Determination of the major isosteroidal alkaloids in bulbs of Fritillaria by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with evaporative light scattering detection

Assembly and comparative analysis of the complete mitochondrial genome of Fritillaria ussuriensis Maxim. (Liliales: Liliaceae), an endangered medicinal plant

BACKGROUND

Fritillaria ussuriensis is an endangered medicinal plant known for its notable therapeutic properties. Unfortunately, its population has drastically declined due to the destruction of forest habitats. Thus, effectively protecting F. ussuriensis from extinction poses a significant challenge. A profound understanding of its genetic foundation is crucial. To date, research on the complete mitochondrial genome of F. ussuriensis has not yet been reported.

RESULTS

The complete mitochondrial genome of F. ussuriensis was sequenced and assembled by integrating PacBio and Illumina sequencing technologies, revealing 13 circular chromosomes totaling 737,569 bp with an average GC content of 45.41%. A total of 55 genes were annotated in this mitogenome, including 2 rRNA genes, 12 tRNA genes, and 41 PCGs. The mitochondrial genome of F. ussuriensis contained 192 SSRs and 4,027 dispersed repeats. In the PCGs of F. ussuriensis mitogenome, 90.00% of the RSCU values exceeding 1 exhibited a preference for A-ended or U-ended codons. In addition, 505 RNA editing sites were predicted across these PCGs. Selective pressure analysis suggested negative selection on most PCGs to preserve mitochondrial functionality, as the notable exception of the gene nad3 showed positive selection. Comparison between the mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes of F. ussuriensis revealed 20 homologous fragments totaling 8,954 bp. Nucleotide diversity analysis revealed the variation among genes, and gene atp9 was the most notable. Despite the conservation of GC content, mitogenome sizes varied significantly among six closely related species, and colinear analysis confirmed the lack of conservation in their genomic structures. Phylogenetic analysis indicated a close relationship between F. ussuriensis and Lilium tsingtauense.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we sequenced and annotated the mitogenome of F. ussuriensis and compared it with the mitogenomes of other closely related species. In addition to genomic features and evolutionary position, this study also provides valuable genomic resources to further understand and utilize this medicinal plant.

Botanical characterization, phytochemistry, biosynthesis, pharmacology clinical application, and breeding techniques of the Chinese herbal medicine Fritillaria unibracteata

Fritillaria unibracteata (FRU) belongs to the genus Fritillaria of the Liliaceae family. It is one of the original plants of the Chinese medicinal material "Chuanbeimu" and also a biological resource featured in the Tibetan Plateau of China. The dried bulbs of FRU are used in traditional Chinese medicine. The chemical constituents of FRU that have been isolated and identified include alkaloids, sterols, organic acids and their esters, nucleosides and volatile oils. FRU has antitussive, expectorant, anti-asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, acute lung injury-reducing, antifibrosis, antitumor, and other pharmacological effects. This valuable plant has an extremely high market demand, and over the years, due to over-exploitation, FRU has now been listed as a key species that is endangered and scarcely cultivated in China as a traditional Chinese medicinal herb. However, research on FRU is rare, and its effective components, resource control, and mechanisms of action need further study. This review systematically discusses the herbal characteristics, resource distribution, chemical composition, biosynthesis, pharmacological effects, clinical application, and breeding techniques of FRU, hoping to provide a reference for further research and the use of FRU.

A distinction between Fritillaria Cirrhosa Bulbus and Fritillaria Pallidiflora Bulbus via LC-MS/MS in conjunction with principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis

Fritillaria Cirrhosa Bulbus (known as chuanbeimu in Chinese, FCB) is one of the most used Chinese medicines for lung disease. However, a variety of substitutes have entered the market, with Fritillaria Pallidiflora Bulbus (FPB) being the most common. Due to their similarity in appearance, morphology, and chemical composition but a large price difference, the FCB has frequently been adulterated with the FPB, posing a serious challenge to the distinction and quality of the FCB. Therefore, we aimed to distinguish FCB and FPB based on their main nine isosteroidal alkaloid contents and test the potential of chemometrics as a discrimination approach for evaluating quality. The nine major isosteroidal alkaloids were measured using a liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) approach in 41 batches of FCB and 17 batches of FPB. Additionally, they were categorized and distinguished using the methods of hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA). Quantitative analysis revealed that the nine alkaloids were present in different amounts in the two types of Fritillariae bulbus. In FCB, the highest amount was peimisine (17.92-123.53 μg/g) and the lowest was delavine (0.42-29.18 μg/g), while in FPB, imperialine was higher (78.05-344.09 μg/g), but verticinone and verticine were less than the other seven alkaloids. The FCB and FPB were successfully classified and distinguished by the HCA and PCA. Taken together, the method has a good linear relationship (R2 > 0.9975). The LOD and LOQ of the nine alkaloids were in the range of 0.0651-0.6510 and 0.1953-1.9531 ng/mL, respectively. The intra- and inter-day precision were shown to be excellent, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) below 1.63% and 2.39%, respectively. The LC-MS/MS method in conjunction with HCA and PCA can effectively differentiate FCB and FPB. It may be a promising strategy for quality evaluation and control at the FCB.

