Hypoosmolarity influences the activity of transcription factor NF-kappaB in rat H4IIE hepatoma cells

Stress-induced expression of the p75 neurotrophin receptor is regulated by O-GlcNAcylation of the Sp1 transcription factor

Injury-induced expression of p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) in the CNS induces neuronal apoptosis and prevents neuronal regrowth. The mechanisms regulating injury-induced p75NTR expression are poorly characterized but previous studies have established that reductions in extracellular osmolarity which mimic cytotoxic edema induce p75NTR gene expression through pathways that activate the Sp1 transcription factor. In this report, we examined how extracellular osmolarity converges on Sp1 to regulate p75NTR expression. We report that levels of O-linked N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) transferase (OGT), the enzyme that mediates O-linked attachment of GlcNAc, are reduced by extracellular hypo-osmolarity and that global levels of protein O-GlcNAcylation and of Sp1 show a corresponding decline. We demonstrate that chemical and RNAi-based treatments that reduce cellular O-GlcNAcylation facilitate p75NTR induction by hypo-osmolarity, directly linking protein O-GlcNAcylation to p75NTR induction. To determine if Sp1 O-GlcNAc content regulates p75NTR expression, we replaced endogenous Sp1 with a Sp1 mutated at O-GlcNAc target residues. This O-GlcNAc-deficient form of Sp1-enhanced p75NTR expression, demonstrating that O-GlcNAcylation of Sp1 negatively regulates p75NTR expression. We conclude that a stress-induced decline in the O-GlcNAc content of Sp1 drives expression of p75NTR.

Lack of Muc1-regulated beta-catenin stability results in aberrant expansion of CD11b+Gr1+ myeloid-derived suppressor cells from the bone marrow

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a heterogeneous population of myeloid cells that inhibit T-cell activity and contribute to the immune suppression characteristic of most tumors. We discovered that bone marrow (BM) progenitor cells from the Muc1 knockout (KO) mice differentiated into CD11b(+)Gr1(+) MDSCs in vitro under granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interleukin-4 signaling. MUC1 is a tumor-associated mucin and its cytoplasmic tail (MUC1-CT) can regulate beta-catenin to promote oncogenesis. Given the importance of beta-catenin in hematopoiesis, we hypothesized that the MUC1 regulation of beta-catenin is important for MDSC development. Our current study shows that the aberrant development of BM progenitors into CD11b(+)Gr1(+) MDSCs is dependent on the down-regulation of beta-catenin levels that occurs in the absence of Muc1. In light of this, KO mice showed enhanced EL4 tumor growth and were able to better tolerate allogeneic BM185 tumor growth, with an accumulation of CD11b(+)Gr1(+) cells in the blood and tumor-draining lymph nodes. WT mice were able to similarly tolerate allogeneic tumor growth when they were injected with CD11b(+)Gr1(+) cells from tumor-bearing KO mice, suggesting that tolerance of allogeneic tumors is dependent on MDSC-mediated immune suppression. This further delineates the ability of Muc1 to control MDSC development, which could directly affect tumorigenesis. Knowledge of the biology by which Muc1 regulates the development of myeloid progenitors into MDSCs would also be very useful in enhancing the efficacy of cancer vaccines in the face of tumor immune suppression.

Hypo-osmolar stress induces p75NTR expression by activating Sp1-dependent transcription

Injury-induced expression of the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) in the CNS facilitates neuronal apoptosis and prevents neuronal regrowth, but the mechanisms regulating p75NTR expression are poorly characterized. In this study, we showed that hypo-osmolarity induces p75NTR expression in primary neurons, and, using a comparative genomics approach, we identified conserved elements in the 25 kb upstream sequences of the rat, mouse, and human p75NTR genes. We found that only one of these, a proximal region rich in Sp1 sites, responds to changes in hypo-osmolarity. We then showed that Sp1 DNA binding activity is increased in cells exposed to hypo-osmolarity, established that hypo-osmolarity enhanced Sp1 binding to the endogenous p75NTR promoter, and showed that Sp1 is required for p75NTR expression induced by hypo-osmolarity. We examined how Sp1 is regulated to effect these changes and established that Sp1 turnover is strongly inhibited by hypo-osmolarity. We propose that stress-induced Sp1 accumulation that results from reductions in Sp1 turnover rate contributes to injury-induced gene expression.

