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Sánchez Pérez LDC, Zubillaga RA, García-Gutiérrez P, Landa A. Sigma-Class Glutathione Transferases (GSTσ): A New Target with Potential for Helminth Control. Trop Med Infect Dis 2024; 9:85. [PMID: 38668546 PMCID: PMC11053550 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed9040085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Glutathione transferases (GSTs EC 2.5.1.18) are critical components of phase II metabolism, instrumental in xenobiotics' metabolism. Their primary function involves conjugating glutathione to both endogenous and exogenous toxic compounds, which increases their solubility and enables their ejection from cells. They also play a role in the transport of non-substrate compounds and immunomodulation, aiding in parasite establishment within its host. The cytosolic GST subfamily is the most abundant and diverse in helminths, and sigma-class GST (GSTσ) belongs to it. This review focuses on three key functions of GSTσ: serving as a detoxifying agent that provides drug resistance, functioning as an immune system modulator through its involvement in prostaglandins synthesis, and acting as a vaccine antigen.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rafael A. Zubillaga
- Departamento de Química, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Mexico City C.P. 09310, Mexico; (L.d.C.S.P.); (P.G.-G.)
| | - Ponciano García-Gutiérrez
- Departamento de Química, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Mexico City C.P. 09310, Mexico; (L.d.C.S.P.); (P.G.-G.)
| | - Abraham Landa
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City C.P. 04510, Mexico
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Özaslan MS. Investigation of Potential Effects of Some Indole Compounds on the Glutathione S-Transferase Enzyme. BIOCHEMISTRY. BIOKHIMIIA 2024; 89:553-561. [PMID: 38648772 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297924030131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) belong to the superfamily of multifunctional detoxification isoenzymes with an important role in cellular signaling. They can prevent reactive electrophilic compounds from harming the body by covalently binding identical type of moleculs to each other. GSTs can be used alone or in combination for cancer detection or diagnosis, in addition to therapeutic interventions. In recent years, indoles have become important due to their structural properties and biological activities such as antitubercular, antiulcer, anti-oxidant, and antidiabetic, as well as for the development of new anticancer agents. The current research investigated effects of some indoles with 3-carboxaldehyde structure on the GST enzyme activity. Impacts of various concentrations of indoles on the in vitro GST activity were examined. While IC50 values for the compounds ranged from 0.042 to 1.570 mM, Ki values changed between 0.018 ± 0.01 and 1.110 ± 0.15 mM. 6-Methylindole-3-carboxaldehyde (1b) exhibited the highest inhibitory effect among the indoles examined. Indole derivatives used in the study can be evaluated in further pharmacological studies due to their effects on GST activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammet Serhat Özaslan
- Department of Pharmacy Services, Nihat Delibalta Göle Vocational High School, Ardahan University, Ardahan, 75700, Turkey.
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Googins MR, Woghiren-Afegbua AO, Calderon M, St. Croix CM, Kiselyov KI, VanDemark AP. Structural and functional divergence of GDAP1 from the glutathione S-transferase superfamily. FASEB J 2020; 34:7192-7207. [PMID: 32274853 PMCID: PMC9394736 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202000110r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in ganglioside-induced differentiation-associated protein 1 (GDAP1) alter mitochondrial morphology and result in several subtypes of the inherited peripheral neuropathy Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease; however, the mechanism by which GDAP1 functions has remained elusive. GDAP1 contains primary sequence homology to the GST superfamily; however, the question of whether GDAP1 is an active GST has not been clearly resolved. Here, we present biochemical evidence, suggesting that GDAP1 has lost the ability to bind glutathione without a loss of substrate binding activity. We have revealed that the α-loop, located within the H-site motif is the primary determinant for substrate binding. Using structural data of GDAP1, we have found that critical residues and configurations in the G-site which canonically interact with glutathione are altered in GDAP1, rendering it incapable of binding glutathione. Last, we have found that the overexpression of GDAP1 in HeLa cells results in a mitochondrial phenotype which is distinct from oxidative stress-induced mitochondrial fragmentation. This phenotype is dependent on the presence of the transmembrane domain, as well as a unique hydrophobic domain that is not found in canonical GSTs. Together, we data point toward a non-enzymatic role for GDAP1, such as a sensor or receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R. Googins
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | - Michael Calderon
- Center for Biologic Imaging, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | - Kirill I. Kiselyov
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Andrew P. VanDemark
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Alqarni MH, Muharram MM, Labrou NE. Ligand-induced glutathione transferase degradation as a therapeutic modality: Investigation of a new metal-mediated affinity cleavage strategy for human GSTP1-1. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 116:84-90. [PMID: 29727648 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.04.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione transferases (GST, EC. 2.5.1.18) are overexpressed in cancer cell and have been shown to be involved in cancer cell growth, differentiation and the development of multi-drug resistance (MDR) mechanism. Therefore, GST inhibitors are emerging as promising chemosensitizers to manage and reverse MDR. The present work aims to the synthesis, characterization and assessment of a new active-site chimeric inhibitor towards the MDR-involved human GSTP1-1 isoenzyme (hGSTP1-1). The inhibitor [BDA-Fe(III)] was designed to possess two functional groups: the anthraquinone moiety, as recognition element by hGSTP1-1 and a metal chelated complex [iminodiacetic acid-Fe(III)] as a reactive moiety, able to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), through Fenton reaction. Upon binding of the BDA-Fe(III) to hGSTP1-1 in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated, which promoted the specific cleavage of hGSTP1-1 in a time and concentration-dependent manner. Electrophoretic analysis showed that each enzyme subunit is cleaved at a single site. Amino acid sequencing as well as molecular modelling studies established that the cleaved peptide bond is located between the amino acids Tyr103 and Ile104. This ligand-induced hGSTP1-1 degradation and inactivation strategy is discussed as a new approach towards chemosensitization of MDR cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Hamed Alqarni
- Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, 11942 Alkharj, Saudi Arabia
| | - Magdy Mohamed Muharram
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, 11942 Alkharj, Saudi Arabia; Department of Microbiology, College of Science, Al-Azhar University, Nasr City, 11884 Cairo, Egypt
| | - Nikolaos E Labrou
- Laboratory of Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology, School of Food, Biotechnology and Development, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Street, GR-11855 Athens, Greece.
