The juvenile microtubule-associated protein MAP2c is a rod-like molecule that forms antiparallel dimers

Structure and Functions of Microtubule Associated Proteins Tau and MAP2c: Similarities and Differences

The stability and dynamics of cytoskeleton in brain nerve cells are regulated by microtubule associated proteins (MAPs), tau and MAP2. Both proteins are intrinsically disordered and involved in multiple molecular interactions important for normal physiology and pathology of chronic neurodegenerative diseases. Nuclear magnetic resonance and cryo-electron microscopy recently revealed propensities of MAPs to form transient local structures and long-range contacts in the free state, and conformations adopted in complexes with microtubules and filamentous actin, as well as in pathological aggregates. In this paper, we compare the longest, 441-residue brain isoform of tau (tau40), and a 467-residue isoform of MAP2, known as MAP2c. For both molecules, we present transient structural motifs revealed by conformational analysis of experimental data obtained for free soluble forms of the proteins. We show that many of the short sequence motifs that exhibit transient structural features are linked to functional properties, manifested by specific interactions. The transient structural motifs can be therefore classified as molecular recognition elements of tau40 and MAP2c. Their interactions are further regulated by post-translational modifications, in particular phosphorylation. The structure-function analysis also explains differences between biological activities of tau40 and MAP2c.

Functionally specific binding regions of microtubule-associated protein 2c exhibit distinct conformations and dynamics

Microtubule-associated protein 2c (MAP2c) is a 49-kDa intrinsically disordered protein regulating the dynamics of microtubules in developing neurons. MAP2c differs from its sequence homologue Tau in the pattern and kinetics of phosphorylation by cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). Moreover, the mechanisms through which MAP2c interacts with its binding partners and the conformational changes and dynamics associated with these interactions remain unclear. Here, we used NMR relaxation and paramagnetic relaxation enhancement techniques to determine the dynamics and long-range interactions within MAP2c. The relaxation rates revealed large differences in flexibility of individual regions of MAP2c, with the lowest flexibility observed in the known and proposed binding sites. Quantitative conformational analyses of chemical shifts, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and paramagnetic relaxation enhancement measurements disclosed that MAP2c regions interacting with important protein partners, including Fyn tyrosine kinase, plectin, and PKA, adopt specific conformations. High populations of polyproline II and α-helices were found in Fyn- and plectin-binding sites of MAP2c, respectively. The region binding the regulatory subunit of PKA consists of two helical motifs bridged by a more extended conformation. Of note, although MAP2c and Tau did not differ substantially in their conformations in regions of high sequence identity, we found that they differ significantly in long-range interactions, dynamics, and local conformation motifs in their N-terminal domains. These results highlight that the N-terminal regions of MAP2c provide important specificity to its regulatory roles and indicate a close relationship between MAP2c's biological functions and conformational behavior.

Efficient protocol for backbone and side-chain assignments of large, intrinsically disordered proteins: transient secondary structure analysis of 49.2 kDa microtubule associated protein 2c

Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) are abundantly present in axons and dendrites, and have been shown to play crucial role during the neuronal morphogenesis. The period of main dendritic outgrowth and synaptogenesis coincides with high expression levels of one of MAPs, the MAP2c, in rats. The MAP2c is a 49.2 kDa intrinsically disordered protein. To achieve an atomic resolution characterization of such a large protein, we have developed a protocol based on the acquisition of two five-dimensional (13)C-directly detected NMR experiments. Our previously published 5D CACONCACO experiment (Nováček et al. in J Biomol NMR 50(1):1-11, 2011) provides the sequential assignment of the backbone resonances, which is not interrupted by the presence of the proline residues in the amino acid sequence. A novel 5D HC(CC-TOCSY)CACON experiment facilitates the assignment of the aliphatic side chain resonances. To streamline the data analysis, we have developed a semi-automated procedure for signal assignments. The obtained data provides the first atomic resolution insight into the conformational state of MAP2c and constitutes a model for further functional studies of MAPs.

MAP2-mediated in vitro interactions of brain microtubules and their modulation by cAMP

Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) are involved in microtubule (MT) bundling and in crossbridges between MTs and other organelles. Previous studies have assigned the MT bundling function of MAPs to their MT-binding domain and its modulation by the projection domain. In the present work, we analyse the viscoelastic properties of MT suspensions in the presence or the absence of cAMP. The experimental data reveal the occurrence of interactions between MT polymers involving MAP2 and modulated by cAMP. Two distinct mechanisms of action of cAMP are identified, which involve on one hand the phosphorylation of MT proteins by the cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) bound to the end of the N-terminal projection of MAP2, and on the other hand the binding of cAMP to the RII subunit of the PKA affecting interactions between MTs in a phosphorylation-independent manner. These findings imply a role for the complex of PKA with the projection domain of MAP2 in MT-MT interactions and suggest that cAMP may influence directly the density and bundling of MT arrays in dendrites of neurons.

