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Lipoprotein(a) beyond the kringle IV repeat polymorphism: The complexity of genetic variation in the LPA gene. Atherosclerosis 2022; 349:17-35. [PMID: 35606073 PMCID: PMC7613587 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2022.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
High lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] concentrations are one of the most important genetically determined risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Lp(a) concentrations are an enigmatic trait largely controlled by one single gene (LPA) that contains a complex interplay of several genetic elements with many surprising effects discussed in this review. A hypervariable coding copy number variation (the kringle IV type-2 repeat, KIV-2) generates >40 apolipoprotein(a) protein isoforms and determines the median Lp(a) concentrations. Carriers of small isoforms with up to 22 kringle IV domains have median Lp(a) concentrations up to 5 times higher than those with large isoforms (>22 kringle IV domains). The effect of the apo(a) isoforms are, however, modified by many functional single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) distributed over the complete range of allele frequencies (<0.1% to >20%) with very pronounced effects on Lp(a) concentrations. A complex interaction is present between the apo (a) isoforms and LPA SNPs, with isoforms partially masking the effect of functional SNPs and, vice versa, SNPs lowering the Lp(a) concentrations of affected isoforms. This picture is further complicated by SNP-SNP interactions, a poorly understood role of other polymorphisms such as short tandem repeats and linkage structures that are poorly captured by common R2 values. A further layer of complexity derives from recent findings that several functional SNPs are located in the KIV-2 repeat and are thus not accessible to conventional sequencing and genotyping technologies. A critical impact of the ancestry on correlation structures and baseline Lp(a) values becomes increasingly evident. This review provides a comprehensive overview on the complex genetic architecture of the Lp(a) concentrations in plasma, a field that has made tremendous progress with the introduction of new technologies. Understanding the genetics of Lp(a) might be a key to many mysteries of Lp(a) and booster new ideas on the metabolism of Lp(a) and possible interventional targets.
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Coassin S, Chemello K, Khantalin I, Forer L, Döttelmayer P, Schönherr S, Grüneis R, Chong-Hong-Fong C, Nativel B, Ramin-Mangata S, Gallo A, Roche M, Muelegger B, Gieger C, Peters A, Zschocke J, Marimoutou C, Meilhac O, Lamina C, Kronenberg F, Blanchard V, Lambert G. Genome-Wide Characterization of a Highly Penetrant Form of Hyperlipoprotein(a)emia Associated With Genetically Elevated Cardiovascular Risk. Circ Genom Precis Med 2022; 15:e003489. [PMID: 35133173 PMCID: PMC9018215 DOI: 10.1161/circgen.121.003489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Lp(a) (lipoprotein [a]) is a highly atherogenic lipoprotein strongly associated with coronary artery disease (CAD). Lp(a) concentrations are chiefly determined genetically. Investigation of large pedigrees with extreme Lp(a) using modern whole-genome approaches may unravel the genetic determinants underpinning this pathological phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Coassin
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Genetics and Pharmacology (S.C., L.F., P.D., S.S., R.G., C.L., F.K.), Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Kevin Chemello
- Université de La Réunion, INSERM UMR 1188 DéTROI, Sainte-Clotilde, France (K.C., I.K., C.C.-H.-F., B.N., S.R.-M., A.G., M.R., O.M., V.B., G.L.)
| | - Ilya Khantalin
- Université de La Réunion, INSERM UMR 1188 DéTROI, Sainte-Clotilde, France (K.C., I.K., C.C.-H.-F., B.N., S.R.-M., A.G., M.R., O.M., V.B., G.L.).,CHU de La Réunion, Service de Chirurgie Cardiaque Vasculaire et Thoracique, Saint-Denis, France (I.K.)
| | - Lukas Forer
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Genetics and Pharmacology (S.C., L.F., P.D., S.S., R.G., C.L., F.K.), Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Patricia Döttelmayer
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Genetics and Pharmacology (S.C., L.F., P.D., S.S., R.G., C.L., F.K.), Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Sebastian Schönherr
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Genetics and Pharmacology (S.C., L.F., P.D., S.S., R.G., C.L., F.K.), Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Rebecca Grüneis
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Genetics and Pharmacology (S.C., L.F., P.D., S.S., R.G., C.L., F.K.), Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Clément Chong-Hong-Fong
- Université de La Réunion, INSERM UMR 1188 DéTROI, Sainte-Clotilde, France (K.C., I.K., C.C.-H.-F., B.N., S.R.-M., A.G., M.R., O.M., V.B., G.L.)
