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Van Stappen C, Deng Y, Liu Y, Heidari H, Wang JX, Zhou Y, Ledray AP, Lu Y. Designing Artificial Metalloenzymes by Tuning of the Environment beyond the Primary Coordination Sphere. Chem Rev 2022; 122:11974-12045. [PMID: 35816578 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Metalloenzymes catalyze a variety of reactions using a limited number of natural amino acids and metallocofactors. Therefore, the environment beyond the primary coordination sphere must play an important role in both conferring and tuning their phenomenal catalytic properties, enabling active sites with otherwise similar primary coordination environments to perform a diverse array of biological functions. However, since the interactions beyond the primary coordination sphere are numerous and weak, it has been difficult to pinpoint structural features responsible for the tuning of activities of native enzymes. Designing artificial metalloenzymes (ArMs) offers an excellent basis to elucidate the roles of these interactions and to further develop practical biological catalysts. In this review, we highlight how the secondary coordination spheres of ArMs influence metal binding and catalysis, with particular focus on the use of native protein scaffolds as templates for the design of ArMs by either rational design aided by computational modeling, directed evolution, or a combination of both approaches. In describing successes in designing heme, nonheme Fe, and Cu metalloenzymes, heteronuclear metalloenzymes containing heme, and those ArMs containing other metal centers (including those with non-native metal ions and metallocofactors), we have summarized insights gained on how careful controls of the interactions in the secondary coordination sphere, including hydrophobic and hydrogen bonding interactions, allow the generation and tuning of these respective systems to approach, rival, and, in a few cases, exceed those of native enzymes. We have also provided an outlook on the remaining challenges in the field and future directions that will allow for a deeper understanding of the secondary coordination sphere a deeper understanding of the secondary coordintion sphere to be gained, and in turn to guide the design of a broader and more efficient variety of ArMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey Van Stappen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at Austin, 105 East 24th Street, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Yunling Deng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at Austin, 105 East 24th Street, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Yiwei Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 505 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Hirbod Heidari
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at Austin, 105 East 24th Street, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Jing-Xiang Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at Austin, 105 East 24th Street, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Yu Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at Austin, 105 East 24th Street, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Aaron P Ledray
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at Austin, 105 East 24th Street, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Yi Lu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at Austin, 105 East 24th Street, Austin, Texas 78712, United States.,Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 505 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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Li F, Tang X, Xu Y, Wang C, Zhang L, Zhang J, Liu J, Li Z, Wang L. Hemoglobin-Catalyzed Synthesis of Indolizines Under Mild Conditions. European J Org Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201901591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fengxi Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; 130023 Changchun P. R. China
| | - Xuyong Tang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; 130023 Changchun P. R. China
| | - Yaning Xu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; 130023 Changchun P. R. China
| | - Chunyu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials; Jilin University; 130023 Changchun P. R. China
| | - Liu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; 130023 Changchun P. R. China
| | - Jiaxin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; 130023 Changchun P. R. China
| | - Jiaxu Liu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; 130023 Changchun P. R. China
| | - Zhengqiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; 130023 Changchun P. R. China
| | - Lei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; 130023 Changchun P. R. China
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Ortiz de Montellano PR. Acetylenes: cytochrome P450 oxidation and mechanism-based enzyme inactivation. Drug Metab Rev 2019; 51:162-177. [PMID: 31203694 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2019.1632891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The oxidation of carbon-carbon triple bonds by cytochrome P450 produces ketene metabolites that are hydrolyzed to acetic acid derivatives or are trapped by nucleophiles. In the special case of 17α-ethynyl sterols, D-ring expansion and de-ethynylation have been observed as competing pathways. The oxidation of acetylenic groups is also associated with mechanism-based inactivation of cytochrome P450 enzymes. One mechanism for this inactivation is reaction of the ketene metabolite with cytochrome P450 residues essential for substrate binding or catalysis. However, in the case of monosubstituted acetylenes, inactivation can also occur by addition of the oxidized acetylenic function to a nitrogen of the heme prosthetic group. This addition reaction is not mediated by the ketene metabolite, but rather occurs during oxygen transfer to the triple bond. In some instances, a detectable intermediate is formed that is most consistent with a ketocarbene-iron heme complex. This complex can progress to the N-alkylated heme or revert back to the unmodified enzyme. The ketocarbene complex may intervene in the formation of all the N-alkyl heme adducts, but is normally too unstable to be detected.
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Jia HY, Zong MH, Zheng GW, Li N. Myoglobin-Catalyzed Efficient In Situ Regeneration of NAD(P)+ and Their Synthetic Biomimetic for Dehydrogenase-Mediated Oxidations. ACS Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.8b04890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Yu Jia
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, 381 Wushan Road, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Min-Hua Zong
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, 381 Wushan Road, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Gao-Wei Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Ning Li
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, 381 Wushan Road, Guangzhou 510640, China
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5
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Li F, Li Z, Tang X, Cao X, Wang C, Li J, Wang L. Hemoglobin: A New Biocatalyst for the Synthesis of 2-substituted Benzoxazoles via
Oxidative Cyclization. ChemCatChem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201801760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fengxi Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; Changchun 130023 P. R. China
| | - Zhengqiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; Changchun 130023 P. R. China
| | - Xuyong Tang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; Changchun 130023 P. R. China
| | - Xinyu Cao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; Changchun 130023 P. R. China
| | - Chunyu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials; Jilin University; Changchun 130023 P. R. China
| | - Jialin Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; Changchun 130023 P. R. China
| | - Lei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences; Jilin University; Changchun 130023 P. R. China
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Gu C, Lewis RJ, Wells AS, Svensson PH, Hosagrahara VP, Johnsson E, Hallström G. Lipid Peroxide-Mediated Oxidative Rearrangement of the Pyrazinone Carboxamide Core of Neutrophil Elastase Inhibitor AZD9819 in Blood Plasma Samples. Drug Metab Dispos 2015. [PMID: 26203069 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.115.065136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
This study focused on the mechanistic interpretation of ex vivo oxidation of a candidate drug in blood plasma samples. An unexpected lipid peroxide-mediated epoxidation followed by a dramatic rearrangement led to production of a five-membered oxazole derivative from the original six-membered pyrazinone-carboxamide core of a human neutrophil elastase inhibitor, 6-(1-(4-cyanophenyl)-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-N-ethyl-5-methyl-3-oxo-4-(3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-3,4-dihydropyrazine-2-carboxamide (AZD9819). The rearranged oxidation product 2-(1-(4-cyanophenyl)-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-5-(N-ethylacetamido)-N-(3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)oxazole-4-carboxamide was characterized by accurate-mass tandem mass spectrometry fragmentations, by two-dimensional NMR and X-ray crystallography of an authentic standard, and by incorporation of an (18)O atom from molecular (18)O2 to the location predicted by our proposed mechanism. The lipid peroxide-mediated oxidation was demonstrated by using human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in pH 7.4 phosphate buffer and by inhibiting the oxidation with ascorbic acid or l-glutathione, two antioxidants effective in both plasma and the LDL incubation. A nucleophilic mechanism for the epoxidation of AZD9819 by lipid hydroperoxides explains the prevention of its ex vivo oxidation by acidification of the plasma samples. The discovery of the lipid peroxide-dependent oxidation of an analyte and the means of prevention could provide valuable information for biotransformation and bioanalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chungang Gu
- AstraZeneca, R&D Boston, Waltham, Massachusetts (C.G., V.P.H.); AstraZeneca, R&D Mölndal, Mölndal, Sweden (R.J.L., E.J.); AstraZeneca, R&D Charnwood, Loughborough, United Kingdom (R.J.L., A.S.W.); AstraZeneca, R&D Södertälje, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S); AstraZeneca, R&D Wilmington, Wilmington, Delaware (C.G.); AstraZeneca, R&D Lund, Lund, Sweden (E.J., G.H.); SP Process Development, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S.); and Applied Physical Chemistry, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden (P.H.S.)