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Synthesis and molecular modeling of new benzimidazoles as glutathione S-transferase inhibitors and anticancer agents. Future Med Chem 2017; 10:157-181. [PMID: 29235906 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2017-0137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Synthesis of novel glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) inhibitors constitutes a promising strategy in cancer treatment. Results & methodology: A new set of benzimidazoles clubbed with various heterocycles as GST inhibitors and anticancer agents were synthesized. The biological results proved the potential of the new compounds as GST inhibitors, specifically compounds 7 and 14 which produced more potency than ethacrynic acid by three- and tenfold, respectively. Most compounds exhibited promising cytotoxic activity against breast and colon cancer cell lines. Molecular modeling studies revealed that compounds 7 and 14 showed good binding with the amino acids of the GST protein. CONCLUSION Both compounds 7 and 14 fulfilled the Lipinski's rule of five suggesting them as new promising GST inhibitors and anticancer agents.
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Al-Qattan MN, Mordi MN, Mansor SM. Assembly of ligands interaction models for glutathione-S-transferases from Plasmodium falciparum, human and mouse using enzyme kinetics and molecular docking. Comput Biol Chem 2016; 64:237-249. [PMID: 27475235 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2016.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Revised: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 07/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glutathione-s-transferases (GSTs) are enzymes that principally catalyze the conjugation of electrophilic compounds to the endogenous nucleophilic glutathione substrate, besides, they have other non-catalytic functions. The Plasmodium falciparum genome encodes a single isoform of GST (PfGST) which is involved in buffering the toxic heme, thus considered a potential anti-malarial target. In mammals several classes of GSTs are available, each of various isoforms. The human (human GST Pi-1 or hGSTP1) and mouse (murine GST Mu-1 or mGSTM1) GST isoforms control cellular apoptosis by interaction with signaling proteins, thus considered as potential anti-cancer targets. In the course of GSTs inhibitors development, the models of ligands interactions with GSTs are used to guide rational molecular modification. In the absence of X-ray crystallographic data, enzyme kinetics and molecular docking experiments can aid in addressing ligands binding modes to the enzymes. METHODS Kinetic studies were used to investigate the interactions between the three GSTs and each of glutathione, 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, cibacron blue, ethacrynic acid, S-hexyl glutathione, hemin and protoporphyrin IX. Since hemin displacement is intended for PfGST inhibitors, the interactions between hemin and other ligands at PfGST binding sites were studied kinetically. Computationally determined binding modes and energies were interlinked with the kinetic results to resolve enzymes-ligands interaction models at atomic level. RESULTS The results showed that hemin and cibacron blue have different binding modes in the three GSTs. Hemin has two binding sites (A and B) with two binding modes at site-A depending on presence of GSH. None of the ligands were able to compete hemin binding to PfGST except ethacrynic acid. Besides bind differently in GSTs, the isolated anthraquinone moiety of cibacron blue is not maintaining sufficient interactions with GSTs to be used as a lead. Similarly, the ethacrynic acid uses water bridges to mediate interactions with GSTs and at least the conjugated form of EA is the true hemin inhibitor, thus EA may not be a suitable lead. CONCLUSIONS Glutathione analogues with bulky substitution at thiol of cysteine moiety or at γ-amino group of γ-glutamine moiety may be the most suitable to provide GST inhibitors with hemin competition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mohd Nizam Mordi
- Centre For Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Gelugor 11700 Penang, Malaysia
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7
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Luisi G, Mollica A, Carradori S, Lenoci A, De Luca A, Caccuri AM. Nitrobenzoxadiazole-based GSTP1-1 inhibitors containing the full peptidyl moiety of (pseudo)glutathione. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2015; 31:924-30. [PMID: 26329912 DOI: 10.3109/14756366.2015.1070845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT The inhibition of glutathione S-transferase P1-1 (GSTP1-1) is a sound strategy to overcome drug resistance in oncology practice. OBJECTIVE The nitrobenzoxadiazolyl (NBD) S-conjugate of glutathione and the corresponding γ-oxa-glutamyl isostere (compounds 1 and 5, respectively) have been disclosed as GST inhibitors. The rationale of their design is discussed in juxtaposition to non-peptide NBD thioethers. MATERIALS AND METHODS Synthesis of derivatives 1 and 5 and in vitro evaluation on human GSTP1-1 and M2-2 are reported. RESULTS Conjugates 1 and 5 were found to be low micromolar inhibitors of both isoforms. Furthermore, they display a threefold reduction in selectivity for GSTM2-2 over the P1-1 isozyme in comparison with the potent non-peptide inhibitor nitrobenzoxadiazolyl-thiohexanol (NBDHEX). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Spectroscopic data are congruent with the formation of a stable sigma-complex between GSH and the inhibitors in the protein active site. Conjugate 5 is suitable for in vivo modulation of GST activity in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazia Luisi
- a Department of Pharmacy , "Gabriele d'Annunzio" University , Chieti , Italy
| | - Adriano Mollica
- a Department of Pharmacy , "Gabriele d'Annunzio" University , Chieti , Italy
| | - Simone Carradori
- a Department of Pharmacy , "Gabriele d'Annunzio" University , Chieti , Italy
| | - Alessia Lenoci
- b Department of Drug Chemistry and Technologies , "Sapienza" University , Rome , Italy
| | - Anastasia De Luca
- c The NAST Centre for Nanoscience & Nanotechnology & Innovative Instrumentation, University of Tor Vergata , Rome , Italy , and
| | - Anna Maria Caccuri
- c The NAST Centre for Nanoscience & Nanotechnology & Innovative Instrumentation, University of Tor Vergata , Rome , Italy , and.,d Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery , University of Tor Vergata , Rome , Italy
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Balyan R, Kudugunti SK, Hamad HA, Yousef MS, Moridani MY. Bioactivation of luteolin by tyrosinase selectively inhibits glutathione S-transferase. Chem Biol Interact 2015; 240:208-18. [PMID: 26279214 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2015.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Revised: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferase (GST) plays a significant role in the metabolism and detoxification of drugs used in treatment of melanoma, resulting in a decrease in drug efficacy. Tyrosinase is an abundant enzyme found in melanoma. In this study, we used a tyrosinase targeted approach to selectively inhibit GST. In the presence of tyrosinase, luteolin (10 μM) showed 87% GST inhibition; whereas in the absence of tyrosinase, luteolin led to negligible GST inhibition. With respect to GSH, both luteolin-SG conjugate and luteolin-quinone inhibited ≥90% of GST activity via competitive reversible and irreversible mixed mechanisms with Ki of 0.74 μM and 0.02 μM, respectively. With respect to CDNB, the luteolin-SG conjugate inhibited GST activity via competitive reversible mechanism and competitively with Ki of 0.58 μM, whereas luteolin-quinone showed irreversible mixed inhibition of GST activity with Ki of 0.039 μM. Luteolin (100 μM) inhibited GST in mixed manner with Ki of 53 μM with respect to GSH and non-competitively with respect to CDNB with Ki of 38 μM. Luteolin, at a concentration range of 5-80 μM, exhibited 78-99% GST inhibition in human SK-MEL-28 cell homogenate. Among the 3 species of intact luteolin, luteolin-SG conjugate, and luteoline-quinone, only the latter two have potential as drugs with Ki < 1 μM, which is potentially achievable in-vivo as therapeutic agents. The order of GST inhibition was luteolin-quinone >> luteolin-SG conjugate >>> luteolin. In summary, our results suggest that luteolin was bioactivated by tyrosinase to form a luteolin-quinone and luteolin-glutathione conjugate, which inhibited GST. For the first time, in addition to intracellular GSH depletion, we demonstrate that luteolin acts as a selective inhibitor of GST in the presence of tyrosinase. Such strategy could potentially be used to selectively inhibit GST, a drug detoxifying enzyme, in melanoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajiv Balyan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
| | - Shashi K Kudugunti
- Repligen Corporation, 41 Seyon St, Bldg 1, Suite 100, Waltham, MA 02453, USA
| | - Hamzah A Hamad
- Department of Physics, College of Arts & Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville, IL 62025, USA
| | - Mohammad S Yousef
- Department of Physics, College of Arts & Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville, IL 62025, USA; Biophysics Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Egypt
| | - Majid Y Moridani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA; Clinical Chemistry and Toxicology, Department of Pathology, Medical College of Wisconsin, 9200 W. Wisconsin Avenue, Milwaukee, WI 5322, USA.