| | - Brice Nativel
- Université de La Réunion, INSERM UMR 1188 DéTROI, Sainte-Clotilde, France (K.C., I.K., C.C.-H.-F., B.N., S.R.-M., A.G., M.R., O.M., V.B., G.L.)
| | - Stéphane Ramin-Mangata
- Université de La Réunion, INSERM UMR 1188 DéTROI, Sainte-Clotilde, France (K.C., I.K., C.C.-H.-F., B.N., S.R.-M., A.G., M.R., O.M., V.B., G.L.)
| | - Antonio Gallo
- Université de La Réunion, INSERM UMR 1188 DéTROI, Sainte-Clotilde, France (K.C., I.K., C.C.-H.-F., B.N., S.R.-M., A.G., M.R., O.M., V.B., G.L.)
| | - Mathias Roche
- Université de La Réunion, INSERM UMR 1188 DéTROI, Sainte-Clotilde, France (K.C., I.K., C.C.-H.-F., B.N., S.R.-M., A.G., M.R., O.M., V.B., G.L.)
| | - Beatrix Muelegger
- Institute of Human Genetics (B.M., J.S.), Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christian Gieger
- Research Unit of Molecular Epidemiology (C.G.), Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany.,Institute of Epidemiology (C.G., A.P.), Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany.,German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany (C.G., A.P.)
| | - Annette Peters
- Institute of Epidemiology (C.G., A.P.), Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany.,German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany (C.G., A.P.)
| | - Johannes Zschocke
- Institute of Human Genetics (B.M., J.S.), Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Olivier Meilhac
- Université de La Réunion, INSERM UMR 1188 DéTROI, Sainte-Clotilde, France (K.C., I.K., C.C.-H.-F., B.N., S.R.-M., A.G., M.R., O.M., V.B., G.L.).,CHU de La Réunion, CIC EC1410, Saint-Pierre, France (C.M., O.M.)
| | - Claudia Lamina
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Genetics and Pharmacology (S.C., L.F., P.D., S.S., R.G., C.L., F.K.), Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Florian Kronenberg
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Genetics and Pharmacology (S.C., L.F., P.D., S.S., R.G., C.L., F.K.), Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Valentin Blanchard
- Université de La Réunion, INSERM UMR 1188 DéTROI, Sainte-Clotilde, France (K.C., I.K., C.C.-H.-F., B.N., S.R.-M., A.G., M.R., O.M., V.B., G.L.).,Department of Medicine, Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada (V.B.)
| | - Gilles Lambert
- Université de La Réunion, INSERM UMR 1188 DéTROI, Sainte-Clotilde, France (K.C., I.K., C.C.-H.-F., B.N., S.R.-M., A.G., M.R., O.M., V.B., G.L.)
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Durlach V, Bonnefont-Rousselot D, Boccara F, Varret M, Di-Filippo Charcosset M, Cariou B, Valero R, Charriere S, Farnier M, Morange PE, Meilhac O, Lambert G, Moulin P, Gillery P, Beliard-Lasserre S, Bruckert E, Carrié A, Ferrières J, Collet X, Chapman MJ, Anglés-Cano E. Lipoprotein(a): Pathophysiology, measurement, indication and treatment in cardiovascular disease. A consensus statement from the Nouvelle Société Francophone d'Athérosclérose (NSFA). Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2021; 114:828-847. [PMID: 34840125 DOI: 10.1016/j.acvd.2021.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Lipoprotein(a) is an apolipoprotein B100-containing low-density lipoprotein-like particle that is rich in cholesterol, and is associated with a second major protein, apolipoprotein(a). Apolipoprotein(a) possesses structural similarity to plasminogen but lacks fibrinolytic activity. As a consequence of its composite structure, lipoprotein(a) may: (1) elicit a prothrombotic/antifibrinolytic action favouring clot stability; and (2) enhance atherosclerosis progression via its propensity for retention in the arterial intima, with deposition of its cholesterol load at sites of plaque formation. Equally, lipoprotein(a) may induce inflammation and calcification in the aortic leaflet valve interstitium, leading to calcific aortic valve stenosis. Experimental, epidemiological and genetic evidence support the contention that elevated concentrations of lipoprotein(a) are causally related to atherothrombotic risk and equally to calcific aortic valve stenosis. The plasma concentration of lipoprotein(a) is principally determined by genetic factors, is not influenced by dietary habits, remains essentially constant over the lifetime of a given individual and is the most powerful variable for prediction of lipoprotein(a)-associated cardiovascular risk. However, major interindividual variations (up to 1000-fold) are characteristic of lipoprotein(a) concentrations. In this context, lipoprotein(a) assays, although currently insufficiently standardized, are