| | - Richard J Lewis
- AstraZeneca, R&D Boston, Waltham, Massachusetts (C.G., V.P.H.); AstraZeneca, R&D Mölndal, Mölndal, Sweden (R.J.L., E.J.); AstraZeneca, R&D Charnwood, Loughborough, United Kingdom (R.J.L., A.S.W.); AstraZeneca, R&D Södertälje, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S); AstraZeneca, R&D Wilmington, Wilmington, Delaware (C.G.); AstraZeneca, R&D Lund, Lund, Sweden (E.J., G.H.); SP Process Development, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S.); and Applied Physical Chemistry, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden (P.H.S.)
| | - Andrew S Wells
- AstraZeneca, R&D Boston, Waltham, Massachusetts (C.G., V.P.H.); AstraZeneca, R&D Mölndal, Mölndal, Sweden (R.J.L., E.J.); AstraZeneca, R&D Charnwood, Loughborough, United Kingdom (R.J.L., A.S.W.); AstraZeneca, R&D Södertälje, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S); AstraZeneca, R&D Wilmington, Wilmington, Delaware (C.G.); AstraZeneca, R&D Lund, Lund, Sweden (E.J., G.H.); SP Process Development, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S.); and Applied Physical Chemistry, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden (P.H.S.)
| | - Per H Svensson
- AstraZeneca, R&D Boston, Waltham, Massachusetts (C.G., V.P.H.); AstraZeneca, R&D Mölndal, Mölndal, Sweden (R.J.L., E.J.); AstraZeneca, R&D Charnwood, Loughborough, United Kingdom (R.J.L., A.S.W.); AstraZeneca, R&D Södertälje, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S); AstraZeneca, R&D Wilmington, Wilmington, Delaware (C.G.); AstraZeneca, R&D Lund, Lund, Sweden (E.J., G.H.); SP Process Development, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S.); and Applied Physical Chemistry, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden (P.H.S.)
| | - Vinayak P Hosagrahara
- AstraZeneca, R&D Boston, Waltham, Massachusetts (C.G., V.P.H.); AstraZeneca, R&D Mölndal, Mölndal, Sweden (R.J.L., E.J.); AstraZeneca, R&D Charnwood, Loughborough, United Kingdom (R.J.L., A.S.W.); AstraZeneca, R&D Södertälje, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S); AstraZeneca, R&D Wilmington, Wilmington, Delaware (C.G.); AstraZeneca, R&D Lund, Lund, Sweden (E.J., G.H.); SP Process Development, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S.); and Applied Physical Chemistry, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden (P.H.S.)
| | - Eskil Johnsson
- AstraZeneca, R&D Boston, Waltham, Massachusetts (C.G., V.P.H.); AstraZeneca, R&D Mölndal, Mölndal, Sweden (R.J.L., E.J.); AstraZeneca, R&D Charnwood, Loughborough, United Kingdom (R.J.L., A.S.W.); AstraZeneca, R&D Södertälje, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S); AstraZeneca, R&D Wilmington, Wilmington, Delaware (C.G.); AstraZeneca, R&D Lund, Lund, Sweden (E.J., G.H.); SP Process Development, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S.); and Applied Physical Chemistry, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden (P.H.S.)
| | - Gösta Hallström
- AstraZeneca, R&D Boston, Waltham, Massachusetts (C.G., V.P.H.); AstraZeneca, R&D Mölndal, Mölndal, Sweden (R.J.L., E.J.); AstraZeneca, R&D Charnwood, Loughborough, United Kingdom (R.J.L., A.S.W.); AstraZeneca, R&D Södertälje, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S); AstraZeneca, R&D Wilmington, Wilmington, Delaware (C.G.); AstraZeneca, R&D Lund, Lund, Sweden (E.J., G.H.); SP Process Development, Södertälje, Sweden (P.H.S.); and Applied Physical Chemistry, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden (P.H.S.)
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Nicolis S, Monzani E, Pezzella A, Ascenzi P, Sbardella D, Casella L. Neuroglobin Modification by Reactive Quinone Species. Chem Res Toxicol 2013; 26:1821-31. [DOI: 10.1021/tx4001896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Nicolis
- Dipartimento
di Chimica, Università di Pavia, Via Taramelli 12, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Enrico Monzani
- Dipartimento
di Chimica, Università di Pavia, Via Taramelli 12, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Alessandro Pezzella
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Chimiche, Università di Napoli ‘Federico II’, Via Cintia 4, 80126 Napoli, Italy
| | - Paolo Ascenzi
- Laboratorio
Interdipartimentale di Microscopia Elettronica, Università Roma Tre, Via della Vasca Navale 79, 00146 Roma, Italy
| | - Diego Sbardella
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Cliniche e Medicina Traslazionale, Università di Roma ‘Tor Vergata’, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Roma, Italy
- Consorzio Interuniversitario per la Ricerca sulla Chimica dei Metalli nei Sistemi Biologici, Via C. Ulpiani
27, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Luigi Casella
- Dipartimento
di Chimica, Università di Pavia, Via Taramelli 12, 27100 Pavia, Italy
- Consorzio Interuniversitario per la Ricerca sulla Chimica dei Metalli nei Sistemi Biologici, Via C. Ulpiani
27, 70126 Bari, Italy
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8
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Fernandez E, Larsson JT, McLean KJ, Munro AW, Gorton L, von Wachenfeldt C, Ferapontova EE. Electron transfer reactions, cyanide and O2 binding of truncated hemoglobin from Bacillus subtilis. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Pérez-Prior MT, Gómez-Bombarelli R, González-Sánchez MI, Valero E. Biocatalytic oxidation of phenolic compounds by bovine methemoglobin in the presence of H2O2: quantitative structure-activity relationships. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2012; 241-242:207-215. [PMID: 23040314 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2012] [Revised: 09/04/2012] [Accepted: 09/14/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In the present work, 13 p-substituted phenols with different functional groups have been systematically evaluated as metHb substrates by means of HPLC analysis. Non-hyperbolic kinetics were observed and Hill coefficients in the 0.37-1.00 range were obtained. The catalytic constants and the Hill coefficients were found to be quantitatively correlated with two independent variables: the energy level of the highest-occupied molecular orbital (E(HOMO)), which describes the intrinsic redox activity of the substrates and the pK(a)-values, which are related to substrate ionization. Oxygen evolution in the presence of each phenol derivative was also measured, and good correlation between peroxidase-like and catalase-like activities of the protein was observed. It is also shown that bovine metHb, although less active than other peroxidases, may represent a good alternative from an economical point of view for phenol removal processes. The equations here obtained may serve as a basis to further explore the potential use of metHb-mediated reactions in the treatment of phenols in wastewaters and to predict which phenol will be removed most efficiently under this treatment with satisfactory reliability.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Teresa Pérez-Prior
- Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario, E-02071 Albacete, Spain.