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9
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Bräutigam M, Teusch N, Schenk T, Sheikh M, Aricioglu RZ, Borowski SH, Neudörfl JM, Baumann U, Griesbeck AG, Pietsch M. Selective Inhibitors of Glutathione Transferase P1 with Trioxane Structure as Anticancer Agents. ChemMedChem 2015; 10:629-39. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201402553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Rubino FM. Toxicity of Glutathione-Binding Metals: A Review of Targets and Mechanisms. TOXICS 2015; 3:20-62. [PMID: 29056650 PMCID: PMC5634692 DOI: 10.3390/toxics3010020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Revised: 09/04/2014] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mercury, cadmium, arsenic and lead are among priority metals for toxicological studies due to the frequent human exposure and to the significant burden of disease following acute and chronic intoxication. Among their common characteristics is chemical affinity to proteins and non-protein thiols and their ability to generate cellular oxidative stress by the best-known Fenton mechanism. Their health effects are however diverse: kidney and liver damage, cancer at specific sites, irreversible neurological damages with metal-specific features. Mechanisms for the induction of oxidative stress by interaction with the cell thiolome will be presented, based on literature evidence and of experimental findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Maria Rubino
- LaTMA Laboratory for Analytical Toxicology and Metabonomics, Department of Health Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano at "Ospedale San Paolo" v. A. di Rudinì 8, I-20142 Milano, Italy.
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Coniferyl Ferulate, a Strong Inhibitor of Glutathione S-Transferase Isolated from Radix Angelicae sinensis, Reverses Multidrug Resistance and Downregulates P-Glycoprotein. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2013; 2013:639083. [PMID: 24058374 PMCID: PMC3766616 DOI: 10.1155/2013/639083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferase (GST) is the key enzyme in multidrug resistance (MDR) of tumour. Inhibition of the expression or activity of GST has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for the reversal of MDR. Coniferyl ferulate (CF), isolated from the root of Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels (Radix Angelicae sinensis, RAS), showed strong inhibition of human placental GST. Its 50% inhibition concentration (IC50) was 0.3 μM, which was greater than a known GSTP1-1 inhibitor, ethacrynic acid (EA), using the established high-throughput screening model. Kinetic analysis and computational docking were used to examine the mechanism of GST inhibition by CF. Computational docking found that CF could be fully docked into the gorge of GSTP1-1. The further exploration of the mechanisms showed that CF was a reversible noncompetitive inhibitor with respect to GSH and CDNB, and it has much less cytotoxicity. Apoptosis and the expression of P-gp mRNA were evaluated in the MDR positive B-MD-C1 (ADR+/+) cell line to investigate the MDR reversal effect of CF. Moreover, CF showed strong apoptogenic activity and could markedly decrease the overexpressed P-gp. The results demonstrated that CF could inhibit GST activity in a concentration-dependent manner and showed a potential MDR reversal effect for antitumour adjuvant therapy.
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Xu Y, Zheng QC, Yu LY, Zhang HX, Sun CC. Computational modelling of novel inhibitors targeting the human GSTP1*D homology domain. MOLECULAR SIMULATION 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/08927022.2012.755525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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13
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Human cytosolic glutathione transferases: structure, function, and drug discovery. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2012; 33:656-68. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2012.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2012] [Revised: 09/26/2012] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Clipson AJ, Bhat VT, McNae I, Caniard AM, Campopiano DJ, Greaney MF. Bivalent enzyme inhibitors discovered using dynamic covalent chemistry. Chemistry 2012; 18:10562-70. [PMID: 22782854 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201201507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
A bivalent dynamic covalent chemistry (DCC) system has been designed to selectively target members of the homodimeric glutathione-S-transferase (GST) enzyme family. The dynamic covalent libraries (DCLs) use aniline-catalysed acylhydrazone exchange between bivalent hydrazides and glutathione-conjugated aldehydes and the bis-hydrazides act as linkers to bridge between each glutathione binding site. The resultant DCLs were found to be compatible and highly responsive to templating with different GST isozymes, with the best results coming from the M and Schistosoma japonicum (Sj) class of GSTs, targets in cancer and tropical disease, respectively. The approach yielded compounds with selective, nanomolar affinity (K(i) =61 nM for mGSTM1-1) and demonstrates that DCC can be used to simultaneously interrogate binding sites on different subunits of a dimeric protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra J Clipson
- School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, West Mains Rd., Edinburgh, UK
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15
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Quesada-Soriano I, Primavera A, Casas-Solvas JM, Téllez-Sanz R, Barón C, Vargas-Berenguel A, Lo Bello M, García-Fuentes L. Identifying and characterizing binding sites on the irreversible inhibition of human glutathione S-transferase P1-1 by S-thiocarbamoylation. Chembiochem 2012; 13:1594-604. [PMID: 22740430 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201200210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Human glutathione S-transferase P1-1 (hGST P1-1) is involved in cell detoxification processes through the conjugation of its natural substrate, reduced glutathione (GSH), with xenobiotics. GSTs are known to be overexpressed in tumors, and naturally occurring isothiocyanates, such as benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC), are effective cancer chemopreventive compounds. To identify and characterize the potential inhibitory mechanisms of GST P1-1 induced by isothiocyanate conjugates, we studied the binding of GST P1-1 and some cysteine mutants to the BITC-SG conjugate as well as to the synthetic S-(N-benzylcarbamoylmethyl)glutathione conjugate (BC-SG). We report here the inactivation of GST P1-1 through the covalent modification of two Cys47 residues per dimer and one Cys101. The evidence has been compiled by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). ITC experiments suggest that the BITC-SG conjugate generates adducts with Cys47 and Cys101 at physiological temperatures through a corresponding kinetic process, in which the BITC moiety is covalently bound to these enzyme cysteines through an S-thiocarbamoylation reaction. ESI-MS analysis of the BITC-SG incubated enzymes indicates that although the Cys47 in each subunit is covalently attached to the BITC ligand moiety, only one of the Cys101 residues in the dimer is so attached. A plausible mechanism is given for the emergence of inactivation through the kinetic processes with both cysteines. Likewise, our molecular docking simulations suggest that steric hindrance is the reason why only one Cys101 per dimer is covalently modified by BITC-SG. No covalent inactivation of GST P1-1 with the BC-SG inhibitor has been observed. The affinities and inhibitory potencies for both conjugates are high and very similar, but slightly lower for BC-SG. Thus, we conclude that the presence of the sulfur atom from the isothiocyanate moiety in BITC-SG is crucial for its irreversible inhibition of GST P1-1.
