newborn piglets that is not related to alterations in brain oxidative metabolism.

Mécanisme d’action des effets anticonvulsivant et anti-immobilité (nage forcée) de la 3’, 4’-dihydro-N, N-diméthylspiro [9H-fluorène-9, 2’ (5’H)- furane] - 3’-méthanamine (AE37F)

AE37F, a new aminotetrahydrofuranic derivative, exhibited, at 10-30 mg/Kg (po) or 1-10 mg/Kg (ip), antagonism of tonic convulsions, induced by pentetrazole (130 mg/Kg, ip), and of forced swin immobility, in mice. At these doses AE37F induced a considerable (100-250%) increase of serotonin (5-HT) and its main metabolite, 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid (5-HIAA), in the rat nucleus reticularis pontis oralis (NRPO), antagonized by amantadine, which also increased 5-HT and 5-HIAA levels in the NRPO. It is suggested: a) that the anti-immobility effect of AE37F is related to its antimuscarinic properties, b) that the rate of 5-HT release in the NRPO, calculated here by a new approach (from the 5-HT and 5-HIAA brain levels) is increased by AE37F and decreased by amantadine, in the NRPO, c) that the anti-convulsant action, observed with AE37F, could be related to a NMDA-sigma mediated stimulation of serotoninergic, GABAergic and glycinergic brain neurones, antagonized by the NMDA-sigma inhibition induced by amantadine.

Amantadine increases L-DOPA-derived extracellular dopamine in the striatum of 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats

We investigated the effect of amantadine on L-DOPA-derived extracellular dopamine (DA) levels and aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) activity in the striatum of rats with nigrostriatal dopaminergic denervation by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Pretreatment with 30 mg/kg amantadine increased the cumulative amount of extracellular DA in the striatum of 6-OHDA-lesioned rats treated with 10 mg/kg benserazide and 50 mg/kg L-DOPA to 250% of that without amantadine (P<0.01). Under pretreatment with 10 mg/kg benserazide, AADC activity after 30 mg/kg amantadine administration was reduced to 43% of controls (P<0.01). Amantadine-induced increase in L-DOPA-derived extracellular DA provides the basis for the clinical usefulness of amantadine in combination with L-DOPA. However, the effect of amantadine on L-DOPA-derived extracellular DA may not be caused by changes in AADC activity.

Hypersensitivity of dopamine transmission in the rat striatum after treatment with the NMDA receptor antagonist amantadine

Amantadine, a non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist known to increase dopamine synthesis and release in the striatum, is frequently associated with L-DOPA in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. However, the biochemical mechanisms involved in the effect of amantadine and the consequences of its repetitive administration on the modulation of striatal dopamine transmission still need to be clarified. We have investigated the effects of short-term amantadine treatments on the expression of dopamine receptors and the functional coupling to G proteins in rat striatal membranes. Dopamine-induced stimulation of guanosine 5'-[gamma-35S]triphosphate ([35S]GTPgammaS) binding was significantly enhanced (40%) in striatum homogenates from rats treated for 4 days with amantadine (40 mg/kg, i.p.) compared to vehicle-treated animals. This effect was specific for dopamine receptors and was transient as no significant modifications were observed when animals were treated for either 2 or 7 days. Administration of amantadine did not directly affect the animal behaviour. However, treated animals exhibited hypersensitive dopamine transmission since rats treated for 4 days showed exacerbated responses to a single apomorphine administration (enhanced locomotor activity and reduced stereotypy). Since the effects of amantadine administration differ from those usually observed with direct dopamine receptor agonists or other NMDA receptor antagonists, we suggest that multiple biochemical mechanisms contribute to the modulation of dopamine transmission by amantadine.