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Salvolini E, Vignini A, Nanetti L, Raffaelli F, Di Primio R, Mazzanti L, Tranquilli AL. Glutamatein vitroeffects on human term placental mitochondria. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2012; 25:952-6. [PMID: 21740324 DOI: 10.3109/14767058.2011.601363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Oxidative stress may affect the functionality of placental mitochondria, thus contributing to serious complications. For this reason research of protective substances is of great importance. Our aim was to evaluate, in mitochondria isolated from human term placentas, the effect of in vitro glutamate supplementation on their susceptibility to oxidation, on the chemico-physical characteristics of mitochondrial membranes, and on peroxidase and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activities. METHODS The study was performed on mitochondria isolated from 20 healthy human term placentas. Specific exclusion criteria were: conception by assisted reproduction, chromosomal or other fetal, uterine or placental anomalies, gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), a history of smoking and hypertension, proteinuria, renal, cardiovascular, hepatic, and endocrine disease, metabolic disorders, and current infection or history of all types of infection. RESULTS Incubation with glutamate determined a reduced susceptibility to oxidative stress, an increase in mitochondrial membrane fluidity, and a decrease of both peroxidase and NOS activities. CONCLUSIONS On the basis of the observed results, we can hypothesize a role for glutamate in the control of lipid peroxidation extent in physiological pregnancies, as well as in the prevention of free radical-linked complications that can affect the health of both mother and fetus.
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Ueno T, Ohki T, Watanabe Y. Molecular engineering of cytochrome P450 and myoglobin for selective oxygenations. J PORPHYR PHTHALOCYA 2012. [DOI: 10.1142/s108842460400026x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Aspects of protein engineering of cytochrome P450 (P450) and myoglobin ( Mb ) to construct selective oxygenation catalysts have been described. Heme enzymes are known as biocatalysts for various oxidations but the design of substrate specificity has still remained one of the significant challenges because of dynamic nature of enzyme-substrate interactions. In particular, P450s are the most interesting targets among the heme enzymes because they are able to catalyze many types of monooxygenations such as hydroxylation, epoxidation, and sulfoxidation with high selectivity. Thus, many researchers have made efforts to convert the selectivity for natural substrates into that for unnatural substrates by several protein engineering approaches. On the other hand, we have reported a rational design of Mb to convert its oxygen carrier function into that of peroxidase or peroxygenase. The Mb mutants prepared in our work afford oxo-ferryl porphyrin radical cation (compound I) as observable species in Mb for the first time. Furthermore, some of the mutants we have constructed are useful for enantioselective oxygenations by oxygen transfer from the Mb -compound I to substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takafumi Ueno
- Research Center for Materials Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Chikusa, Nagoya 464-8602, Japan
| | - Takahiro Ohki
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Chikusa, Nagoya 464-8602, Japan
| | - Yoshihito Watanabe
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Chikusa, Nagoya 464-8602, Japan
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Catalase-like activity of human methemoglobin: A kinetic and mechanistic study. Arch Biochem Biophys 2011; 516:10-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2011.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2011] [Revised: 08/23/2011] [Accepted: 09/13/2011] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Moreno JA, Martín-Cleary C, Gutiérrez E, Toldos O, Blanco-Colio LM, Praga M, Ortiz A, Egido J. AKI Associated with Macroscopic Glomerular Hematuria: Clinical and Pathophysiologic Consequences. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2011; 7:175-84. [DOI: 10.2215/cjn.01970211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Boutaud O, Roberts LJ. Mechanism-based therapeutic approaches to rhabdomyolysis-induced renal failure. Free Radic Biol Med 2011; 51:1062-7. [PMID: 21034813 PMCID: PMC3116013 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2010.10.704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2010] [Revised: 10/18/2010] [Accepted: 10/19/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Rhabdomyolysis-induced renal failure represents up to 15% of all cases of acute renal failure. Many studies over the past 4 decades have demonstrated that accumulation of myoglobin in the kidney is central in the mechanism leading to kidney injury. However, some discussion exists regarding the mechanism mediating this oxidant injury. Although the free-iron-catalyzed Fenton reaction has been proposed to explain the tissue injury, more recent evidence strongly suggests that the main cause of oxidant injury is myoglobin redox cycling and generation of oxidized lipids. These molecules can propagate tissue injury and cause renal vasoconstriction, two of the three main conditions associated with acute renal failure. This review presents the evidence supporting the two mechanisms of oxidative injury, describes the central role of myoglobin redox cycling in the pathology of renal failure associated with rhabdomyolysis, and discusses the value of therapeutic interventions aiming at inhibiting myoglobin redox cycling for the treatment of rhabdomyolysis-induced renal failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Boutaud
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
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Nagao S, Asami O, Yasui H, Hirota S. Efficient reduction of Cys110 thiyl radical by glutathione in human myoglobin. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2011; 1814:480-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2010] [Revised: 12/28/2010] [Accepted: 01/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Peng HP, Liang RP, Qiu JD. Facile synthesis of Fe(3)O(4)@Al(2)O(3) core-shell nanoparticles and their application to the highly specific capture of heme proteins for direct electrochemistry. Biosens Bioelectron 2010; 26:3005-11. [PMID: 21185712 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2010.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2010] [Revised: 12/01/2010] [Accepted: 12/01/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
In this study, magnetic core-shell Fe(3)O(4)@Al(2)O(3) nanoparticles (NPs) attached to the surface of a magnetic glassy carbon electrode (MGCE) were used as a functional interface to immobilize several heme proteins including hemoglobin (Hb), myoglobin (Mb) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) for fabricating protein/Fe(3)O(4)@Al(2)O(3) film. Transmission electron microscope, UV-vis spectroscopy, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry were used to characterize the films. With the advantages of the magnetism and the excellent biocompatibility of the Fe(3)O(4)@Al(2)O(3) NPs, the protein/Fe(3)O(4)@Al(2)O(3) film could be easily fabricated in the present of external magnetic field, and well retained the bioactivity of the immobilized proteins, hence dramatically facilitated direct electron transfer of heme proteins and excellent electrocatalytic behaviors towards H(2)O(2) were demonstrated. The presented system avoids the complex synthesis for protecting Fe(3)O(4) NPs, supplies a facile, low cost and universal way to immobilize proteins, and is promising for construction of third-generation biosensors and other bio-magnetic induction devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua-Ping Peng
- Department of Chemistry and Institute for Advanced Study, Nanchang University, Xue Fu Da Dao 999, Nanchang 330031, China
