Rotavirus infection in calves, piglets, lambs and goat kids in Trinidad

Rotavirus Infection in Swine: Genotypic Diversity, Immune Responses, and Role of Gut Microbiome in Rotavirus Immunity

Rotaviruses (RVs) are endemic in swine populations, and all swine herds certainly have a history of RV infection and circulation. Rotavirus A (RVA) and C (RVC) are the most common among all RV species reported in swine. RVA was considered most prevalent and pathogenic in swine; however, RVC has been emerging as a significant cause of enteritis in newborn piglets. RV eradication from swine herds is not practically achievable, hence producers’ mainly focus on minimizing the production impact of RV infections by reducing mortality and diarrhea. Since no intra-uterine passage of immunoglobulins occur in swine during gestation, newborn piglets are highly susceptible to RV infection at birth. Boosting lactogenic immunity in gilts by using vaccines and natural planned exposure (NPE) is currently the only way to prevent RV infections in piglets. RVs are highly diverse and multiple RV species have been reported from swine, which also contributes to the difficulties in preventing RV diarrhea in swine herds. Human RV-gut microbiome studies support a link between microbiome composition and oral RV immunogenicity. Such information is completely lacking for RVs in swine. It is not known how RV infection affects the functionality or structure of gut microbiome in swine. In this review, we provide a detailed overview of genotypic diversity of swine RVs, host-ranges, innate and adaptive immune responses to RVs, homotypic and heterotypic immunity to RVs, current methods used for RV management in swine herds, role of maternal immunity in piglet protection, and prospects of investigating swine gut microbiota in providing immunity against rotaviruses.

Cross-sectional study and genotyping of rotavirus-A infections in ruminants in Kuwait

Background

Group A rotaviruses (RVA) are zoonotic pathogens responsible for acute enteritis in human and neonatal ruminants. This research aimed to determine the prevalence of RVA in ruminants (cattle, sheep, and goats) and investigate the circulating RVA genotypes in these animals in Kuwait. We conducted a cross-sectional study to detect RVA in ruminants, using an immunochromatography test (IC), direct sandwich ELISA test, and real-time RT-PCR (RT-qPCR) assay using fecal samples.

Results

A total of 400 cattle, 334 sheep, and 222 goats were examined. The prevalence of RVA was 5.3, 1.2, and 2.3%, respectively, using IC. The ELISA test detected RVA from 4.3% of cattle, 0.9% of sheep, and 1.8% of goats. There was a significant association between the occurrence of diarrhea and the presence of RVA in bovine fecal samples (p-value = 0.0022), while no statistical association between diarrhea and the presence of RVA in fecal samples of sheep and goats was observed (p-value = 0.7250; p-value = 0.4499, respectively). Twenty-three of the IC-positive samples (17 from cattle, two from sheep, and four from goats) were tested using a RT-qPCR RVA detection assay targeting the NSP3 gene. The results showed that 21 of 23 IC-positive samples tested positive by RT-qPCR. Detection of RVA genotypes revealed that G10P[11] was the predominant strain in cattle (58.8%), followed by G8P[1] (11.7%). One sheep sample was genotyped as G8P[1]. In addition, G6P[1] and G6P[14] were detected in goat samples.

Conclusion

The present study revealed that the IC was more sensitive in detecting RVA antigen in fecal samples than the ELISA test. A higher occurrence of RVA infection was observed in cattle than in sheep and goats. This study suggests that RVA might be a risk factor of diarrhea in bovine calves less than 2 weeks old. This research also demonstrates the circulation of RVA in sheep and goat populations in Kuwait. Finally, the G10P[11] RVA genotype was the most prevalent genotype identified from cattle samples.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-021-02944-4.

Genomic Analysis of an Indian G8P[1] Caprine Rotavirus-A Strain Revealing Artiodactyl and DS-1-Like Human Multispecies Reassortment