of considerable interest, not only in stratifying cardiovascular risk, but equally in the clinical follow-up of patients treated with novel lipid-lowering therapies targeted at lipoprotein(a) (e.g. antiapolipoprotein(a) antisense oligonucleotides and small interfering ribonucleic acids) that markedly reduce circulating lipoprotein(a) concentrations. We recommend that lipoprotein(a) be measured once in subjects at high cardiovascular risk with premature coronary heart disease, in familial hypercholesterolaemia, in those with a family history of coronary heart disease and in those with recurrent coronary heart disease despite lipid-lowering treatment. Because of its clinical relevance, the cost of lipoprotein(a) testing should be covered by social security and health authorities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Durlach
- Champagne-Ardenne University, UMR CNRS 7369 MEDyC & Cardio-Thoracic Department, Reims University Hospital, 51092 Reims, France
| | - Dominique Bonnefont-Rousselot
- Metabolic Biochemistry Department, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, 75013 Paris, France; Université de Paris, CNRS, INSERM, UTCBS, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Franck Boccara
- Sorbonne University, GRC n(o) 22, C(2)MV, INSERM UMR_S 938, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, IHU ICAN, 75012 Paris, France; Service de Cardiologie, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, 75012 Paris, France
| | - Mathilde Varret
- Laboratory for Vascular Translational Science (LVTS), INSERM U1148, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Xavier Bichat, 75018 Paris, France; Université de Paris, 75018 Paris, France
| | - Mathilde Di-Filippo Charcosset
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, UF Dyslipidémies, 69677 Bron, France; Laboratoire CarMen, INSERM, INRA, INSA, Université Claude-Bernard Lyon 1, 69495 Pierre-Bénite, France
| | - Bertrand Cariou
- Université de Nantes, CHU Nantes, CNRS, INSERM, l'Institut du Thorax, 44000 Nantes, France
| | - René Valero
- Endocrinology Department, La Conception Hospital, AP-HM, Aix-Marseille University, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Sybil Charriere
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, INSERM U1060, Laboratoire CarMeN, Université Lyon 1, 69310 Pierre-Bénite, France
| | - Michel Farnier
- PEC2, EA 7460, University of Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21079 Dijon, France; Department of Cardiology, CHU Dijon Bourgogne, 21000 Dijon, France
| | - Pierre E Morange
- Aix-Marseille University, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, 13385 Marseille, France
| | - Olivier Meilhac
- INSERM, UMR 1188 DéTROI, Université de La Réunion, 97744 Saint-Denis de La Réunion, Reunion; CHU de La Réunion, CIC-EC 1410, 97448 Saint-Pierre, Reunion
| | - Gilles Lambert
- INSERM, UMR 1188 DéTROI, Université de La Réunion, 97744 Saint-Denis de La Réunion, Reunion; CHU de La Réunion, CIC-EC 1410, 97448 Saint-Pierre, Reunion
| | - Philippe Moulin
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, INSERM U1060, Laboratoire CarMeN, Université Lyon 1, 69310 Pierre-Bénite, France
| | - Philippe Gillery
- Laboratory of Biochemistry-Pharmacology-Toxicology, Reims University Hospital, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UMR CNRS/URCA n(o) 7369, 51092 Reims, France
| | - Sophie Beliard-Lasserre
- Endocrinology Department, La Conception Hospital, AP-HM, Aix-Marseille University, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Eric Bruckert
- Service d'Endocrinologie-Métabolisme, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, 75013 Paris, France; IHU ICAN, Sorbonne University, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Alain Carrié
- Sorbonne University, UMR INSERM 1166, IHU ICAN, Laboratory of Endocrine and Oncological Biochemistry, Obesity and Dyslipidaemia Genetic Unit, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Jean Ferrières
- Department of Cardiology and INSERM UMR 1295, Rangueil University Hospital, TSA 50032, 31059 Toulouse, France
| | - Xavier Collet
- INSERM U1048, Institute of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Rangueil University Hospital, BP 84225, 31432 Toulouse, France
| | - M John Chapman
- Sorbonne University, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière and National Institute for Health and Medical Research (INSERM), 75013 Paris, France
| | - Eduardo Anglés-Cano
- Université de Paris, INSERM, Innovative Therapies in Haemostasis, 75006 Paris, France.