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Krištafor S, Kraljević TG, Ametamey SM, Cetina M, Ratkaj I, Haček RT, Pavelić SK, Raić-Malić S. Syntheses and Antitumor Evaluation of C(6)-Isobutyl- and C(6)-Isobutenyl-Substituted Pyrimidines, and Dihydropyrrolo[1,2-c]pyrimidine-1,3-diones. Chem Biodivers 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.201000202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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17
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Kudugunti SK, Thorsheim H, Yousef MS, Guan L, Moridani MY. The metabolic bioactivation of caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) mediated by tyrosinase selectively inhibits glutathione S-transferase. Chem Biol Interact 2011; 192:243-56. [PMID: 21458432 PMCID: PMC3706206 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2011.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2010] [Revised: 03/24/2011] [Accepted: 03/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferase (GST) and multidrug resistance-associated proteins (MRPs) play major roles in drug resistance in melanoma. In this study, we investigated caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) as a selective GST inhibitor in the presence of tyrosinase, which is abundant in melanoma cells. Tyrosinase bioactivates CAPE to an o-quinone, which reacts with glutathione to form CAPE-SG conjugate. Our findings indicate that 90% CAPE was metabolized by tyrosinase after a 60-min incubation. LC-MS/MS analyses identified a CAPE-SG conjugate as a major metabolite. In the presence of tyrosinase, CAPE (10-25μM) showed 70-84% GST inhibition; whereas in the absence of tyrosinase, CAPE did not inhibit GST. CAPE-SG conjugate and CAPE-quinone (25μM) demonstrated ⩾85% GST inhibition via reversible and irreversible mechanisms, respectively. Comparing with CDNB and GSH, the non-substrate CAPE acted as a weak, reversible GST inhibitor at concentrations >50μM. Furthermore, MK-571, a selective MRP inhibitor, and probenecid, a non-selective MRP inhibitor, decrease the IC(50) of CAPE (15μM) by 13% and 21%, apoptotic cell death by 3% and 13%, and mitochondrial membrane potential in human SK-MEL-28 melanoma cells by 10% and 56%, respectively. Moreover, computational docking analyses suggest that CAPE binds to the GST catalytic active site. Caffeic acid, a hydrolyzed product of CAPE, showed a similar GST inhibition in the presence of tyrosinase. Although, as controls, 4-hydroxyanisole and L-tyrosine were metabolized by tyrosinase to form quinones and glutathione conjugates, they exhibited no GST inhibition in the absence and presence of tyrosinase. In conclusion, both CAPE and caffeic acid selectively inhibited GST in the presence of tyrosinase. Our results suggest that intracellularly formed quinones and glutathione conjugates of caffeic acid and CAPE may play major roles in the selective inhibition of GST in SK-MEL-28 melanoma cells. Moreover, the inhibition of MRP enhances CAPE-induced toxicity in the SK-MEL-28 melanoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shashi K. Kudugunti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
| | - Helen Thorsheim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
| | - Mohammad S. Yousef
- Department of Cell Physiology and Molecular Biophysics, Center for Membrane Protein Research, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA
| | - Lan Guan
- Department of Cell Physiology and Molecular Biophysics, Center for Membrane Protein Research, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA
| | - Majid Y. Moridani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 806 356 4750x225; fax: +1 806 356 4770. (M.Y. Moridani)
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Parker LJ, Italiano LC, Morton CJ, Hancock NC, Ascher DB, Aitken JB, Harris HH, Campomanes P, Rothlisberger U, De Luca A, Lo Bello M, Ang WH, Dyson PJ, Parker MW. Studies of glutathione transferase P1-1 bound to a platinum(IV)-based anticancer compound reveal the molecular basis of its activation. Chemistry 2011; 17:7806-16. [PMID: 21681839 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201100586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Platinum-based cancer drugs, such as cisplatin, are highly effective chemotherapeutic agents used extensively for the treatment of solid tumors. However, their effectiveness is limited by drug resistance, which, in some cancers, has been associated with an overexpression of pi class glutathione S-transferase (GST P1-1), an important enzyme in the mercapturic acid detoxification pathway. Ethacraplatin (EA-CPT), a trans-Pt(IV) carboxylate complex containing ethacrynate ligands, was designed as a platinum cancer metallodrug that could also target cytosolic GST enzymes. We previously reported that EA-CPT was an excellent inhibitor of GST activity in live mammalian cells compared to either cisplatin or ethacrynic acid. In order to understand the nature of the drug-protein interactions between EA-CPT and GST P1-1, and to obtain mechanistic insights at a molecular level, structural and biochemical investigations were carried out, supported by molecular modeling analysis using quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical methods. The results suggest that EA-CPT preferentially docks at the dimer interface at GST P1-1 and subsequent interaction with the enzyme resulted in docking of the ethacrynate ligands at both active sites (in the H-sites), with the Pt moiety remaining bound at the dimer interface. The activation of the inhibitor by its target enzyme and covalent binding accounts for the strong and irreversible inhibition of enzymatic activity by the platinum complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorien J Parker
- Biota Structural Biology Laboratory, St. Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, 41 Victoria Parade, Fitzroy, Victoria 3065, Australia
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19
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Quesada-Soriano I, Parker LJ, Primavera A, Wielens J, Holien JK, Casas-Solvas JM, Vargas-Berenguel A, Aguilera AM, Nuccetelli M, Mazzetti AP, Lo Bello M, Parker MW, García-Fuentes L. Diuretic drug binding to human glutathione transferase P1-1: potential role of Cys-101 revealed in the double mutant C47S/Y108V. J Mol Recognit 2011; 24:220-34. [PMID: 20540076 DOI: 10.1002/jmr.1040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The diuretic drug ethacrynic acid (EA), both an inhibitor and substrate of pi class glutathione S-transferase (GST P1-1), has been tested in clinical trials as an adjuvant in chemotherapy. We recently studied the role of the active site residue Tyr-108 in binding EA to the enzyme and found that the analysis was complicated by covalent binding of this drug to the highly reactive Cys-47. Previous attempts to eliminate this binding by chemical modification yielded ambiguous results and therefore we decided here to produce a double mutant C47S/Y108V by site directed mutagenesis and further expression in Escherichia coli and the interaction of EA and its GSH conjugate (EASG) examined by calorimetric studies and X-ray diffraction. Surprisingly, in the absence of Cys-47, Cys-101 (located at the dimer interface) becomes a target for modification by EA, albeit at a lower conjugation rate than Cys-47. The Cys-47 → Ser mutation in the double mutant enzyme induces a positive cooperativity between the two subunits when ligands with affinity to G-site bind to enzyme. However, this mutation does not seem to affect the thermodynamic properties of ligand binding to the electrophilic binding site (H-site) and the thermal or chemical stability of this double mutant does not significantly affect the unfolding mechanism in either the absence or presence of ligand. Crystal structures of apo and an EASG complex are essentially identical with a few exceptions in the H-site and in the water network at the dimer interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indalecio Quesada-Soriano