NF-kappaB activation by combinations of NEMO SUMOylation and ATM activation stresses in the absence of DNA damage

The inactive transcription factor NF-kappaB is localized in the cytoplasm and rapidly responds to a variety of extracellular factors and intracellular stress conditions to initiate multiple cellular responses. While the knowledge regarding NF-kappaB signaling pathways initiated by extracellular ligands is rapidly expanding, the mechanisms of activation by intracellular stress conditions are not well understood. We recently described a critical role for a small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) modification of NF-kappaB essential modulator (NEMO), the regulatory subunit of the IkappaB kinase, in response to certain genotoxic stress conditions. One important unanswered question is whether the role of this modification is limited to the genotoxic agents or some other signaling pathways also employ SUMOylation of NEMO to regulate NF-kappaB activation. Here, we report that a variety of other stress conditions, including oxidative stress, ethanol exposure, heat shock and electric shock, also induce NEMO SUMOylation, thus demonstrating that DNA damage per se is not necessary for this NEMO modification to occur. Moreover, combinations of certain SUMO stress and ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated) activation conditions lead to NF-kappaB activation without inducing DNA damage. Our study helps to conceptualize how individual or a combination of different stress conditions may funnel into this previously unappreciated signal transduction mechanism to regulate the activity of the ubiquitous NF-kappaB transcription factor.

Osmotic Regulation of MG-132-induced MAP-kinase Phosphatase MKP-1 Expression in H4IIE Rat Hepatoma Cells

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Proteasome inhibitors such as MG-132 are considered as potential therapeutical tools in different clinical settings. The dual specificity MAP-kinase phosphatase MKP-1 plays a role in balancing signals mediating cell death or survival. Here the effect of cell hydration on MG-132-induced MKP-1 expression was investigated in H4IIE rat hepatoma cells.

RESULTS

Hyperosmolarity (405mosmol/l) increased MKP-1 expression by MG-132, which was accompanied by an induction of c-Fos, c-Jun, cJun Ser73 phosphorylation, and AP-1 DNA binding. MKP-1 induction by MG-132 plus hyperosmolarity was sensitive to inhibition of p38(MAPK) and c-Jun-N-terminal kinases (JNKs) but not extracellular signal-regulated kinases Erk-1/Erk-2, and was accompanied by a decline of MAP-kinase activities. Although hyperosmolarity increased overall protein ubiquitination in presence of MG-132, ubiquitination of MKP-1 was found under normo-, but not hyperosmotic conditions. Hyperosmolarity also enabled MG-132 to induce poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) cleavage which was sensitive to inhibition of p38(MAPK) and JNKs but not Erk-1/Erk-2. PARP cleavage and caspase-3 activation in H4IIE cells treated with hyperosmolarity plus MG-132 was further increased by vanadate, consistent with a contribution of MKP-1 to counterbalance proapoptotic MAP-kinase signals.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that among other factors cell hydration critically determines the cellular response to proteasome inhibitors.

Apoptosis may contribute to false-positive results in the in vitro micronucleus test performed in extreme osmolality, ionic strength and pH conditions

Conditions in which clastogens produce positive responses have been increasingly challenged, and several situations have been described in which clastogenic responses would be considered not to be relevant. For example, extreme culture conditions lead to high variations of pH, osmolality or ionic strength. Apoptosis is induced in extreme culture conditions and contributes to false-positive results in the in vitro micronucleus test performed with CTLL-2 cells. These cells can enter apoptosis when exposed to apoptosis stimuli or after IL-2 deprivation, whereas the CTLL-2 Bcl2 cell line is protected from apoptosis due to the over-expression of the apoptosis inhibitor Bcl2 in bcl2-transfected CTLL-2 cells. The two cell lines were treated in extreme culture conditions of either pH or osmolality or were submitted to high ionic strength. The apoptosis level was measured in parallel with the in vitro micronucleus test using the annexin V-FITC method. Data obtained in the two cell lines suggested that apoptosis caused by extreme culture condition induces the formation of micronucleated cells, which leads to false-positive results in the in vitro micronucleus test.