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4
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Coassin S, Hermann-Kleiter N, Haun M, Wahl S, Wilson R, Paulweber B, Kunze S, Meitinger T, Strauch K, Peters A, Waldenberger M, Kronenberg F, Lamina C. A genome-wide analysis of DNA methylation identifies a novel association signal for Lp(a) concentrations in the LPA promoter. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0232073. [PMID: 32343731 PMCID: PMC7188291 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0232073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] is a major cardiovascular risk factor, which is largely genetically determined by one major gene locus, the LPA gene. Many aspects of the transcriptional regulation of LPA are poorly understood and the role of epigenetics has not been addressed yet. Therefore, we conducted an epigenome-wide analysis of DNA methylation on Lp(a) levels in two population-based studies (total n = 2208). We identified a CpG site in the LPA promoter which was significantly associated with Lp(a) concentrations. Surprisingly, the identified CpG site was found to overlap the SNP rs76735376. We genotyped this SNP de-novo in three studies (total n = 7512). The minor allele of rs76735376 (1.1% minor allele frequency) was associated with increased Lp(a) values (p = 1.01e-59) and explained 3.5% of the variation of Lp(a). Statistical mediation analysis showed that the effect on Lp(a) is rather originating from the base change itself and is not mediated by DNA methylation levels. This finding is supported by eQTL data from 208 liver tissue samples from the GTEx project, which shows a significant association of the rs76735376 minor allele with increased LPA expression. To evaluate, whether the association signal at rs76735376 may actually be derived from a stronger eQTL signal in LD with this SNP, eQTL association results of all correlated SNPs (r2≥0.1) were integrated with genetic association results. This analysis pinpointed to rs10455872 as the potential trigger of the effect of rs76735376. Furthermore, both SNPs coincide with short apo(a) isoforms. Adjusting for both, rs10455872 and the apo(a) isoforms diminished the effect size of rs76735376 to 5.38 mg/dL (p = 0.0463). This indicates that the effect of rs76735376 can be explained by both an independent effect of the SNP and a strong correlation with rs10455872 and apo(a) isoforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Coassin
- Department of Genetics and Pharmacology, Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Natascha Hermann-Kleiter
- Department of Genetics and Pharmacology, Institute of Cell Genetics, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Margot Haun
- Department of Genetics and Pharmacology, Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Simone Wahl
- Research Unit of Molecular Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München–German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- Institute of Epidemiology II, Helmholtz Zentrum München–German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Rory Wilson
- Research Unit of Molecular Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München–German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- Institute of Epidemiology II, Helmholtz Zentrum München–German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Bernhard Paulweber
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Paracelsus Private Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Sonja Kunze
- Research Unit of Molecular Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München–German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- Institute of Epidemiology II, Helmholtz Zentrum München–German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Thomas Meitinger
- German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Human Genetics, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
- German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Human Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Konstantin Strauch
- German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
- Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry, and Epidemiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Annette Peters
- Institute of Epidemiology II, Helmholtz Zentrum München–German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany
| | - Melanie Waldenberger
- Research Unit of Molecular Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München–German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- Institute of Epidemiology II, Helmholtz Zentrum München–German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany
| | - Florian Kronenberg
- Department of Genetics and Pharmacology, Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Claudia Lamina
- Department of Genetics and Pharmacology, Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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5
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Ellis KL, Boffa MB, Sahebkar A, Koschinsky ML, Watts GF. The renaissance of lipoprotein(a): Brave new world for preventive cardiology? Prog Lipid Res 2017; 68:57-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Revised: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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6
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Mack S, Coassin S, Rueedi R, Yousri NA, Seppälä I, Gieger C, Schönherr S, Forer L, Erhart G, Marques-Vidal P, Ried JS, Waeber G, Bergmann S, Dähnhardt D, Stöckl A, Raitakari OT, Kähönen M, Peters A, Meitinger T, Strauch K, Kedenko L, Paulweber B, Lehtimäki T, Hunt SC, Vollenweider P, Lamina C, Kronenberg F. A genome-wide association meta-analysis on lipoprotein (a) concentrations adjusted for apolipoprotein (a) isoforms. J Lipid Res 2017; 58:1834-1844. [PMID: 28512139 PMCID: PMC5580897 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m076232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
High lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)] concentrations are an independent risk factor for cardiovascular outcomes. Concentrations are strongly influenced by apo(a) kringle IV repeat isoforms. We aimed to identify genetic loci associated with Lp(a) concentrations using data from five genome-wide association studies (n = 13,781). We identified 48 independent SNPs in the LPA and 1 SNP in the APOE gene region to be significantly associated with Lp(a) concentrations. We also adjusted for apo(a) isoforms to identify loci affecting Lp(a) levels independently from them, which resulted in 31 SNPs (30 in the LPA, 1 in the APOE gene region). Seven SNPs showed a genome-wide significant association with coronary artery disease (CAD) risk. A rare SNP (rs186696265; MAF ∼1%) showed the highest effect on Lp(a) and was also associated with increased risk of CAD (odds ratio = 1.73, P = 3.35 × 10−30). Median Lp(a) values increased from 2.1 to 91.1 mg/dl with increasing number of Lp(a)-increasing alleles. We found the APOE2-determining allele of rs7412 to be significantly associated with Lp(a) concentrations (P = 3.47 × 10−10). Each APOE2 allele decreased Lp(a) by 3.34 mg/dl corresponding to ∼15% of the population’s mean values. Performing a gene-based test of association, including suspected Lp(a) receptors and regulators, resulted in one significant association of the TLR2 gene with Lp(a) (P = 3.4 × 10−4). In summary, we identified a large number of independent SNPs in the LPA gene region, as well as the APOE2 allele, to be significantly associated with Lp(a) concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salome Mack
- Division of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Medical Genetics, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Stefan Coassin
- Division of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Medical Genetics, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Rico Rueedi
- Department of Computational Biology, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Noha A Yousri
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar, Doha, Qatar.,Department of Computer and Systems Engineering, Alexandria University, 21526 Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Ilkka Seppälä
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Fimlab Laboratories and University of Tampere School of Medicine, 33520 Tampere, Finland
| | - Christian Gieger
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany.,Institute of Epidemiology II, Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany.,Research Unit of Molecular Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Schönherr
- Division of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Medical Genetics, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Lukas Forer
- Division of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Medical Genetics, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Gertraud Erhart
- Division of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Medical Genetics, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Pedro Marques-Vidal
- Department of Medicine, Internal Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Janina S Ried
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Gerard Waeber
- Department of Medicine, Internal Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sven Bergmann
- Department of Computational Biology, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Doreen Dähnhardt
- Division of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Medical Genetics, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Andrea Stöckl
- Division of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Medical Genetics, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Olli T Raitakari
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Turku University Hospital, 20520 Turku, Finland.,Research Centre of Applied and Preventive Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Turku, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Mika Kähönen
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Tampere University Hospital and University of Tampere, 33521 Tampere, Finland
| | - Annette Peters
- Institute of Epidemiology II, Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany.,German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), 80802 Munich, Germany.,German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD e.V.), 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Thomas Meitinger
- Institute of Human Genetics, Technische Universität München, 81675 München, Germany.,Institute of Human Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Konstantin Strauch
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany.,Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry, and Epidemiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | | | - Ludmilla Kedenko
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Paracelsus Private Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Bernhard Paulweber
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Paracelsus Private Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Terho Lehtimäki
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Fimlab Laboratories and University of Tampere School of Medicine, 33520 Tampere, Finland
| | - Steven C Hunt
- Cardiovascular Genetics Division, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84108.,Department of Genetic Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, Doha, Qatar
| | - Peter Vollenweider
- Department of Medicine, Internal Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Claudia Lamina
- Division of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Medical Genetics, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Florian Kronenberg
- Division of Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Medical Genetics, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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7
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Qu K, Liu YM, He XL, Zhang H, Zhang K, Peng J, Tang YL, Yu XH, Zeng JF, Lei JJ, Wei DH, Wang Z. H2S inhibits apo(a) expression and secretion through PKCα/FXR and Akt/HNF4α pathways in HepG2 cells. Cell Biol Int 2016; 40:906-16. [DOI: 10.1002/cbin.10632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kai Qu
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research; Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province; University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
| | - Ya-mi Liu
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research; Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province; University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
| | - Xing-lan He
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research; Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province; University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
| | - Hai Zhang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research; Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province; University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
| | - Kai Zhang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research; Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province; University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