MK801 suppresses the L-DOPA-induced increase of glutamate in striatum of hemi-Parkinson rats

In vivo microdialysis in freely moving rats was used to investigate the influence of the indirect dopamine receptor agonist levodopa (L-DOPA), alone and combined with the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist dizocilpine (MK801), on extracellular glutamate levels in the striatum of intact and 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats. L-DOPA (25 mg/kg i.p. after benserazide 10 mg/kg i.p.) increased extracellular glutamate levels in the striatum of both intact and dopamine-depleted rats. A prior injection of MK801 (0.1 and 1.0 mg/kg i.p.) did not alter the L-DOPA-induced glutamate release in the striatum of intact rats. In contrast, the L-DOPA-induced increase in glutamate in the striatum of 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats was suppressed by MK801 (0.1 mg/kg i.p.). The data presented here suggest that NMDA receptors do not play a role in the L-DOPA-induced increase in striatal glutamate in intact rats but are involved in the glutamate release in the dopamine-depleted striatum. The suppression of this increase by prior administration of MK801 could represent a neuroprotective effect.

Microdialysates of amines and metabolites from core nucleus accumbens of freely moving rats are altered by dizocilpine

In vivo microdialysis combined with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection, was used to study the effect of MK-801 (0.1 mg/kg i.p.) on extracellular concentrations of dopamine (DA) 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), serotonin (5-HT), norepinephrine (NE) and DOPAC/DA ratio in intact, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-lesioned, DSP4 (N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzyl-amine hydrochloride)-lesioned and reserpine-treated rats. The results revealed high basal DA (0.735+/-0.05 fmol/microl), DOPAC (195.93+/-20.18 fmol/microl) and NE (0.585+/-0.01 fmol/microl), low 5-HT (0.334+/-0.032 fmol/microl) and high DOPAC/DA ratio (265.11+/-20.73) in intact cACC. 6-OHDA alone (8 microg/2 microl) depleted DA (-66%), DOPAC (-65%), and NE (-62%). On the other hand, in desipramine (DMI)-pretreated rats, 6-OHDA induced a large depletion of DA (-94%), DOPAC (-97%) and reduced DOPAC/DA ratio (-73%), but increased NE to 142% of intact and 369% of 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. DSP4 (50 mg/kg) decreased NE (-97%), DOPAC (-75%) and DOPAC/DA ratio (-69%). Reserpine (5 mg/kg s.c.) significantly decreased DOPAC (-84%), DOPAC/DA ratio (-81%), 5-HT (-69%) and NE (-86%), but nonsignificantly increased DA. In the intact rats, MK-801 did not change DA, but increased DOPAC and DOPAC/DA ratio. In 6-OHDA-lesioned rats, MK-801 increased DA, whereas in 6-OHDA+DMI rats MK-801 additionally increased DOPAC and DOPAC/DA ratio. DSP4 and reserpine reduced the ability of MK-801 to increase DOPAC and DOPAC/DA ratio. MK-801 did not change NE concentration in dialysates collected from intact rats, but increased that from 6-OHDA+DMI-lesioned rats. In DSP4-lesioned and reserpine-treated rats, MK-801 increased NE but to a level lower than that observed in the intact rats. These results suggest that systemic administration of a low dose of MK-801, which induces profound locomotor stimulation without stereotypy, increases DOPAC and DOPAC/DA ratio in the cACC of intact rats, whereas it additionally increases the depleted DA and NE concentrations especially in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats pretreated with DMI.

Co-administration of memantine and amantadine with sub/suprathreshold doses of L-Dopa restores motor behaviour of MPTP-treated mice