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18
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Zhao X, Mai Z, Dai Z, Zou X. Electrochemically Monitoring the Acid and Acidic Urea-Induced Unfolding of Hemoglobin and Its Electrocatalytic Ability. ELECTROANAL 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201000113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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19
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Guto P, Kamau G. Electrochemical Characterization of Myoglobin-Polylysine Films at a Temperature Range of 6-80 °C. ELECTROANAL 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.200900463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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20
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González-Sánchez MI, Manjabacas MC, García-Carmona F, Valero E. Mechanism of acetaminophen oxidation by the peroxidase-like activity of methemoglobin. Chem Res Toxicol 2010; 22:1841-50. [PMID: 19821601 DOI: 10.1021/tx9002512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Oxidation of acetaminophen by human methemoglobin in the presence of H(2)O(2) has been kinetically studied in the present paper. The drug showed a protective effect against the H(2)O(2)-induced irreversible inactivation of the protein, thus indicating the competition among both ligands, H(2)O(2) and acetaminophen for the protein. The stoichiometry of the reaction is variable and depends on relative initial concentrations of H(2)O(2) and the drug owing to their competitive behavior. In addition and unexpectedly, the protein exhibits non Michaelian kinetics against both acetaminophen and H(2)O(2) under steady-state conditions and shows negative co-operativity with Hill coefficients in the 0.3-0.7 range. Therefore, these data were compared to those obtained with myoglobin under similar experimental conditions, and the same results were observed. This led us to propose a mechanism for the peroxidase-like activity of hemoglobin, which accounts for the experimental results obtained herein. The steady-state rate equation for this mechanism has been obtained and is also consistent with the experimental data, thus indicating the goodness of the model proposed herein. The results presented in this work provide new insights into the oxidation mechanism of acetaminophen.
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Affiliation(s)
- María I González-Sánchez
- Department of Physical Chemistry and Department of Applied Mechanics and Project Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario, E-02071-Albacete, Spain
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21
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Acetaminophen inhibits hemoprotein-catalyzed lipid peroxidation and attenuates rhabdomyolysis-induced renal failure. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:2699-704. [PMID: 20133658 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0910174107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemoproteins, hemoglobin and myoglobin, once released from cells can cause severe oxidative damage as a consequence of heme redox cycling between ferric and ferryl states that generates radical species that induce lipid peroxidation. We demonstrate in vitro that acetaminophen inhibits hemoprotein-induced lipid peroxidation by reducing ferryl heme to its ferric state and quenching globin radicals. Severe muscle injury (rhabdomyolysis) is accompanied by the release of myoglobin that becomes deposited in the kidney, causing renal injury. We previously showed in a rat model of rhabdomyolysis that redox cycling between ferric and ferryl myoglobin yields radical species that cause severe oxidative damage to the kidney. In this model, acetaminophen at therapeutic plasma concentrations significantly decreased oxidant injury in the kidney, improved renal function, and reduced renal damage. These findings also provide a hypothesis for potential therapeutic applications for acetaminophen in diseases involving hemoprotein-mediated oxidative injury.
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22
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Laveille P, Falcimaigne A, Chamouleau F, Renard G, Drone J, Fajula F, Pulvin S, Thomas D, Bailly C, Galarneau A. Hemoglobin immobilized on mesoporous silica as effective material for the removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pollutants from water. NEW J CHEM 2010. [DOI: 10.1039/c0nj00161a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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23
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Protein electrodes with direct electrochemical communication. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2008; 109:19-64. [PMID: 17928972 DOI: 10.1007/10_2007_083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/07/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemistry using direct electron transfer between an electrode and a protein or an enzyme has developed into a means for studying biological redox reactions and for bioanalytics, biosynthesis and bioenergetics. This review summarizes recent work on direct protein electrochemistry with special emphasis on our results in bioelectrocatalysis using isolated enzymes and enzyme-protein couples.
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24
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Yoshiki Y, Iida T, Okubo K, Kanazawa T. Chemiluminescence of Hemoglobin and Identification of Related Compounds with the Hemoglobin Chemiluminescence in Plasma¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2001)0730545cohaio2.0.co2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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25
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Krishnan S, Hvastkovs EG, Bajrami B, Jansson I, Schenkman JB, Rusling JF. Genotoxicity screening for N-nitroso compounds. Electrochemical and electrochemiluminescent detection of human enzyme-generated DNA damage from N-nitrosopyrrolidine. Chem Commun (Camb) 2007:1713-5. [PMID: 17457417 DOI: 10.1039/b703012f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We report for the first time voltammetric/electrochemiluminescent sensors applied to predict genotoxicity of N-nitroso compounds bioactivated by human cytochrome P450 enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadagopan Krishnan
- Department of Chemistry (U-60), 55 N. Eagleville Rd., University of Connecticut, Connecticut, USA
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26
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27
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Jiang H. Erythrocyte-derived epoxyeicosatrienoic acids. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 2006; 82:4-10. [PMID: 17164127 DOI: 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2006.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2006] [Revised: 05/16/2006] [Accepted: 05/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Red blood cells (RBCs) are reservoirs for cis- and trans-epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) that can be released. The sources of EET release from RBCs include direct synthesis from arachidonic acid, peroxidation of phospholipids and EETs esterified into cellular phospholipids. The release of EETs from RBCs can be through cytosolic phospholipase A2 (PLA2), secretory PLA2 and other responses associated with ATP release from RBCs. The erythrocyte ATP, purinergic receptors, ATP-binding cassette transporters, PLA2 and cytoskeleton rearrangement may all participate in EET release in the microcirculatory deformation of RBCs. EETs are vasodilatory and are candidate endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factors. Due to the anti-hypertensive, fibrinolytic, and anti-thrombotic properties of EETs, their release from RBCs is replete with implications for the control of circulation and rheological characteristics of the circulating blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houli Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, New York 10595, USA.