The surveillance studies for the presence of caprine rotavirus A (RVA) are limited in India, and the data for the whole-genome analysis of the caprine RVA is not available. This study describes the whole-genome-based analysis of a caprine rotavirus A strain, RVA/Goat-wt/IND/K-98/2015, from a goat kid in India. The genomic analysis revealed that the caprine RVA strain K-98, possess artiodactyl-like and DS-1 human-like genome constellation G8P[1]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A3-N2-T6-E2-H3. The three structural genes (VP2, VP4, and VP7) were close to caprine host having nucleotide-based identity range between 97.5 and 98.9%. Apart from them, other gene segments showed similarity with either bovine or human like genes, ultimately pointing toward a common evolutionary origin having an artiodactyl-type backbone of strain K-98. Phylogenetically, the various genes of the current study isolate also clustered inside clades comprising Human-Bovine-Caprine isolates from worldwide. The current findings add to the knowledge on caprine rotaviruses and might play a substantial role in designing future vaccines or different alternative strategies combating such infections having public health significance. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the whole-genome characterization of a caprine RVA G8P[1] strain from India. Concerning the complex nature of the K-98 genome, whole-genome analyses of more numbers of RVA strains from different parts of the country are needed to comprehend the genomic nature and genetic diversity among caprine RVA.

First report on Cryptosporidium parvum, Escherichia coli K99, rotavirus and coronavirus in neonatal lambs from north-center region, Algeria

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The etiology of neonatal diarrhea is multifactorial and remains one of the biggest problems in ruminant livestock farming. This study represent the first report in Algeria on Cryptosporidium parvum, Escherichia coli K99, rotavirus and coronavirus in the etiology of neonatal diarrhea in lambs.

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Faecal samples from 559 neonatal lambs aged less than 30 days from 30 sheepfolds were screened with pathogen-specific antigen ELISA for C. parvum, E. coli K99, rotavirus, and coronavirus.

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The prevalence of C. parvum was the highest compared to other enteric pathogens.

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In various combinations, mixed infections were detected only with C. parvum.

The etiology of neonatal diarrhea is multifactorial and remains one of the greatest health problems in sheep livestock farming. Faecal samples from 559 neonatal lambs aged less than 30 days from 30 sheepfolds located in the north-center region of Algeria were screened with pathogen-specific antigen ELISA for Cryptosporidium parvum, Escherichia coli K99, rotavirus, and coronavirus. Of the 559 lambs, 312 (58.81 %), 155 (27.72 %), 72 (12.88 %) and 20 (3.57 %) were positives for C. parvum, E. coli K99, rotavirus and coronavirus antigens, respectively. The prevalence of C. parvum was the highest (p < 0.0001). C. parvum, E. coli K99, rotavirus and coronavirus were observed in 23 (76.66 %), 17 (56.66 %), 9 (30 %) and 3 (10 %) sheepfolds, respectively. Compared to age, the prevalence of C. parvum was highest during the second and third week of age (p < 0.001). In contrast, other pathogens were found to be more frequent in lambs aged ≤7 days (p < 0.001). The number of lambs with diarrhea was 280 (50.09 %) of which 280 (100 %), 127 (45.35 %), 52 (18.57 %) and 10 (3.57 %) were found to be infected with C. parvum, E. coli K99, rotavirus and coronavirus, respectively (p < 0.0001). In various combinations, mixed infections were detected only with C. parvum. This is the first report of C. parvum, E. coli K99, rotavirus, and coronavirus in ≤30-days old neonatal lambs in Algeria. Special attention should be given to the first colostrum feeding, hygiene of the farm, prevention and control measures for a better prevention of neonatal diarrhea in lambs.

Identification of rotavirus A strains in small ruminants: first detection of G8P[1] genotypes in sheep in Turkey

Although members of rotavirus group A (RVA) are major enteric pathogens of humans and animals of many species, their impact on the health of small ruminants is not well documented. In this study, we conducted a molecular analysis of VP4, VP7, VP6 and NSP4 genes of RVAs detected using a commercial antigen ELISA in small ruminants with or without diarrhea in Turkey. Of the RVAs detected in sheep, one strain (Kutahya) was characterized as genotype G8P[1]-I2-E2. Two others (Ankara-1 and Ankara-2) were identified as NSP4 E2 and VP6 I2 genotypes, although they were untyped for the VP4 and VP7 genes. The RVAs from two goats were characterized as genotype G6P [1]-I2-E2. This is the first detection of in goats RVA genotypes G6P [1], which had previously only been found in cattle in Turkey, and of RVA in sheep. The study extends our current knowledge about the circulation of two RVA G genotypes, G6 and G8, in goat herds, and the detection of the G8 genotype in sheep in Turkey. This provides further information about the molecular epidemiology of RVAs in different animal species and indicates that additional surveillance programs are needed to determine the epidemiology of RVA in small ruminants and other species.