The antiparkinsonian effects of the uncompetitive NMDA antagonists, memantine, amantadine and MK-801, in combination with an acute subthreshold dose of L-Dopa (5 mg/kg) in drug-naive MPTP-treated mice or a suprathreshold dose (20 mg/kg) in L-Dopa tolerant MPTP-treated mice were investigated. In the former case, memantine (locomotion: 3 mg/kg; rearing: 1 mg/kg) and amantadine (locomotion and rearing: 10 mg/kg) injected 60 min before the subthreshold dose of L-Dopa (5 mg/kg), each induced an antiparkinsonian action in hypokinesic MPTP-treated mice that consisted of dose-specific, as opposed to dose-related, elevations of locomotion and rearing behaviour. At the same time, higher doses of memantine reduced further the rearing (10 and 30 mg/kg) and locomotor (30mg/kg) behaviour of the MPTP-treated mice. MK-801 plus L-Dopa elevated locomotion (0.1 mg/kg) but reduced rearing at the 0.3 mg/kg dose. In control, saline-treated mice, memantine (3, 10 and 30 mg/kg) and MK-801 (0.1 and 0.3 mg/kg) increased locomotor behaviour but decreased rearing behaviour, while amantadine produced no effects. Memantine increased locomotor (1 and 3 mg/kg, s.c.; 1 mg/kg dose restored activity) and rearing (0.3 and 3 mg/kg) activity in the L-Dopa tolerant MPTP-treated mice, whereas amantadine (3 and 10 mg/kg) restored both locomotor (30 mg/kg significantly increased locomotion but did not restore the activity level) and rearing (3 mg/kg only) activity. MK-801 (0.1 and 0.3 mg/kg, s.c.) also increased significantly locomotor activity of L-Dopa-tolerant MPTP mice although the antikinetic action was not reversed, thereby precluding a restorative effect of the compound. These results, demonstrating both a synergistic and a restorative effect of the NMDA antagonists in coadministration with L-Dopa, demonstrate a putative antiparkinson action by these compounds in a functional animal model that incorporates the "wearing-off" complications of L-Dopa administration in the disorder.

MK801 influences L-DOPA-induced dopamine release in intact and hemi-parkinson rats

In vivo microdialysis was used to investigate the influence of dizocilpine (MK801) on basal and levodopa (L-DOPA)-induced extracellular dopamine levels in striatum and substantia nigra of intact and 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats. In lesioned rats, extracellular dopamine was decreased in striatum but not in substantia nigra. L-DOPA (25 mg/kg i.p. after benserazide 10 mg/kg i. p.) increased the dopamine levels in striatum and substantia nigra of intact and dopamine-depleted rats. This increase was significantly higher in dopamine-depleted compared to intact striatum. Pretreatment with MK801 (0.1 and 1.0 mg/kg i.p.) dose-dependently attenuated the L-DOPA-induced dopamine release in substantia nigra of intact rats. In dopamine-depleted striatum, MK801 enhanced L-DOPA-induced dopamine release. The present results indicate that the influence of MK801 on L-DOPA-induced dopamine release in striatum and substantia nigra depends on the integrity of the nigrostriatal pathway. In Parkinson's disease, NMDA receptor antagonists could be beneficial by enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of L-DOPA at the level of the striatum.

Increased dopamine uptake in striatal synaptosomes after treatment of rats with amantadine

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of short- and long-term treatments with amantadine on the activity of the neuronal dopamine transporter (DAT) in the rat striatum. For this purpose, the [3H]dopamine uptake was measured in striatal synaptosomes prepared from rats treated for 2, 7 and 14 days with amantadine (40 mg/kg; i.p.). After 7 days of treatment, amantadine increased the apparent V(max) by 30% without modification of the apparent K(m) of dopamine uptake whereas no change in these parameters was observed after 2 and 14 days treatment. Binding assays conducted with [3H]GBR-12935 on membranes prepared from animals treated with amantadine revealed no difference in the density and the affinity of striatal DAT binding sites as compared to control. This indicates that the increased dopamine uptake was not reflecting a modification at the level of the DAT expression. The activity of the DAT is regulated by phosphorylation and one may propose that ionotropic glutamate receptors present on presynaptic terminals directly modulate this phosphorylation. An indirect mechanism would involve presynaptic dopamine receptors that control the activity of the DAT in response to the increased dopamine concentration in the synaptic cleft.