Hypertonicity inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide synthase expression in smooth muscle cells by inhibiting nuclear factor kappaB

The expression of inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS) in vascular smooth muscle cells leads to prolonged vasorelaxation in vivo and contributes to the profound vasodilation induced by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in septic shock. This induction of iNOS depends, in large part, on activation of nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB. Hypertonicity regulates the activity of NF-kappaB in different cell lines; as such, we propose that it should also regulate the expression of iNOS. Thus, the goal of this study was to determine whether hypertonicity regulates iNOS expression and function in smooth muscle cells and to elucidate the mechanism(s) underlying this process. Treatment of hamster ductus deferens (DDT1MF-2) cells and porcine aortic smooth muscle cells with either mannitol (50 mM) or NaCl (50 mM) reduced LPS-stimulated iNOS expression and nitric oxide release. Both of these agents also reduced the activation of NF-kappaB induced by LPS, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1beta in smooth muscle cells. This inhibitory action was caused by suppression of IkappaB-alpha phosphorylation, a prerequisite for ubiquitination and degradation of this protein, and showed additivity with N-benzoyloxycarbonyl (Z)-Leu-Leu-leucinal (MG-132), an inhibitor of proteasomal degradation of IkappaB-alpha. Furthermore, exposure to mannitol inhibited the activity of IkappaB kinase, an enzyme involved in phosphorylation of IkappaB-alpha. Mannitol was unable to affect the induction of iNOS produced by overexpression of RelA in DDT1MF-2 cells, suggesting that this agent does not have additional downstream inhibitory actions on this activated NF-kappaB subunit. Taken together, these data suggest that these hypertonic solutions may prove useful as anti-inflammatory agents, especially against conditions associated with increased NF-kappaB activity.

Hyperosmolarity triggers CD95 membrane trafficking and sensitizes rat hepatocytes toward CD95L-induced apoptosis

The effect of hyperosmolarity on CD95 membrane targeting and CD95 ligand (CD95L)-induced apoptosis was studied in rat hepatocytes. CD95 showed a predominant intracellular localization in normoosmotically exposed rat hepatocytes, whereas hyperosmotic exposure induced, within 1 hour, CD95 trafficking to the plasma membrane followed by activation of caspase-3 and -8. Hyperosmotic CD95 membrane targeting was sensitive to inhibition of c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK), protein kinase C (PKC), and cyclic adenosine monophosphate, but not to inhibition of extracellular regulated kinases (Erks) or p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (p38(MAPK)). Hyperosmotic CD95 targeting to the plasma membrane was dose-dependently diminished by glutamine or taurine, probably caused by an augmentation of volume regulatory increase. Despite CD95 trafficking to the plasma membrane and caspase activation, hyperosmolarity per se did not induce apoptosis. Hyperosmolarity, however, sensitized hepatocytes toward CD95L-induced apoptosis, as assessed by annexin V staining and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated X-dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay. This sensitization was abolished when hyperosmotic CD95 membrane trafficking was prevented by cyclic adenosine monophosphate, PKC, or JNK inhibition, whereas these effectors had no effect on CD95L-induced apoptosis in normoosmotically exposed hepatocytes. CD95L addition under normoosmotic conditions caused CD95 membrane trafficking, which was sensitive to JNK inhibition, but not to cyclic adenosine monophosphate or inhibition of PKC, Erks, and p38(MAPK). In conclusion, multiple signaling pathways are involved in CD95 membrane trafficking. Hyperosmotic hepatocyte shrinkage induces CD95 trafficking to the plasma membrane, which involves JNK-, PKA-, and PKC-dependent mechanisms and sensitizes hepatocytes toward CD95L-mediated apoptosis.