Comparison of electron microscopy, ELISA, real time RT-PCR and insulated isothermal RT-PCR for the detection of Rotavirus group A (RVA) in feces of different animal species

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Agreement between molecular tests for Rotavirus group A (RVA) detection was 80–92%.

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The agreement between all assays was 81–100% in samples containing high viral loads.

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The sensitivity of RVA RT-iiPCR was 3–4 copies of in vitro transcribed dsRNA.

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The field-deployable RT-iiPCR system holds promise for on-site detection of RVA.

There is no gold standard for detection of Rotavirus Group A (RVA), one of the main causes of diarrhea in neonatal animals. Sensitive and specific real-time RT-PCR (rtRT-PCR) assays are available for RVA but require submission of the clinical samples to diagnostic laboratories. Patient-side immunoassays for RVA protein detection have shown variable results, particularly with samples from unintended species. A sensitive and specific test for detection of RVA on the farm would facilitate rapid management decisions. The insulated isothermal RT-PCR (RT-iiPCR) assay works in a portable machine to allow sensitive and specific on-site testing. The aim of this investigation was to evaluate a commercially available RT-iiPCR assay for RVA detection in feces from different animal species. This assay was compared to an in-house rtRT-PCR assay and a commercially available rtRT-PCR kit, as well as an ELISA and EM for RVA detection. All three PCR assays targeted the well-conserved NSP5 gene. Clinical fecal samples from 108 diarrheic animals (mainly cattle and horses) were tested. The percentage of positive samples by ELISA, EM, in-house rtRT-PCR, commercial rtRT-PCR, and RT-iiPCR was 29.4%, 31%, 36.7%, 51.4%, 56.9%, respectively. The agreement between different assays was high (81.3–100%) in samples containing high viral loads. The sensitivity of the RT-iiPCR assay appeared to be higher than the commercially available rtRT-PCR assay, with a limit of detection (95% confidence index) of 3–4 copies of in vitro transcribed dsRNA. In conclusion, the user-friendly, field-deployable RT-iiPCR system holds substantial promise for on-site detection of RVA.

Chicken egg yolk antibodies (IgY) as non-antibiotic production enhancers for use in swine production: a review

In recent years, the use of in-feed antibiotics for growth and disease prevention in livestock production has been under severe scrutiny. The use and misuse of in-feed antibiotics has led to problems with drug residues in animal products and increased bacterial resistance. Chicken egg yolk antibodies (IgY) have attracted considerable attention as an alternative to antibiotics to maintain swine health and performance. Oral administration of IgY possesses many advantages over mammalian IgG such as cost-effectiveness, convenience and high yield. This review presents an overview of the potential to use IgY immunotherapy for the prevention and treatment of swine diarrhea diseases and speculates on the future of IgY technology. Included are a review of the potential applications of IgY in the control of enteric infections of either bacterial or viral origin such as enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., rotavirus, porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus, and porcine epidemic diarrhea virus. Some potential obstacles to the adoption of IgY technology are also discussed.

Chicken egg yolk antibodies (IgY) as non-antibiotic production enhancers for use in swine production: a review

In recent years, the use of in-feed antibiotics for growth and disease prevention in livestock production has been under severe scrutiny. The use and misuse of in-feed antibiotics has led to problems with drug residues in animal products and increased bacterial resistance. Chicken egg yolk antibodies (IgY) have attracted considerable attention as an alternative to antibiotics to maintain swine health and performance. Oral administration of IgY possesses many advantages over mammalian IgG such as cost-effectiveness, convenience and high yield. This review presents an overview of the potential to use IgY immunotherapy for the prevention and treatment of swine diarrhea diseases and speculates on the future of IgY technology. Included are a review of the potential applications of IgY in the control of enteric infections of either bacterial or viral origin such as enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., rotavirus, porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus, and porcine epidemic diarrhea virus. Some potential obstacles to the adoption of IgY technology are also discussed.