Opposite effects of glutamate antagonists and antiparkinsonian drugs on the activities of DOPA decarboxylase and 5-HTP decarboxylase in the rat brain

This study measured the activities of L-DOPA and 5-HTP decarboxylase (DDC and 5-HTPDC) in the substantia nigra and corpus striatum of reserpine-treated rats. Acute injection of the NMDA receptor antagonists CGP 40116 (5 mg/kg) and HA 966 (5 mg/kg), and to a lesser extent eliprodil (10 mg/kg), greatly elevated DDC in both structures, whilst having no effect on (nigra) or inhibiting (striatum) 5-HTPDC. L-DOPA (25 mg/kg) on its own inhibited both enzymes in either brain region. The weak NMDA receptor-channel blockers (and antiparkinsonian drugs) budipine (10 mg/kg), memantine (40 mg/kg) and amantadine (40 mg/kg) strongly increased DDC, whilst not affecting or decreasing 5-HTPDC activity in nigra and striatum. The L-DOPA-induced suppression of DDC was mostly reversed by all three antiparkinsonian drugs, whilst L-DOPA-induced inhibition of 5-HTPDC was only reversed by CGP 40116 (striatum only). It is concluded that glutamate exerts a differential physiological influence on the biosynthesis of dopamine and 5-HT in the brain, by tonically suppressing DDC and tonically stimulating 5-HTPDC. The L-DOPA-induced reduction in DDC may help to explain the eventual loss of efficacy of L-DOPA therapy in parkinsonian patients. It is suggested, however, that it may be possible to extend the lifetime of L-DOPA therapy with drugs which potentiate the activity of DDC, such as budipine and the 1-aminoadamantanes.

Dual effects of L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine on aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase, dopamine release and motor stimulation in the reserpine-treated rat: evidence that behaviour is dopamine independent

The comparative effects of L-3,4-dihydroxphenylalanine (L-DOPA) on dopamine synthesis, release and behaviour were studied in the reserpine-treated rat. Acute administration of L-DOPA (25-200 mg/kg) dose-dependently inhibited the activity of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) in the substantia nigra and corpus striatum. The antiparkinsonian drugs budipine (10 mg/kg) and amantadine (40 mg/kg) enhanced AADC activity in these regions, and prevented or reversed AADC inhibition by L-DOPA. Dual probe dialysis revealed that low doses of L-DOPA (25-50 mg/kg) dose-dependently stimulated the release of dopamine and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) in nigra and striatum, whilst high doses of L-DOPA (100-200 mg/kg) completely suppressed the release of dopamine, but not DOPAC. Sulpiride (50 microM) administered via the probes antagonized dopamine release in response to 25 mg/kg L-DOPA, but greatly facilitated release by 200 mg/kg L-DOPA. Dopamine release was blocked by the centrally acting AADC inhibitor NSD 1015, but facilitated by the central AADC activator budipine. In behavioural tests L-DOPA (plus benserazide, 50 mg/kg) only reversed akinesia at 200 mg/kg, and not at 25-100 mg/kg. Pretreatment with either NSD 1015 (100 mg/kg) or budipine (10 mg/kg) markedly potentiated the motor stimulant action of a threshold dose of L-DOPA (100 mg/kg). A combination of NSD 1015 (100 mg/kg) and benserazide (50 mg/kg) potentiated L-DOPA behaviour more effectively than either inhibitor alone. NSD 1015-facilitated L-DOPA behaviour was antagonized by sulpiride (100 mg/kg) and not by SCH 23390 (1 mg/kg), whereas budipine-facilitated L-DOPA behaviour was fully antagonized by SCH 23390 and only partially by sulpiride. These results show that behaviourally active doses of L-DOPA in the reserpinized rat are not accompanied by significant increases in extracellular dopamine and are therefore probably not dopamine mediated. We propose that L-DOPA is capable of directly stimulating dopamine D2 and possibly non-dopamine receptors, thereby inhibiting dopamine efflux presynaptically and promoting motor activation postsynaptically. A stimulant action of L-DOPA on motor behaviour, preferentially mediated by D1 > D2 receptors, suggests that L-DOPA may also be capable of yielding a dopamine-like response in the absence of detectable dopamine release. These findings are incorporated into a new model of L-DOPA's actions in the reserpinized rat, and their possible implications for our understanding of L-DOPA in Parkinson's disease are discussed.