- The Second Hospital Affiliated to University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
| | - Juan Peng
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research; Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province; University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
| | - Ya-ling Tang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research; Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province; University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
| | - Xiao-hua Yu
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research; Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province; University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
| | - Jun-fa Zeng
- The Second Hospital Affiliated to University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
| | - Jian-jun Lei
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research; Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province; University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
| | - Dang-heng Wei
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research; Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province; University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
| | - Zuo Wang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research; Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province; University of South China; Hengyang Hunan 421001 PR China
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8
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Schmidt K, Noureen A, Kronenberg F, Utermann G. Structure, function, and genetics of lipoprotein (a). J Lipid Res 2016; 57:1339-59. [PMID: 27074913 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.r067314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)] has attracted the interest of researchers and physicians due to its intriguing properties, including an intragenic multiallelic copy number variation in the LPA gene and the strong association with coronary heart disease (CHD). This review summarizes present knowledge of the structure, function, and genetics of Lp(a) with emphasis on the molecular and population genetics of the Lp(a)/LPA trait, as well as aspects of genetic epidemiology. It highlights the role of genetics in establishing Lp(a) as a risk factor for CHD, but also discusses uncertainties, controversies, and lack of knowledge on several aspects of the genetic Lp(a) trait, not least its function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konrad Schmidt
- Divisions of Human Genetics Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Asma Noureen
- Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Florian Kronenberg
- Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Gerd Utermann
- Divisions of Human Genetics Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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9
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Lipoprotein(a): a promising marker for residual cardiovascular risk assessment. DISEASE MARKERS 2013; 35:551-9. [PMID: 24249942 PMCID: PMC3819768 DOI: 10.1155/2013/563717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Revised: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are still the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, although optimal medical therapy has been prescribed for primary and secondary preventions. Residual cardiovascular risk for some population groups is still considerably high although target low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) level has been achieved. During the past few decades, compelling pieces of evidence from clinical trials and meta-analyses consistently illustrate that lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)) is a significant risk factor for atherosclerosis and CVD due to its proatherogenic and prothrombotic features. However, the lack of effective medication for Lp(a) reduction significantly hampers randomized, prospective, and controlled trials conducting. Based on previous findings, for patients with LDL-C in normal range, Lp(a) may be a useful marker for identifying and evaluating the residual cardiovascular risk, and aggressively lowering LDL-C level than current guidelines' recommendation may be reasonable for patients with particularly high Lp(a) level.
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10
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Hoover-Plow J, Huang M. Lipoprotein(a) metabolism: potential sites for therapeutic targets. Metabolism 2013; 62:479-91. [PMID: 23040268 PMCID: PMC3547132 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2012.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2012] [Revised: 07/03/2012] [Accepted: 07/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] resembles low-density lipoprotein (LDL), with an LDL lipid core and apolipoprotein B (apoB), but contains a unique apolipoprotein, apo(a). Elevated Lp(a) is an independent risk factor for coronary and peripheral vascular diseases. The size and concentration of plasma Lp(a) are related to the synthetic rate, not the catabolic rate, and are highly variable with small isoforms associated with high concentrations and pathogenic risk. Apo(a) is synthesized in the liver, although assembly of apo(a) and LDL may occur in the hepatocytes or plasma. While the uptake and clearance site of Lp(a) is poorly delineated, the kidney is the site of apo(a) fragment excretion. The structure of apo(a) has high homology to plasminogen, the zymogen for plasmin and the primary clot lysis enzyme. Apo(a) interferes with plasminogen binding to C-terminal lysines of cell surface and extracellular matrix proteins. Lp(a) and apo(a) inhibit fibrinolysis and accumulate in the vascular wall in atherosclerotic lesions. The pathogenic role of Lp(a) is not known. Small isoforms and high concentrations of Lp(a) are found in healthy octogenarians that suggest Lp(a) may also have a physiological role. Studies of Lp(a) function have been limited since it is not found in commonly studied small mammals. An important aspect of Lp(a) metabolism is the modification of circulating Lp(a), which has the potential to alter the functions of Lp(a). There are no therapeutic drugs that selectively target elevated Lp(a), but a number of possible agents are being considered. Recently, new modifiers of apo(a) synthesis have been identified. This review reports the regulation of Lp(a) metabolism and potential sites for therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Hoover-Plow
- J. J. Jacobs Center for Thrombosis and Vascular Biology, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44139, USA.