The crystal structure of ZapA and its modulation of FtsZ polymerisation

FtsZ is part of a mid-cell cytokinetic structure termed the Z-ring that recruits a hierarchy of fission related proteins early in the bacterial cell cycle. The widely conserved ZapA has been shown to interact with FtsZ, to drive its polymerisation and to promote FtsZ filament bundling thereby contributing to the spatio-temporal tuning of the Z-ring. Here, we show the crystal structure of ZapA (11.6 kDa) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa at 2.8 A resolution. The electron density reveals two dimers associating via an extensive C-terminal coiled-coil protrusion to form an elongated anti-parallel tetramer. In solution, ZapA exists in a dimer-tetramer equilibrium that is strongly correlated with concentration. An increase in concentration promotes formation of the higher oligomeric state. The dimer is postulated to be the predominant physiological species although the tetramer could become significant if, as FtsZ is integrated into the Z-ring and is cross-linked, the local concentration of the dimer becomes sufficiently high. We also show that ZapA binds FtsZ with an approximate 1:1 molar stoichiometry and that this interaction provokes dramatic FtsZ polymerisation and inter-filament association as well as yielding filaments, single or bundled, more stable and resistant to collapse. Whilst in vitro dynamics of FtsZ are well characterised, its in vivo arrangement within the ultra-structural architecture of the Z-ring is yet to be determined despite being fundamental to cell division. The ZapA dimer has single 2-fold symmetry whilst the bipolar tetramer displays triple 2-fold symmetry. Given the symmetry of these ZapA oligomers and the polar nature of FtsZ filaments, the structure of ZapA carries novel implications for the inherent architecture of the Z-ring in vivo.

MAP2c, but not tau, binds and bundles F-actin via its microtubule binding domain

BACKGROUND

MAP2 and tau are abundant microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) in neurons. The development of neuronal dendrites and axons requires a dynamic interaction between microtubules and actin filaments. MAPs represent good candidates to mediate such interactions. Although MAP2c and tau have similar, well-characterized microtubule binding activities, their actin interaction is poorly understood.

RESULTS

Here, we show by using a cosedimentation assay that MAP2c binds F-actin. Upon actin binding, MAP2c organizes F-actin into closely packed actin bundles. Moreover, we show by using a deletion approach that MAP2c's microtubule binding domain (MTBD) is both necessary and sufficient for both F-actin binding and bundling activities. Surprisingly, even though the MAP2 and tau MTBDs share high sequence homology and possess similar microtubule binding activities, tau is unable to bind or bundle F-actin. Furthermore, experiments with chimeric proteins demonstrate that the actin binding activity fully correlates with the ability to promote neurite initiation in neuroblastoma cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide the first demonstration that the MAP2c and tau MTBD domains exhibit distinct properties, diverging in actin binding and neurite initiation activities. These results implicate a novel actin function for MAP2c in neuronal morphogenesis and furthermore suggest that actin interactions could contribute to functional differences between MAP2 and tau in neurons.

The projection domain of MAP2b regulates microtubule protrusion and process formation in Sf9 cells

The expression of microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2), developmentally regulated by alternative splicing, coincides with neurite outgrowth. MAP2 proteins contain a microtubule-binding domain (C-terminal) that promotes microtubule assembly and a poorly characterized domain, the projection domain(N-terminal), extending at the surface of microtubules. MAP2b differs from MAP2c by an additional sequence of 1372 amino acids in the projection domain. In this study, we examined the role of the projection domain in the protrusion of microtubules from the cell surface and the subsequent process formation in Sf9 cells. In this system, MAP2b has a lower capacity to induce process formation than MAP2c. To investigate the role of the projection domain in this event, we expressed truncated forms of MAP2b and MAP2c that have partial or complete deletion of their projection domain in Sf9 cells. Our results indicate that process formation is induced by the microtubule-binding domain of these MAP2 proteins and is regulated by their projection domain. Furthermore, the microtubule-binding activity of MAP2b and MAP2c truncated forms as well as the structural properties of the microtubule bundles induced by them do not seem to be the only determinants that control the protrusion of microtubules from the cell surface in Sf9 cells. Rather, our data suggest that microtubule protrusion and process formation are regulated by intramolecular interactions between the projection domain and its microtubule-binding domain in MAP2b.