Restoration and putative protection in Parkinsonism

Synergistic antiparkinsonian actions of different classes of putative therapeutic agents co-administered with a subthreshold dose of L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-Dopa) (5 mg/kg) in drug-naive 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-treated mice as well as the restorative actions of those compounds in suprathreshold L-Dopa-tolerant MPTP-treated mice subjected to "wearing-off" of L-Dopa efficacy were assessed in a series of experiments. The classes of compounds studied included the noncompetitive NMDA antagonists, memantine, amantadine and MK-801, the anticonvulsive and putative anticonvulsive agents, lamotrigine, FCE 26743, phenytoin, the monoamine oxidase inhibitors, L-Deprenyl, amiflamine, alpha-ethyltryptamine, clorgyline and guanfacine. In this final case, the restorative effects of clonidine and guanfacine were antagonized by the alpha(2)-adrenoceptor antagonist, yohimbine, but not the alpha(1)-adrenoceptor antagonist, prazosin. Within each class of potentially therapeutic agents a differential restorative efficacy was obtained, but the combination of different doses of apomorphine with clonidine failed to restore motor activity. Finally, the neuroprotective actions of acute and subchronic administration of the nitrone spin-trapping compound, alpha-phenyl-tert-butyl nitrone upon the spontaneous motor behaviour and striatal dopamine concentrations of MPTP-treated mice was examined.

Stimulation of dopa decarboxylase activity in striatum of healthy human brain secondary to NMDA receptor antagonism with a low dose of amantadine

The efficacy of amantadine in alleviating motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease may be mediated in part by stimulation of cerebral dopa decarboxylase (DDC) activity, secondary to antagonism of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) type glutamate receptors. We tested the specific hypothesis that amantadine increases the decarboxylation rate of 6-[(18)F]fluoro-L-DOPA (FDOPA), an exogenous substrate for DDC, in healthy human brain. Radioactivity concentrations in brain tissue of neurologically normal volunteers (n = 5) injected intravenously with FDOPA ( approximately 4.5 mCi) were recorded by positron emission tomography (PET) for 120 min, first in a baseline condition, and again following three consecutive days of treatment with amantadine (100 mg/day, p.o.). Data from four telencephalic regions of interest containing appreciable DDC activity were analyzed with the tissue slope-intercept plot, using cerebellar cortex as the reference tissue, to estimate a coefficient of in situ FDOPA decarboxylation (k(3)(r), min(-1)). Mean estimates of k(3)(r) were increased following amantadine treatment in caudate nucleus (+12%), putamen (+28%), ventral striatum (+27%), and frontal cortex (+9%). For an initial confidence level of 95%, paired one-sided Student's t-tests with Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons revealed a statistically significant drug effect in ventral striatum. Present results are consistent with stimulation of DDC activity in striatum of healthy human brain secondary to NMDA receptor antagonism with a low dose of amantadine, and suggest that this response is an important mechanism underlying the anti-parkinsonian properties of amantadine. Nonetheless, PET studies in parkinsonian patients using higher, clinically effective doses of amantadine may reveal more pronounced enhancements of cerebral DDC activity.

Microdialysis study of the effects of the antiparkinsonian drug budipine on L-DOPA-induced release of dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine by rat substantia nigra and corpus striatum