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11
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Chennamsetty I, Claudel T, Kostner KM, Baghdasaryan A, Kratky D, Levak-Frank S, Frank S, Gonzalez FJ, Trauner M, Kostner GM. Farnesoid X receptor represses hepatic human APOA gene expression. J Clin Invest 2011; 121:3724-34. [PMID: 21804189 DOI: 10.1172/jci45277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2011] [Accepted: 06/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
High plasma concentrations of lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a), which is encoded by the APOA gene] increase an individual's risk of developing diseases, such as coronary artery diseases, restenosis, and stroke. Unfortunately, increased Lp(a) levels are minimally influenced by dietary changes or drug treatment. Further, the development of Lp(a)-specific medications has been hampered by limited knowledge of Lp(a) metabolism. In this study, we identified patients suffering from biliary obstructions with very low plasma Lp(a) concentrations that rise substantially after surgical intervention. Consistent with this, common bile duct ligation in mice transgenic for human APOA (tg-APOA mice) lowered plasma concentrations and hepatic expression of APOA. To test whether farnesoid X receptor (FXR), which is activated by bile acids, was responsible for the low plasma Lp(a) levels in cholestatic patients and mice, we treated tg-APOA and tg-APOA/Fxr-/- mice with cholic acid. FXR activation markedly reduced plasma concentrations and hepatic expression of human APOA in tg-APOA mice but not in tg-APOA/Fxr-/- mice. Incubation of primary hepatocytes from tg-APOA mice with bile acids dose dependently downregulated APOA expression. Further analysis determined that the direct repeat 1 element between nucleotides -826 and -814 of the APOA promoter functioned as a negative FXR response element. This motif is also bound by hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α (HNF4α), which promotes APOA transcription, and FXR was shown to compete with HNF4α for binding to this motif. These findings may have important implications in the development of Lp(a)-lowering medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indumathi Chennamsetty
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Center of Molecular Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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12
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The apo(a) gene (TTTTA)n promoter polymorphism and its association with variability in exons of the kringle IV types 8 to 10. Clin Chim Acta 2009; 405:39-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2009.03.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2009] [Revised: 03/30/2009] [Accepted: 03/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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13
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Ober C, Nord AS, Thompson EE, Pan L, Tan Z, Cusanovich D, Sun Y, Nicolae R, Edelstein C, Schneider DH, Billstrand C, Pfaffinger D, Phillips N, Anderson RL, Philips B, Rajagopalan R, Hatsukami TS, Rieder MJ, Heagerty PJ, Nickerson DA, Abney M, Marcovina S, Jarvik GP, Scanu AM, Nicolae DL. Genome-wide association study of plasma lipoprotein(a) levels identifies multiple genes on chromosome 6q. J Lipid Res 2009; 50:798-806. [PMID: 19124843 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m800515-jlr200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasma lipoprotein(a) (Lp[a]) level is an independent risk factor of cardiovascular disease that is under strong genetic control. We conducted a genome-wide association study of plasma Lp(a) in 386 members of a founder population that adheres to a communal lifestyle, proscribes cigarette smoking, and prepares and eats meals communally. We identified associations with 77 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) spanning 12.5 Mb on chromosome 6q26-q27 that met criteria for genome-wide significance (P <or= 1.3 x 10(-7)) and were within or flanking nine genes, including LPA. We show that variation in at least six genes in addition to LPA are significantly associated with Lp(a) levels independent of each other and of the kringle IV repeat polymorphism in the LPA gene. One novel SNP in intron 37 of the LPA gene was also associated with Lp(a) levels and carotid artery disease number in unrelated Caucasians (P = 7.3 x 10(-12) and 0.024, respectively), also independent of kringle IV number. This study suggests a complex genetic architecture of Lp(a) levels that may involve multiple loci on chromosome 6q26-q27.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole Ober
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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14
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Zídková K, Zlatohlávek L, Ceska R. Variability in apo(a) gene regulatory sequences, compound genotypes, and association with Lp(a) plasma levels. Clin Biochem 2007; 40:802-5. [PMID: 17462619 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2007.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2007] [Revised: 03/14/2007] [Accepted: 03/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Lipoprotein(a) is an independent risk factor of atherosclerosis. DESIGN AND METHODS We assigned frequencies of six polymorphic sites from apo(a) gene transcription control regions, linkage disequilibrium, and 5-polymorphic compound genotypes association with Lp(a) levels. RESULTS Significant linkage disequilibrium between polymorphic sites was detected. Compound genotypes were significantly associated with Lp(a) levels (P<0.0001). Major 5-polymorphic genotypes were distributed in a broad range of concentrations. CONCLUSIONS Major 5-polymorphic compound genotypes are not associated with restricted range of Lp(a) levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Zídková
- 3rd Medical Department, 1st Faculty of Medicine and General Teaching Hospital, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic.