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Experimental Sciences, University of Almería, La Cañada de San Urbano, 04120 Almería, Spain
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20
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Nocca G, Ragno R, Carbone V, Martorana GE, Rossetti DV, Gambarini G, Giardina B, Lupi A. Identification of glutathione-methacrylates adducts in gingival fibroblasts and erythrocytes by HPLC–MS and capillary electrophoresis. Dent Mater 2011; 27:e87-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dental.2011.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2010] [Revised: 12/07/2010] [Accepted: 01/24/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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22
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Abstract
The glutathione transferases (GSTs) are one of the most important families of detoxifying enzymes in nature. The classic activity of the GSTs is conjugation of compounds with electrophilic centers to the tripeptide glutathione (GSH), but many other activities are now associated with GSTs, including steroid and leukotriene biosynthesis, peroxide degradation, double-bond cis-trans isomerization, dehydroascorbate reduction, Michael addition, and noncatalytic "ligandin" activity (ligand binding and transport). Since the first GST structure was determined in 1991, there has been an explosion in structural data across GSTs of all three families: the cytosolic GSTs, the mitochondrial GSTs, and the membrane-associated proteins in eicosanoid and glutathione metabolism (MAPEG family). In this review, the major insights into GST structure and function will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Oakley
- School of Chemistry, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia.
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23
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Quesada-Soriano I, Parker LJ, Primavera A, Casas-Solvas JM, Vargas-Berenguel A, Barón C, Morton CJ, Mazzetti AP, Lo Bello M, Parker MW, García-Fuentes L. Influence of the H-site residue 108 on human glutathione transferase P1-1 ligand binding: structure-thermodynamic relationships and thermal stability. Protein Sci 2010; 18:2454-70. [PMID: 19780048 DOI: 10.1002/pro.253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The effect of the Y108V mutation of human glutathione S-transferase P1-1 (hGST P1-1) on the binding of the diuretic drug ethacrynic acid (EA) and its glutathione conjugate (EASG) was investigated by calorimetric, spectrofluorimetric, and crystallographic studies. The mutation Tyr 108 --> Val resulted in a 3D-structure very similar to the wild type (wt) enzyme, where both the hydrophobic ligand binding site (H-site) and glutathione binding site (G-site) are unchanged except for the mutation itself. However, due to a slight increase in the hydrophobicity of the H-site, as a consequence of the mutation, an increase in the entropy was observed. The Y108V mutation does not affect the affinity of EASG for the enzyme, which has a higher affinity (K(d) approximately 0.5 microM) when compared with those of the parent compounds, K(d) (EA) approximately 13 microM, K(d) (GSH) approximately 25 microM. The EA moiety of the conjugate binds in the H-site of Y108V mutant in a fashion completely different to those observed in the crystal structures of the EA or EASG wt complex structures. We further demonstrate that the Delta C(p) values of binding can also be correlated with the potential stacking interactions between ligand and residues located in the binding sites as predicted from crystal structures. Moreover, the mutation does not significantly affect the global stability of the enzyme. Our results demonstrate that calorimetric measurements maybe useful in determining the preference of binding (the binding mode) for a drug to a specific site of the enzyme, even in the absence of structural information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indalecio Quesada-Soriano
- Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Experimental Sciences, University of Almería, La Cañada de San Urbano, 04120 Almería, Spain
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24
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Yang X, Liu G, Li H, Zhang Y, Song D, Li C, Wang R, Liu B, Liang W, Jing Y, Zhao G. Novel Oxadiazole Analogues Derived from Ethacrynic Acid: Design, Synthesis, and Structure−Activity Relationships in Inhibiting the Activity of Glutathione S-Transferase P1-1 and Cancer Cell Proliferation. J Med Chem 2010; 53:1015-22. [DOI: 10.1021/jm9011565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xinmei Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P. R. China
| | - Guyue Liu
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, P. R. China
| | - Hongcai Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P. R. China
| | - Yun Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P. R. China
| | - Dandan Song
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, P. R. China
| | - Chunmin Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P. R. China
| | - Rui Wang
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029
| | - Bo Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P. R. China
| | - Wen Liang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P. R. China
| | - Yongkui Jing
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029
| | - Guisen Zhao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P. R. China
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25
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Wang J, Wang S, Song D, Zhao D, Sha Y, Jiang Y, Jing Y, Cheng M. Chalcone derivatives inhibit glutathione S-transferase P1-1 activity: insights into the interaction mode of alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl compounds. Chem Biol Drug Des 2009; 73:511-4. [PMID: 19323653 DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-0285.2009.00807.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs has long been a considerable barrier to successful treatment of many cancers and over-expression of glutathione S-transferase P1-1 is correlated to carcinogenesis and resistance of cancer cells against chemotherapeutic agents. This study throws light on the role of chalcone derivatives, a new class of glutathione S-transferase P1-1 inhibitors potentially to overcome glutathione S-transferase P1-1-mediated chemotherapy resistance. Nineteen alpha-substituted chalcone derivatives were synthesized and their in vitro inhibitory effects on glutathione S-transferase P1-1 were determined. We interestingly found that most of these compounds showed inhibitory effect on glutathione S-transferase P1-1 activity. In addition, molecular field-based similarity analysis provides the necessary three-dimensional molecular field properties of alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl derivatives to inhibit glutathione S-transferase P1-1 activity. Thus, these compounds have great potential to be developed into novel chemotherapeutic sensitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Wang
- Key Lab of New Drugs Design and Discovery of Liaoning Province, School of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
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26
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Lerksuthirat T, Ketterman AJ. Characterization of putative hydrophobic substrate binding site residues of a Delta class glutathione transferase from Anopheles dirus. Arch Biochem Biophys 2008; 479:97-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2008.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2008] [Revised: 08/07/2008] [Accepted: 08/08/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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27