Molecular epidemiology of rotavirus in children and animals and characterization of an unusual G10P[15] strain associated with bovine diarrhea in south India

Rotaviruses are enteric pathogens causing acute, watery, dehydrating diarrhea in various host species, including birds and mammals. This study collected data on the disease burden and strain prevalence of Group A rotavirus in animals and humans in Vellore and investigated interspecies transmission by comparison of circulating genotypes. Stool samples from children aged less than 5 years, admitted to the hospital between January 2003 and May 2006 for diarrhea and diarrheal samples from animals that were collected from a veterinary clinic and several dairy farms near Vellore between February 2007 and May 2008 were processed and subjected to RNA extraction and reverse-transcription PCR for genotyping of VP7 and VP4. Of 394 children with diarrhea, 158 (40%) were positive for rotavirus and the common G types identified were G1 (47, 29.7%), G2 (43, 27.2%), G9 (22, 13.9%), G10 (2, 1.2%), G12 (1, 0.6%) and mixed infections (27, 17.8%). The common P types were P[4] accounting for 57 (36%) samples, P[8] 57 (36%), P[11] 3 (1.8%) and P[6] 2 (1.2%). Of 627 animals, 35 (1 bullock, 2 goats, 32 cows) were found to be infected with rotavirus (5.5%). The common G types identified in order of frequency were G6 (17, 48.5%), G2 (10, 28%), G10 (4, 11%), G8 (2, 5.7%) and mixed infections (2, 5.7%). The common P types were P[6] accounting for 16 (46%) samples, P[4] 7 (20%), P[1] 3 (8.5%) and P[8] 3 (8.5%). An unusual P type P[15] was seen in one sample in combination with G10. The finding of G2 infections which are rarely identified in animals implies anthroponotic transmission since this genotype is predominantly associated with infection in humans.

Rotavirus strains in neglected animal species including lambs, goats and camelids

Surveillance of rotavirus infections and circulating strains in small ruminants (i.e. lambs, goats and camelids) has been a neglected research area in the past. However, recent years that have seen an intensification of surveillance in humans and livestock animals, where vaccines to reduce disease burden caused by Rotavirus A (RVA) are available, led to the efforts to better understand the epidemiology, ecology and evolution of RVA strains in other hosts, including lambs, goats and camelids. The aim of this review is to provide an update of the epidemiology and strain diversity of RV strains in these species through searching for relevant information in public data bases.

A large outbreak of enteritis in goat flocks in Marmara, Turkey, by G8P[1] group A rotaviruses

Group A rotaviruses are regarded as major enteric pathogens of large ruminants, while their impact on the health of small ruminants is not well documented. We report the detection of group A rotavirus from a large outbreak of enteritis that occurred in two goat flocks in the town of Kırklareli, Marmara Region, Turkey, in 2007. The disease was observed in young kids, with high morbidity and mortality rates, but not in adult animals. Rotavirus antigen was detected in the stools of the examined animals, and rotaviruses were isolated in MA104 cells. Upon sequencing of the VP4, VP6, VP7 and NSP4 genes, the strain (RVA/goat-tc/TUR/Kirklareli/2007/G8P[1]) was characterized as G8P[1], with E2 NSP4 and VP6 I2 genotype. These findings indicate that group A rotavirus should be included in the diagnostic algorithms for enteric disease in small ruminants.

Ovine rotaviruses

Rotavirus has been recognized as a predominant cause of acute diarrhea in young animals and humans. Rotavirus has segmented genome composed of 11 segments of double stranded RNA. The virus has a triple layered protein shell consisting of a core, an inner capsid and an outer capsid. The inner capsid protein is responsible for group specificity and based on it rotaviruses are classified into seven groups. Ovine rotavirus strains have only been identified into two serogroups (A and B). The two outer capsid proteins (VP7 and VP4) are responsible for G and P typing of rotavirus, respectively. Although rotavirus has been frequently reported in many animal species, data regarding ovine rotavirus strains is very scanty and limited. Only a few ovine rotaviruses have been isolated and characterized so far. Recently, the G and P types circulating in ovines have been identified. The ovine rotavirus strain NT isolated from a diarrheic lamb in China is being considered as a promising vaccine candidate for human infants.

Complete genome constellation of a caprine group A rotavirus strain reveals common evolution with ruminant and human rotavirus strains

This study reports the first complete genome sequence of a caprine group A rotavirus (GAR) strain, GO34. The VP7-VP4-VP6-VP1-VP2-VP3-NSP1-NSP2-NSP3-NSP4-NSP5 genes of strain GO34, detected in Bangladesh, were assigned to the G6-P[1]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A11-N2-T6-E2-H3 genotypes, respectively. Strain GO34 was closely related to the VP4, VP6-7 and NSP4-5 genes of bovine GARs and the NSP1 gene of GO34 to an ovine GAR. Strain GO34 shared low nucleotide sequence identities (<90 %) with VP2-3 genes of other GARs, and was equally related to NSP3 genes of human, ruminant and camelid strains. The VP1, VP6 and NSP2 genes of strain GO34 also exhibited a close genetic relatedness to human G2, G6, G8 and G12 DS-1-like GARs, whereas the NSP1 of GO34 was also closely related to human G6P[14] strains. All these findings point to a common evolutionary origin of GO34 and bovine, ovine, antelope, guanaco and human G6P[14] GARs, although phylogenetically GO34 is not particularly closely related to any other rotavirus strains known to date.