The cellular hydration state: a critical determinant for cell death and survival

Alterations in cellular hydration not only contribute to metabolic regulation, but also critically determine the cellular response to different kinds of stress. Whereas cell swelling triggers anabolic pathways and protects cells from heat and oxidative challenge, cellular dehydration contributes to insulin resistance and catabolism and increases the cellular susceptibility to stress-induced damage. Intracellular accumulation of organic osmolytes, cell cycle delay and the expression of heat shock proteins provide cellular tolerance to hyperosmolarity and protect against stressors under dehydrating conditions. This article discusses some mechanisms by which alterations in cell hydration contribute to cytoprotection or cell damage. In addition, the close relationship between osmotic and oxidative stress and the contribution of isoosmotic shrinkage to apoptotic cell death are considered.

Sustained hyposmotic stress induces cell death: apoptosis by defeat

We describe sustained hyposmotic stress as a novel type of environmental condition enforcing apoptosis. In a dose- and time-dependent fashion, hyposmotic stress leads to a delayed type of apoptosis with considerable variations in constitutive sensitivity among different cell types. For example, after 48 h at 84 mosmol/l, the death rate ranged from 10.8 +/- 0.7% in AsPc1 human pancreatic carcinoma cells to 72.0 +/- 1.6% in HK-2 human kidney tubule cells. Caspase inhibitors rendered cells more resistant to hyposmolar stress; the caspase 3 inhibitor Ac-Asp-Glu-Val-aspartic acid aldehyde was the most efficient. After 24 h of stress, HT-29 colon carcinoma and HK-2 cells had increased their mitochondrial mass. This went along with an increase in mitochondrial membrane potential in HT-29 cells but with a decrease in HK-2 cells. Starting at 2 h of stress, we detected transient CD95L transcription followed by surface expression of CD95L in HT-29 but not in HK-2 cells. Inhibitory CD95L antibody partially inhibited specific death in HT-29 but not in HK-2 cells. Thus, as in other types of stress-induced apoptosis, the CD95/CD95L system is one of the different routes to suicide optionally used by hyposmotically stressed cells. Our findings may have clinical implications for the prevention and treatment of tissue damage caused by severe hyposmolar states.

Activator protein 1 activation following hypoosmotic stress in HepG2 cells is actin cytoskeleton dependent

BACKGROUND

Following hypoosmotic stress-induced cell volume change, the actin cytoskeleton reorganizes itself. The role of this reorganization in the activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-OH-kinase/protein kinase B/activator protein 1 (PI-3-K/PKB/AP-1) proliferative signaling cascade is unknown. Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) participates in the cytoskeleton-based activation of PI-3-K. We hypothesized that hypoosmotic stress-induced activation of PKB and AP-1 in HepG2 cells is dependent on an intact actin cytoskeleton and subsequent FAK phosphorylation.

METHODS

HepG2 cells were incubated for 1 h with or without 20 microM cytochalasin D, an actin disrupter, and were then exposed for up to 30 min to hypoosmotic medium (200 mOsm/L) to induce swelling. Tumor necrosis factor alpha (1.4 nM) and medium alone served as positive and negative controls, respectively. Western blots measured cytoplasmic phosphorylated or total FAK and PKB. EMSAs measured nuclear AP-1. All experiments were performed in triplicate.

RESULTS

Exposure to hypoosmotic stress resulted in activation of the following signaling messengers in a sequential fashion: (1) phosphorylation of FAK occurred by 2 min, (2) phosphorylation of PKB occurred by 10 min, (3) nuclear translocation of AP-1 occurred by 30 min. All three signaling events were abolished when these cells were pretreated with cytochalasin D.

CONCLUSION

Actin reorganization following hypoosmotic stress is essential for the FAK-mediated activation of the PI-3-K/PKB/AP-1 proliferative cascade. These data delineate a possible mechanism by which the cell swelling-induced cytoskeletal changes can initiate proliferative signal transduction in human liver cancer.