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The Anti-cancer Drug Chlorambucil as a Substrate for the Human Polymorphic Enzyme Glutathione Transferase P1-1: Kinetic Properties and Crystallographic Characterisation of Allelic Variants. J Mol Biol 2008; 380:131-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2008.04.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2008] [Revised: 04/14/2008] [Accepted: 04/16/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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28
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Abstract
Drug metabolism information is a necessary component of drug discovery and development. The key issues in drug metabolism include identifying: the enzyme(s) involved, the site(s) of metabolism, the resulting metabolite(s), and the rate of metabolism. Methods for predicting human drug metabolism from in vitro and computational methodologies and determining relationships between the structure and metabolic activity of molecules are also critically important for understanding potential drug interactions and toxicity. There are numerous experimental and computational approaches that have been developed in order to predict human metabolism which have their own limitations. It is apparent that few of the computational tools for metabolism prediction alone provide the major integrated functions needed to assist in drug discovery. Similarly the different in vitro methods for human drug metabolism themselves have implicit limitations. The utilization of these methods for pharmaceutical and other applications as well as their integration is discussed as it is likely that hybrid methods will provide the most success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larry J Jolivette
- Preclinical Drug Discovery, Cardiovascular and Urogenital Centre of Excellence in Drug Discovery, GlaxoSmithKline, King of Prussia, Pennsylvania, USA
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29
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Mahajan SS, Hou L, Doneanu C, Paranji R, Maeda D, Zebala J, Atkins WM. Optimization of Bivalent Glutathione S-Transferase Inhibitors by Combinatorial Linker Design. J Am Chem Soc 2006; 128:8615-25. [PMID: 16802828 DOI: 10.1021/ja061766n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Dimeric glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are pharmacological targets for several diseases, including cancer. Isoform specificity has been difficult to achieve due to their overlapping substrate selectivity. Here we demonstrate the utility of bivalent GST inhibitors and their optimization via combinatorial linker design. A combinatorial library with dipeptide linkers emanating symmetrically from a central scaffold (bis-3,5-aminomethyl benzoic acid, AMAB) to connect two ethacrynic acid moieties was prepared and decoded via iterative deconvolution, against the isoforms GSTA1-1 and GSTP1-1. The library yielded high affinity GSTA1-1 selective inhibitors (70-120-fold selectivity) and with stoichiometry of one inhibitor: one GSTA1-1 dimer. Saturation Transfer Difference (STD) NMR with one of these inhibitors, with linker structure (Asp-Gly-AMAB-Gly-Asp) and K(D) = 42 nM for GSTA1-1, demonstrates that the Asp-Gly linker interacts tightly with GSTA1-1, but not P1-1. H/D exchange mass spectrometry was used to map the protein binding site and indicates that peptides within the intersubunit cleft and in the substrate binding site are protected by inhibitor from solvent exchange. A model is proposed for the binding orientation of the inhibitor, which is consistent with electrostatic complementarity between the protein cleft and inhibitor linker as the source of isoform selectivity and high affinity. The results demonstrate the utility of combinatorial, or "irrational", linker design for optimizing bivalent inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumit S Mahajan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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30
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Hiller N, Fritz-Wolf K, Deponte M, Wende W, Zimmermann H, Becker K. Plasmodium falciparum glutathione S-transferase--structural and mechanistic studies on ligand binding and enzyme inhibition. Protein Sci 2005; 15:281-9. [PMID: 16385005 PMCID: PMC2242455 DOI: 10.1110/ps.051891106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferase of the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum (PfGST) represents a novel class of GST isoenzymes. Since the architecture of the PfGST substrate binding site differs significantly from its human counterparts and there is only this one isoenzyme present in the parasite, PfGST is considered a highly attractive target for antimalarial drug development. Here we report the mechanistic, kinetic, and structural characterization of PfGST as well as its interaction with different ligands. Our data indicate that in solution PfGST is present as a tetramer that dissociates into dimers in the presence of glutathione (GSH). Fluorescence spectroscopy shows that in the presence of GSH GST serves as ligandin for parasitotoxic ferriprotoporphyrin IX with a high- and a low-affinity binding site. This is supported by a clear uncompetitive inhibition type. Site-directed mutagenesis studies demonstrate that neither Cys 86 nor Cys 101 contribute to the peroxidase activity of the enzyme, which is thus performed GSH-dependently at the active site. Tyr 9 is responsible for the deprotonation of GSH and Lys 15, but also Gln 71 are involved in GSH binding. We furthermore report the 2.4 A resolution X-ray structure of PfGST cocrystallized with the inhibitor S-hexylglutathione. In comparison with a previously reported structure obtained by crystal soaking, differences occur at the C-terminal end of helix alpha4 and at the S-hexylmoiety of the inhibitor. We furthermore show that, in contrast to previous reports, the antimalarial drug artemisinin is not metabolized by PfGST.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Hiller
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus-Liebig-University, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, 35392 Giessen, Germany
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31
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Desmots F, Loyer P, Rissel M, Guillouzo A, Morel F. Activation of C-Jun N-terminal kinase is required for glutathione transferase A4 induction during oxidative stress, not during cell proliferation, in mouse hepatocytes. FEBS Lett 2005; 579:5691-6. [PMID: 16223495 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2005.08.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2005] [Accepted: 08/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Expression of the mouse glutathione transferase Alpha 4 (mGSTA4) has been studied during hepatocyte isolation and in cultured hepatocytes. Transient mGSTA4 induction during liver disruption correlated to strong oxidative stress and induction of the Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway. Similarly, tumor necrosis factor alpha induced both JNK phosphorylation and mGSTA4 expression while specific JNK inhibitor JNKI1 prevented these two events and JNK activator anisomycin strongly induced mGSTA4 expression. We also found that endogenous JNK and mGSTA4 co-immunoprecipitate. A second mGSTA4 induction occurred 2 days after cell seeding concomitantly to DNA replication and was prevented by treatment with mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK) inhibitor U0126. Our data demonstrate that mGSTA4 is strongly increased during oxidative stress possibly via JNK pathway and during proliferation via MEK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway, and suggest that mGSTA4 might be an endogenous regulator of JNK activity by direct binding.