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28
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Mugweru A, Rusling J. Studies of DNA Damage Inhibition by Dietary Antioxidants Using Metallopolyion/DNA Sensors. ELECTROANAL 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.200503414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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29
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Tan WB, Cheng W, Webber A, Bhambhani A, Duff MR, Kumar CV, McLendon GL. Endonuclease-like activity of heme proteins. J Biol Inorg Chem 2005; 10:790-9. [PMID: 16208493 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-005-0028-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2005] [Accepted: 08/26/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Heme proteins, metmyoglobin, methemoglobin, and metcytochrome c showed unusual affinity for double-stranded DNA. Calorimetric studies show that binding of methemoglobin to calf thymus DNA (CTDNA) is weakly endothermic, and the binding constant is 4.9+/-0.7x10(5) M(-1). The Soret absorption bands of the heme proteins remained unchanged, in the presence of excess CTDNA, but a new circular dichroic band appeared at 210 nm. Helix melting studies indicated that the protein-DNA mixture denatures at a lower temperature than the individual components. Thermograms obtained by differential scanning calorimetry of the mixture indicated two distinct transitions, which are comparable to the thermograms obtained for individual components, but there was a reduction in the excess heat capacity. Activation of heme proteins by hydrogen peroxide resulted in the formation of high valent Fe(IV) oxo intermediates, and CTDNA reacted rapidly under these conditions. The rate was first-order in DNA concentration, and this reactivity resulted in DNA strand cleavage. Upon activation with hydrogen peroxide, for example, the heme proteins converted the supercoiled pUC18 DNA into nicked circular and linear DNA. No reaction occurred in the absence of the heme protein, or hydrogen peroxide. These data clearly indicate a novel property of several heme proteins, and this is first report of the endonuclease-like activity of the heme proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willy B Tan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-3060, USA
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30
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Jiang H, Quilley J, Reddy LM, Falck JR, Wong PYK, McGiff JC. Red blood cells: reservoirs of cis- and trans-epoxyeicosatrienoic acids. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 2005; 75:65-78. [PMID: 15789616 DOI: 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2004.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) are candidate endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factors that demonstrate a wide range of biological effects. The presence of both cis- and trans-EETs in rat plasma was identified with HPLC-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry in this study. The total EETs in plasma are 38.2 ng/ml with cis-EETs representing 21.4 +/- 0.4 ng/ml and trans-EETs 16.8 +/- 0.4 ng/ml. EETs in RBCs were estimated to be 20.2 ng/10(9) RBCs, which corresponds to 200 ng in RBCs contained in 1 ml blood. RBC incubation with 10 mM tert-butyl hydroperoxide resulted in 4.4-fold increase of total cis-EETs (from 9.2 to 40.2 ng/10(9) RBCs) and 5.5-fold increase of total trans-EETs (from 11.0 to 60.8 ng/10(9) RBCs). EETs were released (2 ng/ml) from RBCs after incubation at 37 degrees C for 10 min even after being washed 3 times, indicating that RBCs are reservoirs of plasma EETs. The identification of cis- and trans-EETs in RBCs and in plasma as well as their release from RBCs suggest a vasoregulatory role of RBCs in view of their potent vasoactivity.
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MESH Headings
- 8,11,14-Eicosatrienoic Acid/analogs & derivatives
- 8,11,14-Eicosatrienoic Acid/blood
- 8,11,14-Eicosatrienoic Acid/chemistry
- Animals
- Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid
- Erythrocytes/chemistry
- Lipid Peroxidation
- Male
- Phospholipids/blood
- Phospholipids/isolation & purification
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Spectrometry, Mass, Electrospray Ionization
- Stereoisomerism
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Affiliation(s)
- Houli Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA.
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31
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Goldstein S, Samuni A. Intra- and intermolecular oxidation of oxymyoglobin and oxyhemoglobin induced by hydroxyl and carbonate radicals. Free Radic Biol Med 2005; 39:511-9. [PMID: 16043022 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2005.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2005] [Revised: 04/03/2005] [Accepted: 04/04/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism of the reactions of myoglobin and hemoglobin with *OH and CO3*- in the presence of oxygen was studied using pulse and gamma-radiolysis. Unlike *NO2, which adds to the porphyrin iron, *OH and CO3*- form globin radicals. These secondary radicals oxidize the Fe(II) center through both intra- and intermolecular processes. The intermolecular pathway was further demonstrated when BSA radicals derived from *OH or CO3*- oxidized oxyhemoglobin and oxymyoglobin to their respective ferric states. The oxidation yields obtained by pulse radiolysis were lower compared to gamma-radiolysis, where the contribution of radical-radical reactions is negligible. Full oxidation yields by *OH-derived globin radicals could be achieved only at relatively high concentrations of the heme protein mainly via an intermolecular pathway. It is suggested that CO3*- reaction with the protein yields Tyr and/or Trp-derived phenoxyl radicals, which solely oxidize the porphyrin iron under gamma-radiolysis conditions. The *OH particularly adds to aromatic residues, which can undergo elimination of H2O forming the phenoxyl radical, and/or react rapidly with O2 yielding peroxyl radicals. The peroxyl radical can oxidize a neighboring porphyrin iron and/or give rise to superoxide, which neither oxidize nor reduce the porphyrin iron. The potential physiological implications of this chemistry are that hemoglobin and myoglobin, being present at relatively high concentrations, can detoxify highly oxidizing radicals yielding the respective ferric states, which are not toxic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Goldstein
- Department of Physical Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel.
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32
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Nuthakki B, Rusling JF. Electrochemical catalysis by crosslinked films of cobalt reconstituted myoglobin and poly(l-lysine) in a bicontinuous microemulsion. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2005.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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33
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Svistunenko DA. Reaction of haem containing proteins and enzymes with hydroperoxides: The radical view. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOENERGETICS 2005; 1707:127-55. [PMID: 15721611 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2005.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2004] [Revised: 01/12/2005] [Accepted: 01/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The reaction between hydroperoxides and the haem group of proteins and enzymes is important for the function of many enzymes but has also been implicated in a number of pathological conditions where oxygen binding proteins interact with hydrogen peroxide or other peroxides. The haem group in the oxidized Fe3+ (ferric) state reacts with hydroperoxides with a formation of the Fe4+=O (oxoferryl) haem state and a free radical primarily located on the pi-system of the haem. The radical is then transferred to an amino acid residue of the protein and undergoes further transfer and transformation processes. The free radicals formed in this reaction are reviewed for a number of proteins and enzymes. Their previously published EPR spectra are analysed in a comparative way. The radicals directly detected in most systems are tyrosyl radicals and the peroxyl radicals formed on tryptophan and possibly cysteine. The locations of the radicals in the proteins have been reported as follows: Tyr133 in soybean leghaemoglobin; alphaTyr42, alphaTrp14, betaTrp15, betaCys93, (alphaTyr24-alphaHis20), all in the alpha- and beta-subunits of human haemoglobin; Tyr103, Tyr151 and Trp14 in sperm whale myoglobin; Tyr103, Tyr146 and Trp14 in horse myoglobin; Trp14, Tyr103 and Cys110 in human Mb. The sequence of events leading to radical formation, transformation and transfer, both intra- and intermolecularly, is considered. The free radicals induced by peroxides in the enzymes are reviewed. Those include: lignin peroxidase, cytochrome c peroxidase, cytochrome c oxidase, turnip isoperoxidase 7, bovine catalase, two isoforms of prostaglandin H synthase, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Synechocystis PCC6803 catalase-peroxidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitri A Svistunenko
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester, Essex CO4 3SQ, United Kingdom.