Assembly of tau protein into Alzheimer paired helical filaments depends on a local sequence motif ((306)VQIVYK(311)) forming beta structure

We have searched for a minimal interaction motif in tau protein that supports the aggregation into Alzheimer-like paired helical filaments. Digestion of the repeat domain with different proteases yields a GluC-induced fragment comprising 43 residues (termed PHF43), which represents the third repeat of tau plus some flanking residues. This fragment self assembles readily into thin filaments without a paired helical appearance, but these filaments are highly competent to nucleate bona fide PHFs from full-length tau. Probing the interactions of PHF43 with overlapping peptides derived from the full tau sequence yields a minimal hexapeptide interaction motif of (306)VQIVYK(311) at the beginning of the third internal repeat. This motif coincides with the highest predicted beta-structure potential in tau. CD and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy shows that PHF43 acquires pronounced beta structure in conditions of self assembly. Point mutations in the hexapeptide region by proline-scanning mutagenesis prevent the aggregation. The data indicate that PHF assembly is initiated by a short fragment containing the minimal interaction motif forming a local beta structure embedded in a largely random-coil protein.

Phosphorylation by neuronal cdc2-like protein kinase promotes dimerization of Tau protein in vitro

In Alzheimer's disease, the microtubule-associated protein tau forms paired helical filaments (PHFs) that are the major structural component of neurofibrillary tangles. Although tau isolated from PHFs (PHF-tau) is abnormally phosphorylated, the role of this abnormal phosphorylation in PHF assembly is not known. Previously, neuronal cdc2-like protein kinase (NCLK) was shown to phosphorylate tau on sites that are abnormally phosphorylated in PHF-tau (Paudel, H. K., Lew, J., Ali, Z., and Wang, J. H. (1993) J. Biol. Chem. 268, 23512-23518). In this study, phosphorylation by NCLK was found to promote dimerization of recombinant human tau (R-tau) and brain tau (B-tau) purified from brain extract. Chemical cross-linking by disuccinimidyl suberate (DSS), a homobifunctional chemical cross-linker that specifically cross-linked R-tau dimers, and a Superose 12 gel filtration chromatography revealed that R-tau preparations contain mixtures of monomeric and dimeric R-tau species. When the structure of NCLK-phosphorylated R-tau was studied by a similar approach, DSS preferentially cross-linked the phosphorylated R-tau over the nonphosphorylated R-tau, and the phosphorylated R-tau eluted as a dimeric species from the gel filtration column. Phosphorylated R-tau became resistant to DSS upon dephosphorylation and was recovered as a monomeric species from the gel filtration column. In the presence of a low concentration of dithiothreitol (1.65 microM), R-tau formed disulfide cross-linked R-tau dimers. When compared, phosphorylated R-tau formed more disulfide cross-linked dimers than the nonphosphorylated R-tau. B-tau also was specifically cross-linked to dimers by DSS. When B-tau and NCLK-phosphorylated B-tau were treated with DSS, phosphorylated B-tau was preferentially cross-linked over nonphosphorylated counterpart. Taken together, these results suggest that phosphorylation by NCLK promotes dimerization and formation of disulfide cross-linked tau dimers, which is suggested to be the key step leading to PHF assembly (Schweers, O., Mandelkow, E.-M., Biernat, J., and Mandelkow, E. (1995) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 92, 8463-8467).

Microtubule-associated protein 2c reorganizes both microtubules and microfilaments into distinct cytological structures in an actin-binding protein-280-deficient melanoma cell line

The emergence of processes from cells often involves interactions between microtubules and microfilaments. Interactions between these two cytoskeletal systems are particularly apparent in neuronal growth cones. The juvenile isoform of the neuronal microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2c) is present in growth cones, where we hypothesize it mediates interactions between microfilaments and microtubules. To approach this problem in vivo, we used the human melanoma cell, M2, which lacks actin-binding protein-280 (ABP-280) and forms membrane blebs, which are not seen in wild-type or ABP-transfected cells. The microinjection of tau or mature MAP2 rescued the blebbing phenotype; MAP2c not only caused cessation of blebbing but also induced the formation of two distinct cellular structures. These were actin-rich lamellae, which often included membrane ruffles, and microtubule-bearing processes. The lamellae collapsed after treatment with cytochalasin D, and the processes retracted after treatment with colchicine. MAP2c was immunocytochemically visualized in zones of the cell that were devoid of tubulin, such as regions within the lamellae and in association with membrane ruffles. In vitro rheometry confirmed that MAP2c is an efficient actin gelation protein capable of organizing actin filaments into an isotropic array at very low concentrations; tau and mature MAP2 do not share this rheologic property. These results suggest that MAP2c engages in functionally specific interactions not only with microtubules but also with microfilaments.