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Procopio A, Alcaro S, Cundari S, De Nino A, Ortuso F, Sacchetta P, Pennelli A, Sindona G. Molecular Modeling, Synthesis, and Preliminary Biological Evaluation of Glutathione-S-Transferase Inhibitors as Potential Therapeutic Agents. J Med Chem 2005; 48:6084-9. [PMID: 16162009 DOI: 10.1021/jm0504609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Changes in the GSH/GST system have been found to correlate with resistance to anticancer alkylating agents, presumably through accelerated detoxification of these drugs since some GSTs have been shown to catalyze the conjugation of GSH to specific antineoplastic agents. GSH-alkyl derivatives were designed by molecular modeling, synthesized, and tested as inhibitors of human GST-Pi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Procopio
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaco-Biologiche, Università della Magna Graecia, Complesso Ninì Barbieri, 88021 Roccelletta di Borgia (Cz), Italy.
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33
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Morel F, Rauch C, Petit E, Piton A, Theret N, Coles B, Guillouzo A. Gene and Protein Characterization of the Human Glutathione S-Transferase Kappa and Evidence for a Peroxisomal Localization. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:16246-53. [PMID: 14742434 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m313357200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Kappa class glutathione S-transferase (GST) cDNA sequences have been identified in rat, mouse, and human. In the present study, we determined the structure and chromosomal location of the human GST Kappa 1 (hGSTK1) gene, characterized the protein, and demonstrated its subcellular localization. The human gene spans approximately 5 kb, has 8 exons, and maps onto chromosome 7q34. The 5'-flanking region lacks TATA or CCAAT boxes, but there is an initiator element overlapping the transcription start site. hGSTK1 amino acid sequence showed homology to bacterial 2-hydroxychromene-2-carboxylate isomerase, an enzyme involved in naphthalene degradation pathway. hGSTK1 mRNA was expressed in all of the organs examined. Subcellular fractionation of HepG2 cells showed that the protein was located in peroxisomes and mitochondria and was not detectable in cytoplasm. The peroxisomal localization was confirmed by transfection of HepG2 cells with a plasmid coding a green fluorescent protein fused inframe to the N terminus of hGSTK1. The C terminus of hGSTK1 was essential for localization of the protein to peroxisomes, and the C-terminal sequence Ala-Arg-Leu represents a peroxisome targeting signal. This is the first time that a human GST has been found in peroxisomes, suggesting a new function for this family of enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrice Morel
- INSERM U456, Université de Rennes I, 2 Avenue du Professeur Léon Bernard, 35043 Rennes, France.
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Fritz-Wolf K, Becker A, Rahlfs S, Harwaldt P, Schirmer RH, Kabsch W, Becker K. X-ray structure of glutathione S-transferase from the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:13821-6. [PMID: 14623980 PMCID: PMC283505 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2333763100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
GSTs catalyze the conjugation of glutathione with a wide variety of hydrophobic compounds, generally resulting in nontoxic products that can be readily eliminated. In contrast to many other organisms, the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum possesses only one GST isoenzyme (PfGST). This GST is highly abundant in the parasite, its activity was found to be increased in chloroquine-resistant cells, and it has been shown to act as a ligandin for parasitotoxic hemin. Thus, the enzyme represents a promising target for antimalarial drug development. We now have solved the crystal structure of PfGST at a resolution of 1.9 A. The homodimeric protein of 26 kDa per subunit represents a GST form that cannot be assigned to any of the known GST classes. In comparison to other GSTs, and, in particular, to the human isoforms, PfGST possesses a shorter C-terminal section resulting in a more solvent-accessible binding site for the hydrophobic and amphiphilic substrates. The structure furthermore reveals features in this region that could be exploited for the design of specific PfGST inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Fritz-Wolf
- Department of Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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35
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Abstract
Glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs) are a family of Phase II detoxification enzymes that catalyse the conjugation of glutathione (GSH) to a wide variety of endogenous and exogenous electrophilic compounds. GSTs are divided into two distinct super-family members: the membrane-bound microsomal and cytosolic family members. Microsomal GSTs are structurally distinct from the cytosolic in that they homo- and heterotrimerize rather than dimerize to form a single active site. Microsomal GSTs play a key role in the endogenous metabolism of leukotrienes and prostaglandins. Human cytosolic GSTs are highly polymorphic and can be divided into six classes: alpha, mu, omega, pi, theta, and zeta. The pi and mu classes of GSTs play a regulatory role in the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathway that participates in cellular survival and death signals via protein : protein interactions with c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 (JNK1) and ASK1 (apoptosis signal-regulating kinase). JNK and ASK1 are activated in response to cellular stress. GSTs have been implicated in the development of resistance toward chemotherapy agents. It is plausible that GSTs serve two distinct roles in the development of drug resistance via direct detoxification as well as acting as an inhibitor of the MAP kinase pathway. The link between GSTs and the MAP kinase pathway provides a rationale as to why in many cases the drugs used to select for resistance are neither subject to conjugation with GSH, nor substrates for GSTs. GSTs have emerged as a promising therapeutic target because specific isozymes are overexpressed in a wide variety of tumors and may play a role in the etiology of other diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, multiple sclerosis, and asthma. Some of the therapeutic strategies so far employed are described in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danyelle M Townsend
- Department of Pharmacology, Fox Chase Cancer Center, 7701 Burholme Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19111, USA
| | - Kenneth D Tew
- Department of Pharmacology, Fox Chase Cancer Center, 7701 Burholme Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19111, USA
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Micaloni C, Kong GKW, Mazzetti AP, Nuccetelli M, Antonini G, Stella L, McKinstry WJ, Polekhina G, Rossjohn J, Federici G, Ricci G, Parker MW, Lo Bello M. Engineering a new C-terminal tail in the H-site of human glutathione transferase P1-1: structural and functional consequences. J Mol Biol 2003; 325:111-22. [PMID: 12473455 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-2836(02)01178-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We have sought the structural basis for the differing substrate specificities of human glutathione transferase P1-1 (class Pi) and human glutathione transferase A1-1 (class Alpha) by adding an extra helix (helix 9), found in the electrophilic substrate-binding site (H-site) of the human class Alpha enzyme, at the C terminus of the human class Pi enzyme. This class Pi-chimera (CODA) was expressed in Escherichia coli, purified and characterized by kinetic and crystallographic approaches. The presence of the newly engineered tail in the H-site of the human Pi enzyme alters its catalytic properties towards those exhibited by the human Alpha enzyme, as assessed using cumene hydroperoxide (diagnostic for class Alpha enzymes) and ethacrynic acid (diagnostic for class Pi) as co-substrates. There