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34
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Identification of intermediate and product from methemoglobin-catalyzed oxidation of o-phenylenediamine in two-phase aqueous—organic system. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/pl00021766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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35
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Identification of intermediate and product from methemoglobin-catalyzed oxidation of o-phenylenediamine in two-phase aqueous?organic system. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/s10541-005-0056-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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36
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Wollenberger U. Chapter 2 Third generation biosensors—integrating recognition and transduction in electrochemical sensors. BIOSENSORS AND MODERN BIOSPECIFIC ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s0166-526x(05)44002-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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37
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Kato S, Ueno T, Fukuzumi S, Watanabe Y. Catalase Reaction by Myoglobin Mutants and Native Catalase. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:52376-81. [PMID: 15347658 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m403532200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The catalase reaction has been studied in detail by using myoglobin (Mb) mutants. Compound I of Mb mutants (Mb-I), a ferryl species (Fe(IV)=O) paired with a porphyrin radical cation, is readily prepared by the reaction with a nearly stoichiometric amount of m-chloroperbenzoic acid. Upon the addition of H2O2 to an Mb-I solution, Mb-I is reduced back to the ferric state without forming any intermediates. This indicates that Mb-I is capable of performing two-electron oxidation of H2O2 (catalatic reaction). Gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy analysis of the evolved O2 from a 50:50 mixture of H2(18)O2/H2(16)O2 solution containing H64D or F43H/H64L Mb showed the formation of 18O2 (m/e = 36) and 16O2 (m/e = 32) but not 16O18O (m/e = 34). This implies that O2 is formed by two-electron oxidation of H2O2 without breaking the O-O bond. Deuterium isotope effects on the catalatic reactions of Mb mutants and catalase suggest that the catalatic reactions of Micrococcus lysodeikticus catalase and F43H/H64L Mb proceed via an ionic mechanism with a small isotope effect of less than 4.0, since the distal histidine residue is located at a proper position to act as a general acid-base catalyst for the ionic reaction. In contrast, other Mb mutants such as H64X (X is Ala, Ser, and Asp) and L29H/H64L Mb oxidize H2O2 via a radical mechanism in which a hydrogen atom is abstracted by Mb-I with a large isotope effect in a range of 10-29, due to a lack of the general acid-base catalyst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeru Kato
- Department of Structural Molecule Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
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38
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Reeder BJ, Svistunenko DA, Cooper CE, Wilson MT. The radical and redox chemistry of myoglobin and hemoglobin: from in vitro studies to human pathology. Antioxid Redox Signal 2004; 6:954-66. [PMID: 15548893 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2004.6.954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Recent research has shown that myoglobin and hemoglobin play important roles in the pathology of certain disease states, such as renal dysfunction following rhabdomyolysis and vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhages. These pathologies are linked to the interaction of peroxides with heme proteins to initiate oxidative reactions, including generation of powerful vasoactive molecules (the isoprostanes) from free and membrane- bound lipids. This review focuses on the peroxide-induced formation of radicals, their assignment to specific protein residues, and the pseudoperoxidase and prooxidant activities of the heme proteins. The discovery of heme to protein cross-linked forms of myoglobin and hemoglobin in vivo, definitive markers of the participation of these heme proteins in oxidative reactions, and the recent results from heme oxygenase knockout/knockin animal model studies, indicate that higher oxidation states (ferryl) of heme proteins and their associated radicals play a major role in the mechanisms of pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon J Reeder
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester, Essex, UK.
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39
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Gunther MR. Probing the free radicals formed in the metmyoglobin-hydrogen peroxide reaction. Free Radic Biol Med 2004; 36:1345-54. [PMID: 15135170 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2003] [Revised: 02/09/2004] [Accepted: 02/13/2004] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The reaction between metmyoglobin and hydrogen peroxide results in the two-electron reduction of H2O2 by the protein, with concomitant formation of a ferryl-oxo heme and a protein-centered free radical. Sperm whale metmyoglobin, which contains three tyrosine residues (Tyr-103, Tyr-146, and Tyr-151) and two tryptophan residues (Trp-7 and Trp-14), forms a tryptophanyl radical at residue 14 that reacts with O2 to form a peroxyl radical and also forms distinct tyrosyl radicals at Tyr-103 and Tyr-151. Horse metmyoglobin, which lacks Tyr-151 of the sperm whale protein, forms an oxygen-reactive tryptophanyl radical and also a phenoxyl radical at Tyr-103. Human metmyoglobin, in addition to the tyrosine and tryptophan radicals formed on horse metmyoglobin, also forms a Cys-110-centered thiyl radical that can also form a peroxyl radical. The tryptophanyl radicals react both with molecular oxygen and with the spin trap 3,5-dibromo-4-nitrosobenzenesulfonic acid (DBNBS). The spin trap 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide (DMPO) traps the Tyr-103 radicals and the Cys-110 thiyl radical of human myoglobin, and 2-methyl-2-nitrosopropane (MNP) traps all of the tyrosyl radicals. When excess H2O2 is used, DBNBS traps only a tyrosyl radical on horse myoglobin, but the detection of peroxyl radicals and the loss of tryptophan fluorescence support tryptophan oxidation under those conditions. Kinetic analysis of the formation of the various free radicals suggests that tryptophanyl radical and tyrosyl radical formation are independent events, and that formation of the Cys-110 thiyl radical on human myoglobin occurs via oxidation of the thiol group by the Tyr-103 phenoxyl radical. Peptide mapping studies of the radical adducts and direct EPR studies at low temperature and room temperature support the conclusions of the EPR spin trapping studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Gunther
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA.