In vitro polymerization of embryonic MAP-2c and fragments of the MAP-2 microtubule binding region into structures resembling paired helical filaments

The microtubule-associated protein Tau is widely regarded as the principal component of paired helical filaments comprising Alzheimer neurofibrillary tangles. Tau fragments containing the non-identical repeat region formed structures resembling paired helical filaments (Schweers, O., Mandelkow, M., Biernat, J., and Mandelkow, E. (1995) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 92, 8463-8467). MAP-2, the other structurally related neuronal microtubule-associated protein, has not been implicated in paired helical filament formation. We now describe the assembly of paired helical filament-like structures from MAP-2 polypeptides containing only 100 residues. A dimeric species, stabilized by an interchain disulfide, appears to be involved in the assembly reaction. We also investigated the polymerization of embryonic MAP-2c, which, except for its microtubule binding region, is structurally distinct from Tau. Full-length MAP-2c formed paired helical filament-like polymers. Polymerized MAP-2c and the microtubule binding region fragment readily bound thioflavin-S, a dye that stains paired helical filaments in the histochemical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. Our unprecedented finding that a small MAP-2 microtubule binding region fragment and MAP-2c can form structures resembling straight filaments or Pronase-treated paired helical filaments raises fundamental questions concerning the role of MAP-2 in the pathobiology of Alzheimer disease.

On the structure of microtubules, tau, and paired helical filaments

Microtubules and their associated proteins form the basis of axonal transport; they are degraded during the neuronal degeneration in Alzheimer's disease. This article surveys recent results on the structure of microtubules, tau protein, and PHFs. Microtubules have been investigated by electron microscopy and image processing after labeling them with the head domain of the motor protein kinesin. This reveals the arrangement of tubulin subunits in microtubules and the shape of the tubulin-motor complex. Tau protein was studied by electron microscopy, solution X-ray scattering, and spectroscopic methods. It appears as an elongated molecule (about 35 nm) without recognizable secondary structure. Alzheimer PHFs were examined by FTIR and X-ray diffraction; they, too, show evidence for secondary structure such as beta sheets.

Sorting mechanisms of tau and MAP2 in neurons: suppressed axonal transit of MAP2 and locally regulated microtubule binding

Tau is abundant in the axon, whereas MAP2 is found in the cell body and dendrites. To understand their differential localization, we performed transfection studies on primary cultured neurons using tagged tau, MAP2, MAP2C, and their chimeric/deletion mutants. We found that MAP2 was prevented from entering the axon by its N-terminal projection domain and that microtubule binding of tau was stronger in the axon than in the cell body and dendrites, whereas that of MAP2/MAP2C was tighter in the cell body and dendrites than in the axon. These binding properties were determined by their microtubule-binding domains and were suggested to be regulated by phosphorylation, at least in the case of tau. Thus, the suppressed axonal transit of MAP2 and locally regulated microtubule binding may play important roles for their sorting in neurons.

Microtubule organization and dynamics dependent on microtubule-associated proteins

High-resolution microscopic analysis has precisely revealed the control of microtubule dynamics by individual microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) in vitro. Furthermore, transfection of MAP cDNA into fibroblasts and subsequent analysis using microinjection of caged fluorescein-labeled tubulin and photoactivation have enabled the function of MAPs in microtubule dynamics to be studied in detail in vivo. Systematic, quantitative studies using transfection of various kinds of MAP cDNA deletion mutants have demonstrated the complex mechanism for microtubule bundling in vivo, and have shown the involvement in microtubule bundling of both microtubule binding and projection regions of MAPs. A similar approach, combined with detailed structural analysis, has indicated clearly that differences in the amino-terminal projection region of MAPs can determine differential organization of MT bundles, and thus influence the characteristic organization of microtubule domains in dendrites and axons.

Non-motor microtubule-associated proteins

This past year, the structure and function of microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) have been investigated in studies probing their phosphorylation, patterns of expression, and the function of the microtubule-binding domain. Cellular studies have also contributed new insights into the roles of these proteins in process outgrowth.