is a change of substrate selectivity in the latter case, as the k(cat)/K(m)(EA) value decreases about 70-fold, compared to that of class Pi. With 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene as co-substrate there is a loss of catalytic activity to about 2% with respect to that of the Pi enzyme. Crystallographic and kinetic studies of the class Pi-chimera provide important clues to explain these altered catalytic properties. The new helix forms many complimentary interactions with the rest of the protein and re-models the original electrophilic substrate-binding site towards one that is more enclosed, albeit flexible. Of particular note are the interactions between Glu205 of the new tail and the catalytic residues, Tyr7 and Tyr108, and the thiol moiety of glutathione (GSH). These interactions may provide an explanation of the more than one unit increase in the pK(a) value of the GSH thiolate and affect both the turnover number and GSH binding, using 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene as co-substrate. The data presented are consistent with the engineered tail adopting a highly mobile or disordered state in the apo form of the enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Micaloni
- Department of Biology, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via della Ricerca Scientifica snc, 00133 Rome, Italy
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Gaté L, Tew KD. Glutathione S-transferases as emerging therapeutic targets. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2001; 5:477-489. [PMID: 12540261 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.5.4.477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GST) represent a large family of Phase II detoxification enzymes widely expressed in animals and plants. These enzymes catalyse the conjugation of glutathione with some endogenous molecules and a broad range of exogenous substrates including various anticancer drugs. Due to high expression of GSTs in tumours when compared to normal tissues and their high level in plasma from cancer patients, these enzymes are considered to be cancer markers. Their involvement in resistance to anticancer drugs and an inverse correlation between expression and prognosis in many tumours provided a rationale for the design of inhibitors and prodrugs to enhance therapeutic index. The first generation of GST inhibitors included ethacrynic acid and showed promising potentiating activity in vitro but lack of isoenzyme specificity and diuretic side effects restricted clinical use. Novel GST inhibitors include glutathione analogues and demonstrate better specificities with fewer limiting toxicities. One lead compound is a potent inhibitor of the GSTP1-1 isoform in both cell lines and animal models. A GSTP1-1 activated prodrug has also been developed. Testing of the preclinical and clinical efficacy of these agents is presently in progress. Their rational design provides a promising new approach to targeting tumour-specific characteristics in a manner consistent with improving therapeutic index.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Gaté
- Department of Pharmacology, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA 19111, USA.
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Micaloni C, Mazzetti AP, Nuccetelli M, Rossjohn J, McKinstry WJ, Antonini G, Caccuri AM, Oakley AJ, Federici G, Ricci G, Parker MW, Lo Bello M. Valine 10 may act as a driver for product release from the active site of human glutathione transferase P1-1. Biochemistry 2000; 39:15961-70. [PMID: 11123923 DOI: 10.1021/bi0007122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We have probed the electrophilic binding site (H-site) of human glutathione transferase P1-1 through mutagenesis of two valines, Val 10 and Val 35, into glycine and alanine, respectively. These two residues were previously shown to be the only conformationally variable residues in the H-site and hence may play important roles in cosubstrate recognition and/or product dissociation. Both of these mutant enzymes have been expressed in Escherichia coli and purified and their kinetic properties characterized. The results demonstrate that Val35Ala behaves similarly to wild-type, whereas Val10Gly exhibits a strong decrease of k(cat) and k(cat)/K(m) (cosub) toward two selected cosubstrates: ethacrynic acid and 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene. Pre-steady-state kinetic analysis of the GSH conjugation with ethacrynic acid shows that both wild-type and Val10Gly mutant enzymes exhibit the same rate-limiting step: the dissociation of product. However, in the Val10Gly mutant there is an increased energetic barrier which renders the dissociation of product more difficult. Similar results are found for the Val10Gly mutant with 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene as cosubstrate. With this latter cosubstrate, Val 10 also exerts a positive role in the conformational transitions of the ternary complex before the chemical event. Crystallographic analysis of the Val10Gly mutant in complex with the inhibitor S-hexyl-GSH suggests that Val 10 optimally orientates products, thus promoting their exit from the active site.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Micaloni
- Department of Biology, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Via della Ricerca Scientifica, 00133 Roma, Italy
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Ji X, Blaszczyk J, Xiao B, O'Donnell R, Hu X, Herzog C, Singh SV, Zimniak P. Structure and function of residue 104 and water molecules in the xenobiotic substrate-binding site in human glutathione S-transferase P1-1. Biochemistry 1999; 38:10231-8. [PMID: 10441116 DOI: 10.1021/bi990668u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Two variants of human class pi glutathione (GSH) S-transferase 1-1 with either isoleucine or valine in position 104 (hGSTP1-1[I104] and hGSTP1-1[V104]) have distinct activity toward (+)-anti-7, 8-dihydroxy-9,10-oxy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo[a]pyrene [(+)-anti-BPDE]. To elucidate their structure-function relationship, we determined the crystal structures of the two variants in complex with GSBpd, the GSH conjugate of (+)-anti-BPDE, at 2.1 and 2.0 A resolution, respectively. The crystal structures reveal that residue 104 in the xenobiotic substrate-binding site (H-site) dictates the binding modes of the product molecule GSBpd with the following three consequences. First, the distance between the hydroxyl group of Y7 and the sulfur atom of GSBpd is 5.9 A in the hGSTP1-1[I104].GSBpd complex versus 3.2 A in the V104 variant. Second, one of the hydroxyl groups of GSBpd forms a direct hydrogen bond with R13 in hGSTP1-1[V104].GSBpd; in contrast, this hydrogen bond is not observed in the I104 complex. Third, in the hydrophilic portion of the H-site of the I104 complex, five H-site water molecules [Ji, X., et al. (1997) Biochemistry 36, 9690-9702] are observed, whereas in the V104 complex, two of the five have been displaced by the Bpd moiety of GSBpd. Although there is no direct hydrogen bond between Y108 (OH) and the hydroxyl groups of GSBpd, indirect hydrogen bonds mediated by water molecules are observed in both complexes, supporting the previously suggested role of the hydroxyl group of Y108 as an electrophilic participant in the addition of GSH to epoxides.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Ji
- ABL-Basic Research Program, National Cancer Institute-Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, Maryland 21702, USA.
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Abstract
Several significant advances in the understanding of the catalytic mechanisms, structures and evolution of glutathione transferases have occurred in the past year. These advances include new mechanistic information concerning the canonical soluble enzymes, the finding that the fosfomycin-specific enzyme, FosA, is a metalloglutathione transferase and a higher resolution projection structure of the microsomal enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- R N Armstrong
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232-0146, USA.
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