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40
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Egawa T, Yoshioka S, Takahashi S, Hori H, Nagano S, Shimada H, Ishimori K, Morishima I, Suematsu M, Ishimura Y. Kinetic and spectroscopic characterization of a hydroperoxy compound in the reaction of native myoglobin with hydrogen peroxide. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:41597-606. [PMID: 12902339 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m210383200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The reaction of metmyoglobin with H2O2 was investigated in a pH range between 8.5 and 6.0 with the aid of stopped flow-rapid scan and rapid freezing-EPR techniques. Singular value decomposition analyses of the stopped flow data at pH 8.5 revealed that a spectral species previously unknown accumulated during the reaction and exhibited a Soret absorption maximum at >/=423 nm. In the EPR experiments, the new species exhibited a set of g values at 2.32, 2.19, and 1.94, indicating that the species was assignable to a ferric hydroperoxy (Fe(III)[O-O-H]-) compound. In contrast, the hydroperoxy compound scarcely accumulated in the reaction at pH 6.0, and the dominant intermediate species accumulated was compound I, which was derived from the oxygen-oxygen bond cleavage of the hydroperoxy compound. The accumulated amount of the hydroperoxy compound relative to compound I showed a pH dependence with an apparent pKa (pKaapp) from 6.95 to 7.27 depending on the metmyoglobins examined. This variation in pKaapp paralleled that in pKa of the acid-alkaline transition (pKaAB) of metmyoglobins, suggesting that the accumulation of hydroperoxy compound is controlled by the distal histidine. We propose that the H2O2 activation by metmyoglobin is promoted at the acidic condition due to the imidazolium form of the distal histidine, and we further propose that the controlled protonation state of the distal histidine is important for the facile O-O bond cleavage in heme peroxidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Egawa
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Keio University, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
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41
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Munge B, Estavillo C, Schenkman JB, Rusling JF. Optimization of electrochemical and peroxide-driven oxidation of styrene with ultrathin polyion films containing cytochrome P450cam and myoglobin. Chembiochem 2003; 4:82-9. [PMID: 12512080 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200390018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The catalytic and electrochemical properties of myoglobin and cytochrome P450(cam) in films constructed with alternate polyion layers were optimized with respect to film thickness, polyion type, and pH. Electrochemical and hydrogen peroxide driven epoxidation of styrene catalyzed by the proteins was used as the test reaction. Ionic synthetic organic polymers such as poly(styrene sulfonate), as opposed to SiO(2) nanoparticles or DNA, supported the best catalytic and electrochemical performance. Charge transport involving the iron heme proteins was achieved over 40-320 nm depending on the polyion material and is likely to involve electron hopping facilitated by extensive interlayer mixing. However, very thin films (ca. 12-25 nm) gave the largest turnover rates for the catalytic epoxidation of styrene, and thicker films were subject to reactant transport limitations. Classical bell-shaped activity/pH profiles and turnover rates similar to those obtained in solution suggest that films grown layer-by-layer are applicable to turnover rate studies of enzymes for organic oxidations. Major advantages include enhanced enzyme stability and the tiny amount of protein required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Munge
- Department of Chemistry, U-60, University of Connecticut Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060, USA
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42
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Abstract
This study investigates the potential role of the ferric/ferryl redox cycle of myoglobin (Mb) in the development of endothelial cell injury. Bovine aortic endothelial cells were incubated with ferric Mb (0.5-100 micro M) in the presence or absence of low steady states of H(2)O(2) (3-4 micro M) generated by glucose oxidase (GOX). The reaction of ferric Mb with H(2)O(2) generated ferryl Mb as monitored spectrophotometrically. Ferryl Mb formation correlated with the induction of apoptosis as indicated by morphological criteria, caspase 3 activation, phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization, and nuclear condensation by Hoechst 33342 staining. The addition of ascorbate or catalase inhibited the formation of ferryl Mb and the onset of apoptosis, whereas apoptosis was enhanced in cells depleted of intracellular glutathione by pretreatment with buthionine sulfoximine. Mb and Mb/GOX suppressed cell cycle progression, but only Mb/GOX produced significant cell loss revealed by the accumulation of sub G1 events. These results suggest a role for the Mb redox cycle in the induction of endothelial cell apoptosis, which may be relevant in the pathophysiology of diseases characterized by the release of Mb from damaged muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felice D'Agnillo
- Division of Hematology, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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43
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Mashima R, Tilley L, Siomos MA, Papalexis V, Raftery MJ, Stocker R. Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein-2 (PfHRP2) modulates the redox activity of ferri-protoporphyrin IX (FePPIX): peroxidase-like activity of the PfHRP2-FePPIX complex. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:14514-20. [PMID: 11859069 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109386200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Histidine-rich protein-2 from Plasmodium falciparum (PfHRP2) binds up to 50 molecules of ferri-protoporphyrin IX (FePPIX) (Choi, C. Y., Cerda, J. F., Chu, H. A., Babcock, G. T., and Marletta, M. A. (1999) Biochemistry 38, 16916-16924). We reasoned that the PfHRP2-FePPIX complex has antioxidant properties that could be beneficial to the parasite. Therefore, we examined whether binding to PfHRP2 modulated the redox properties of FePPIX. We observed that PfHRP2 completely inhibited the auto-oxidation of ascorbate mediated by free FePPIX. We also investigated the peroxidase activity of PfHRP2-FePPIX using 13-hydroperoxy-9,11-octadienoate (18:2-OOH) as substrate. Reaction of PfHRP2-FePPIX with 18:2-OOH in the presence of added reducing agents gave 13-hydroxy-9,11-octadienoate (18:2-OH) as a major product and 13-keto-9,11-octadienoate (18:2=O) and 9,12,13-trihydroxy-10-octadecaenoate as minor products. Binding of FePPIX to PfHRP2 lowered the rate of decomposition of 18:2-OOH and increased the 18:2-OH to 18:2=O ratio. Similar to other authentic peroxidases, phenols, amines, and biological reductants like ascorbate promoted 18:2-OH production, and NaCN inhibited 18:2-OH production. Thioanisole also acted as a reductant and was converted to thioanisole sulfoxide, suggesting formation of compound I during the reaction. These data show that PfHRP2 modulates the redox activity of FePPIX and that the PfHRP2-FePPIX complex may have previously unrecognized antioxidant properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryuichi Mashima
- Biochemistry Group, The Heart Research Institute, 145 Missenden Road, Camperdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia
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44
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Rogers MS, Dooley DM. Posttranslationally modified tyrosines from galactose oxidase and cytochrome c oxidase. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY 2002; 58:387-436. [PMID: 11665492 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3233(01)58009-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M S Rogers
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, USA
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45
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Diederix RE, Ubbink M, Canters GW. The peroxidase activity of cytochrome c-550 from Paracoccus versutus. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 2001; 268:4207-16. [PMID: 11488914 DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.2001.02335.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Next to their natural electron transport capacities, c-type cytochromes possess low peroxidase and cytochrome P-450 activities in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. These catalytic properties, in combination with their structural robustness and covalently bound cofactor make cytochromes c potentially useful peroxidase mimics. This study reports on the peroxidase activity of cytochrome c-550 from Paracoccus versutus and the loss of this activity in presence of H2O2. The rate-determining step in the peroxidase reaction of cytochrome c-550 is the formation of a reactive intermediate, following binding of peroxide to the haem iron. The reaction rate is very low compared to horseradish peroxidase (approximately one millionth), because of the poor accessibility of the haem iron for H2O2, and the lack of a base catalyst such as the distal His of the peroxidases. This is corroborated by the linear dependence of the reaction rate on the peroxide concentration up to at least 1 M H2O2. Steady-state conversion of a reducing substrate, guaiacol, is preceded by an activation phase, which is ascribed to the build-up of amino-acid radicals on the protein. The inactivation kinetics in the absence of reducing substrate are mono-exponential and shown to be concurrent with haem degradation up to 25 mM H2O2 (pH 8.0). At still higher peroxide concentrations, inactivation kinetics are biphasic, as a result of a remarkable protective effect of H2O2, involving the formation of superoxide and ferrocytochrome c-550.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Diederix