Rotavirus diarrhea in bovines and other domestic animals

Rotavirus diarrhea is the major cause of death of millions of children in developing countries besides causing economically significant malady in neonates of many domestic animals. In neonates, the infection is non-viremic, have very short incubation period, and manifests profuse diarrhea and severe dehydration. Concurrent infection with secondary pathogens may augment the disease severity. Diarrhea occurs due to virus-mediated destruction of absorption efficient enterocytes, activation of enteric nervous system, or due to a rotavirus enterotoxin. Diagnosis of the infection relies on conventional techniques like isolation in MA 104 cell lines, electron microscopy, electro-pherotyping, and various serological tests. Presently, diagnosis and molecular typing is performed using serotype specific RT-PCR, sequencing or genomic hybridization techniques. As the rotaviruses are known to exhibit extreme genetic diversity and outplay disinfection procedures, eradication of the pathogen is often difficult. Hence, for prevention, good management practices coupled with vaccination of dam for protecting young ones, has to be practiced. Recently, new generation prophylactic strategies including DNA vaccines, subunit vaccines, virus-like particles (VLPs) and edible vaccines have been found to induce sufficient levels of passive immunity. Aside to the infection in animals, zoonotic significance of the animal rotaviruses has to be further unearthed. In this review, efforts have been made to highlight the importance and prevalence of the disease in bovines, its pathogenesis along with preventive measures, salient features of rotaviruses and their inter-species transmission abilities, zoonotic implications, and a concise account of the infection in various domestic animals and poultry.

Evaluation of a latex agglutination kit (Virogen Rotatest) for detection of bovine rotavirus in fecal samples

The performance of the Virogen Rotatest latex agglutination test (LAT) was evaluated for detection of bovine rotavirus antigen. Sixty-three fecal samples from diarrheic calves were collected from November 1999 to May 2000 and screened by LAT, the Rotazyme II enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and virus isolation (VI) followed by an anti-rotavirus fluorescent-antibody (FA) test to detect the presence of group A rotavirus antigen. Of the 63 samples screened by VI-FA, 33 (58%) tested positive for rotavirus antigen. When the results from the LAT were compared to those from VI-FA, the "gold standard" for detection of bovine rotavirus in fecal samples, the sensitivity and specificity were found to be 87.8 and 73.3%, respectively. Latex agglutination compared with ELISA (the reference method) showed 100% sensitivity and 96.3% specificity, and when ELISA was compared with VI, the sensitivity was 84.8% and the specificity was 73.3%. Latex agglutination is easy to perform in a short time and does not require expensive equipment or skilled personnel, and the reagents have long shelf lives. These factors make the LAT suitable and highly efficient for use in a clinical laboratory as a rapid screening test for bovine rotavirus.

Evaluation of different methods (ELISA, IF, EM, PAGE) for the diagnosis of rotavirus infection in piglets

The study on the prevalence of rotaviral infections among diarrhoetic piglets in 11 commercial farms in Poland was carried out on 531 faecal samples tested using an ELISA to screen for rotavirus. Of these, 169 were found to contain rotavirus antigen (32% of all cases of diarrhoea tested). Those pig herds managed using the Bisprol system had a lower prevalence of rotavirus in pigs with diarrhoea than those faecal samples obtained from Gi-Gi or Agrokomplex Agard farms. To further establish the presence of rotavirus antigen, 28 of those positive in ELISA samples were taken for isolation of the virus using tissue culture; 18 (64%) isolates were successfully adapted into MA-104 cells and the presence of rotavirus confirmed by immunofluorescence (IF) and electron microscopy (EM). In addition, an analysis of the band patterns visualised on PAGE showed 9 distinct electropherotypes for rotaviral dsRNA among the tested specimens. These findings suggest that rotavirus may represent an important contribution to the incidence of diarrhoea in Polish pig herds. The use of ELISA technology provided an efficient and effective means of evaluating the presence of rotavirus antigen in faecal samples and indicates that this procedure is a very useful tool in epidemiological studies, but that other techniques are required to confirm the presence of virus.