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15
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Zídková K, Kebrdlová V, Zlatohlávek L, Ceska R. Detection of variability in apo(a) gene transcription regulatory sequences using the DGGE method. Clin Chim Acta 2006; 376:77-81. [PMID: 16916503 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2006.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2006] [Revised: 07/17/2006] [Accepted: 07/17/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increased lipoprotein(a), Lp(a), concentration is an independent risk factor for premature atherosclerosis. Apolipoprotein(a), apo(a), determines properties of the lipoprotein and its production rate is the limiting step in Lp(a) particle formation. METHODS Subjects covering the whole range of Lp(a) concentration were separated into quintiles. A randomly chosen sample from each quintile was derived, there being a total number of 713 individuals. The DGGE method was used to scan the known transcription regulatory regions of apo(a) gene (promoter; DHII and DHIII enhancers) for variability and its distribution across quintiles. RESULTS Besides 5 previously reported nucleotide substitutions (+121 G>A; +93 C>T; -1712 G>T; -1617 C>A; -1230 A>G) 16 unreported rare sequence variants were detected. All polymorphic variants were distributed throughout the quintiles with several significant differences. The novel +62 C variant was found only among individuals with Lp(a) levels over 16 mg/dl. CONCLUSION The apo(a) gene transcription regulatory regions were not revealed to be extremely polymorphic. However, we should consider a combined effect of all polymorphic sites from the whole apo(a) gene locus, including the apo(a) gene length polymorphism, when dealing with high population variability of Lp(a) levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Zídková
- 3rd Medical Department, 1st Faculty of Medicine and General Teaching Hospital, Charles University in Prague, Prague 12808, Czech Republic.
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16
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Huby T, Afzal V, Doucet C, Lawn RM, Gong EL, Chapman MJ, Thillet J, Rubin EM. Regulation of the expression of the apolipoprotein(a) gene: evidence for a regulatory role of the 5' distal apolipoprotein(a) transcription control region enhancer in yeast artificial chromosome transgenic mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003; 23:1633-9. [PMID: 12842837 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.0000084637.01883.ca] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The apolipoprotein(a) [apo(a)] gene locus is the major determinant of the circulating concentration of the atherothrombogenic lipoprotein Lp(a). In vitro analysis of the intergenic region between the apo(a) and plasminogen genes revealed the presence of a putative apo(a) transcription control region (ACR) approximately 20 kb upstream of the apo(a) gene that significantly increases the minimal promoter activity of the human apo(a) gene. METHODS AND RESULTS To examine the function of the ACR in its natural genomic context, we used the Cre-loxP recombination system to generate 2 nearly identical apo(a)-yeast artificial chromosome transgenic mouse lines that possess a single integration site for the human apo(a) transgene in the mouse genome but differ by the presence or absence of the ACR enhancer. Analysis of the 2 groups of animals revealed that the deletion of the ACR was associated with 30% reduction in plasma and mRNA apo(a) levels. Apo(a)-yeast artificial chromosome transgenic mice with and without the ACR sequence were similar in all other aspects of apo(a) regulation, including liver-specific apo(a) expression and alteration in expression levels in response to sexual maturation and a high-fat diet. CONCLUSIONS This study provides the first experimental in vivo evidence for a functional role of the ACR enhancer in determining levels of apo(a) expression.
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MESH Headings
- 5' Untranslated Regions/genetics
- 5' Untranslated Regions/physiology
- Animals
- Apolipoproteins A/genetics
- Blastocyst/chemistry
- Blastocyst/metabolism
- Chimera
- Chromosomes, Artificial, Yeast/genetics
- Diet, Atherogenic
- Dietary Fats/pharmacology
- Enhancer Elements, Genetic/drug effects
- Enhancer Elements, Genetic/physiology
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Gene Expression Regulation/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation/physiology
- Gene Transfer Techniques
- Humans
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic/genetics
- Organ Specificity/genetics
- Promoter Regions, Genetic/genetics
- Transcription, Genetic/genetics
- Transcription, Genetic/physiology
- Transgenes/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Huby
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, INSERM Unit 551, Dyslipemias and Atherosclerosis: Genetics, Metabolism and Therapeutics, Hôpital de la Pitié, Paris, France.
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