- Gorlaeus Laboratories, Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, the Netherlands
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46
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Giulivi C, Davies KJ. Mechanism of the formation and proteolytic release of H2O2-induced dityrosine and tyrosine oxidation products in hemoglobin and red blood cells. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:24129-36. [PMID: 11294851 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m010697200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxyhemoglobin exposed to a continuous flux of H(2)O(2) underwent oxidative modifications, including limited release of fluorescent fragmentation products. The main fragments formed were identified as oxidation products of tyrosine, including dopamine, dopamine quinone, and dihydroxyindol. Further release of these oxidation products plus dityrosine was only seen after proteolytic degradation of the oxidatively modified hemoprotein. A possible mechanism is proposed to explain the formation of these oxidation products that includes cyclization, decarboxylation, and further oxidation of the intermediates. Release of dityrosine is proposed as a useful technique for evaluating selective proteolysis after an oxidative stress, because dityrosine is metabolically stable, and it is only released after enzymatic hydrolysis of the oxidatively modified protein. The measurement can be accomplished by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection or by high efficiency thin layer chromatography. Comparable results, in terms of dityrosine release, were obtained using red blood cells of different sources after exposing them to a flux of H(2)O(2). Furthermore, dityrosine has been reported to occur in a wide variety of oxidatively modified proteins. These observations suggest that dityrosine formation and release can be used as a highly specific marker for protein oxidation and selective proteolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Giulivi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Duluth, Minnesota 55812, USA
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47
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Svistunenko DA. An EPR study of the peroxyl radicals induced by hydrogen peroxide in the haem proteins. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2001; 1546:365-78. [PMID: 11295442 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-4838(01)00157-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The reaction of hydrogen peroxide H(2)O(2) with horse heart metmyoglobin (HH metMb), sperm whale metmyoglobin (SW metMb) and human metHb (metHbA) was studied at pH 6-8 by low temperature (10 K) EPR spectroscopy with the emphasis on the peroxyl radicals formed during the reaction. The same type of peroxyl radical was found in both myoglobin systems, as was concluded from close similarities in the spectroscopic properties of the radicals and in their kinetic dependences. This is consistent with previous reports of the peroxyl radical being localised on the Trp14 of SW and HH myoglobins. There are two types of peroxyl radical found in the metHbA/H(2)O(2) system, one (ROO-I) having spectral parameters, kinetic and pH dependences similar to those of the peroxyl radical found in both myoglobin systems. The other peroxyl radical (ROO-II) found in metHbA treated with H(2)O(2) has slightly different, though distinguishable, spectral parameters and a significantly different kinetic dependence as compared to those of the peroxyl radical common for all three proteins studied (ROO-I). The concentration of ROO-I radical formed in the three proteins on addition of H(2)O(2) correlates with the effectiveness of incorporating molecular oxygen into styrene oxide reported before for these three proteins. It is shown that a different distance from Trp14 to haem iron in the three proteins might be the structural basis for the different yield of the peroxyl radical and the different efficiency of incorporation of molecular oxygen into styrene. The site of the peroxyl radical found only in metHbA (ROO-II) is speculated to be the Trp37 residue of the beta-subunit of HbA.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Svistunenko
- Department of Biological Sciences, Central Campus, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Essex CO4 3SQ, Colchester, UK.
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48
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Yoshiki Y, Iida T, Okubo K, Kanazawa T. Chemiluminescence of Hemoglobin and Identification of Related Compounds with the Hemoglobin Chemiluminescence in Plasma¶. Photochem Photobiol 2001; 73:545-50. [PMID: 11367578 DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2001)073<0545:cohaio>2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A low level of chemiluminescence by hemoglobin (Hb) was detected in the reaction with H2O2 and hydrogen donors such as gallic acid and catechins. The photon intensity was affected by the ferric state of Hb (methemoglobin > oxyhemoglobin), and was roughly correlated with the radical-scavenging potential of catechins. We hypothesized the reversible activation reaction of Hb as the chemiluminescence mechanism of the H2O2/gallic acid/Hb system. It is indicated that the oxidized-Hb (Hb-OOH) formation was a chemiluminescence-rate-determining step and one-electron reduction by a hydrogen donor of the compound-I-type intermediate ([.XFeIV] = O) proved a chemiluminescence-specificity-determining step. Spectral analysis showed that the photon emission from the H2O2/gallic acid/Hb system was produced without singlet oxygen generation. The concentration dependence of photon intensity suggests a high consumption ratio of H2O2 leading to protection from H2O2 toxicity. Albumin was defined as a hydrogen donor by the isolation of chemiluminescent substance in plasma using this chemiluminescence system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Yoshiki
- Department of Environmental Bioremediation, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 1-1 Tsutsumidori Amamiyamachi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 981-8555, Japan.
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49
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WATANABE Y. 人工ヘム酵素の分子設計. ELECTROCHEMISTRY 2000. [DOI: 10.5796/electrochemistry.68.996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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50
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Egawa T, Shimada H, Ishimura Y. Formation of compound I in the reaction of native myoglobins with hydrogen peroxide. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:34858-66. [PMID: 10945982 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m004026200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Reaction of ferric native myoglobin (Mb) with hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) was studied by the aid of stopped-flow rapid-scan spectrophotometry. In contrast to the results in previous studies where compound I was reported to be undetectable, both sperm whale and horse heart metmyoglobins (metMbs) formed a significant quantity of compound I, an oxoferryl porphyrin pi-cation radical (Por(+)-Fe(IV)(O)), during their reactions with H(2)O(2). With both kinds of Mbs, formation of compound I was more clearly observed in D(2)O than in H(2)O. The compound thus formed was capable of performing monooxygenation of thioanisole to methyl phenyl sulfoxide and a 2-electron oxidation of H(2)O(2) giving O(2) and H(2)O as products. It was also converted into ferryl myoglobin (Por-Fe(IV)(O)-globin(+)) spontaneously. Rate constants for these reactions and that for a direct conversion of metMb to ferryl Mb through the homolysis of H(2)O(2) were determined. These results established unambiguously that native metMb can form both compound I and ferryl Mb upon reaction with H(2)O(2) and that these high valent iron compounds serve as essential intermediates in Mb-assisted peroxidative reactions. The observed deuterium effect on the apparent stability of compound I was attributable to that effect on the hydrogen abstraction step in the 2-electron oxidation of H(2)O(2) by compound I.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Egawa
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Keio University, Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan
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