The purpose of this study was to determine if systemic treatment with the antiparkinsonian drug budipine was capable of influencing the release of dopamine newly synthesised from L-DOPA in the substantia nigra and corpus striatum of the monoamine-depleted rat. Dual probe microdialysis was therefore employed in freely moving animals pretreated with reserpine (4 mg/kg i.p. 18-20 h earlier) and alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine (200 mg/kg i.p. 45 min earlier). Budipine (10 mg/kg i.p.) alone evoked a small but significant increase in basal dopamine efflux in nigra, though not in striatum, but did not affect the spontaneous outputs of DOPAC, 5-HT, or 5-HIAA in either structure. A threshold amount of L-DOPA (25 mg/kg i.p.) stimulated the release of dopamine, DOPAC, and 5-HT (but not 5-HIAA), both in nigra and striatum. The L-DOPA-induced releases of dopamine and DOPAC were greatly accentuated by pretreatment with budipine (10 mg/kg i.p. 45 min earlier), which delayed rather than potentiated the nigral and striatal effluxes of 5-HT. A higher dose of L-DOPA (100 mg/kg i.p.) did not significantly raise the outputs of dopamine or 5-HT, but greatly magnified that of DOPAC. In these experiments, pretreatment with budipine (10 mg/kg i.p.) facilitated the formation of DOPAC from L-DOPA, without increasing the extracellular concentration of dopamine. We conclude from these findings that budipine, at a therapeutically relevant dose, potentiates the release of dopamine newly synthesised from L-DOPA from either end of the nigrostriatal dopamine axis. This effect of budipine could be related to the drug's recently described ability to increase the activity of the converting enzyme, aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase, and could explain the clinical efficacy of budipine as an adjunct to L-DOPA therapy of Parkinson's disease in man. The significance of 5-HT release to the antiparkinsonian L-DOPA, and the delay in this release caused by budipine, remain to be established.

Memantine is a clinically well tolerated N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist--a review of preclinical data

N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists have therapeutic potential in numerous CNS disorders ranging from acute neurodegeneration (e.g. stroke and trauma), chronic neurodegeneration (e.g. Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, ALS) to symptomatic treatment (e.g. epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, drug dependence, depression, anxiety and chronic pain). However, many NMDA receptor antagonists also produce highly undesirable side effects at doses within their putative therapeutic range. This has unfortunately led to the conclusion that NMDA receptor antagonism is not a valid therapeutic approach. However, memantine is clearly an uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist at therapeutic concentrations achieved in the treatment of dementia and is essentially devoid of such side effects at doses within the therapeutic range. This has been attributed to memantine's moderate potency and associated rapid, strongly voltage-dependent blocking kinetics. The aim of this review is to summarise preclinical data on memantine supporting its mechanism of action and promising profile in animal models of chronic neurodegenerative diseases. The ultimate purpose is to provide evidence that it is indeed possible to develop clinically well tolerated NMDA receptor antagonists, a fact reflected in the recent interest of several pharmaceutical companies in developing compounds with similar properties to memantine.

The antiparkinsonian drug budipine stimulates the activity of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase and enhances L-DOPA-induced dopamine release in rat substantia nigra

The present study examined the effects of the antiparkinsonian drug budipine on dopamine synthesis and release from L-DOPA in the substantia nigra of reserpine-treated rats. Budipine (at 100 microM, but not 10 microM) applied by reverse dialysis to the nigra caused a small and significant rise in dopamine recovery in normal rats, but not in rats pretreated with reserpine (4 mg/kg i.p. for 18 hours) and alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine (alpha-MPT; 200 mg/kg i.p. for 1 hour to limit dopamine synthesis to L-DOPA). L-DOPA applied to the nigra by reverse dialysis in reserpine + alpha-MPT-treated rats, increased the recovery of dopamine when applied at 5 or 10 microM, but not at 2 microM. Coadministration of budipine (10 microM) significantly enhanced L-DOPA-induced dopamine (and DOPAC) release with 5 microM L-DOPA, but not with 2 or 10 microM L-DOPA. This potentiation was even more pronounced when the budipine concentration was raised to 100 microM (equivalent to approximately 10 microM extracellularly). Pretreating rats with budipine (5, 12.5, or 20 mg/kg i.p.) for 1 hour significantly raised the activity of the enzyme L-aromatic amino acid decarboxylase in the striata and nigras of intact rats, as well as in rats pretreated with reserpine alone (5 mg/kg i.p.), without altering tissue levels of dopamine or its metabolites. It is suggested that the beneficial effects of budipine, when used as an adjunct to L-DOPA therapy of Parkinson's disease, may be due to an increase in the bioconversion of L-DOPA with a consequent rise in synaptic dopamine. These actions of budipine may be related to its weak NMDA receptor antagonist property.