LC–MS/MS Coupled with Chemometric Analysis as an Approach for the Differentiation of Fritillariae cirrhosae Bulbus and Fritillariae pallidiflorae Bulbus

Fritillariae cirrhosae bulbus (FCB) is one of the most important traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) for the treatment of cough and phlegm. Due to increasing demand and the complexity of FCB’s botanical origin, various substitutes have appeared in the market, resulting in a major challenge to distinguish FCB and its substitutes (F. pallidiflorae bulbus, FPB). Therefore, discriminating FCB from FPB has becoming an urgent necessity. In this study, an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–ESI–MS/MS) method was developed for the simultaneous quantification of nine steroidal alkaloids (imperialine-3-β-D-glucoside, imperialine, verticine, verticinone, peimisine, yibeinoside A, delavine, delavinone, ebeidinone) within 8 min. According to the composition and content of the above nine compounds, multivariate chemometric analyses were applied for the classification of FCB and FPB. The quantitative results showed that there were both similarities and differences in the content of nine steroidal alkaloids between FCB and FPB, and it was difficult to directly distinguish these two species. Fortunately, with the aid of chemometric analyses, FCB and FPB were successfully differentiated by partial least squares discrimination analysis (PLS-DA) and orthogonal partial least squares discrimination analysis (OPLS-DA) models based on the nine alkaloids’ content. Moreover, four compounds (yibeinoside A, ebeiedinone, delavinone and imperialine) were discovered as potential markers for the identification and differentiation of FCB and FPB. Additionally, compared to other studies, this work collected a large number of samples (49 batches of FCB and 17 batches of FPB) to ensure the reliability of the results. In conclusion, this work established a new approach for the authentication of FCB based on its active components, which provides a good reference for the quality control of FCB and will help us to understand the chemical composition differences between FCB and its adulterants further.

Natural drug sources for respiratory diseases from Fritillaria: chemical and biological analyses

Fritillaria naturally grows in the temperate region of Northern Hemisphere and mainly distributes in Central Asia, Mediterranean region, and North America. The dried bulbs from a dozen species of this genus have been usually used as herbal medicine, named Beimu in China. Beimu had rich sources of phytochemicals and have extensively applied to respiratory diseases including coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Fritillaria species have alkaloids that act as the main active components that contribute multiple biological activities, including anti-tussive, expectorant, and anti-asthmatic effects, especially against certain respiratory diseases. Other compounds (terpenoids, steroidal saponins, and phenylpropanoids) have also been identified in species of Fritillaria. In this review, readers will discover a brief summary of traditional uses and a comprehensive description of the chemical profiles, biological properties, and analytical techniques used for quality control. In general, the detailed summary reveals 293 specialized metabolites that have been isolated and analyzed in Fritillaria species. This review may provide a scientific basis for the chemical ecology and metabolomics in which compound identification of certain species remains a limiting step.

Bulb Dormancy In Vitro-Fritillaria meleagris: Initiation, Release and Physiological Parameters

In ornamental geophytes, conventional vegetative propagation is not economically feasible due to very slow development and ineffective methods. It can take several years until a new plant is formed and commercial profitability is achieved. Therefore, micropropagation techniques have been developed to increase the multiplication rate and thus shorten the multiplication and regeneration period. The majority of these techniques rely on the formation of new bulbs and their sprouting. Dormancy is one of the main limiting factors to speed up multiplication in vitro. Bulbous species have a period of bulb dormancy which enables them to survive unfavorable natural conditions. Bulbs grown in vitro also exhibit dormancy, which has to be overcome in order to allow sprouting of bulbs in the next vegetation period. During the period of dormancy, numerous physiological processes occur, many of which have not been elucidated yet. Understanding the process of dormancy will allow us to speed up and improve breeding of geophytes and thereby achieve economic profitability, which is very important for horticulture. This review focuses on recent findings in the area of bulb dormancy initiation and release in fritillaries, with particular emphasis on the effect of plant growth regulators and low-temperature pretreatment on dormancy release in relation to induction of antioxidative enzymes' activity in vitro.

LC-MS/MS coupled with chemometric analysis as an approach for the differentiation of bulbus Fritillaria unibracteata and Fritillaria ussuriensis

INTRODUCTION

Bulbus Fritillaria unibracteata Hsiao et K.C. Hsia is an important traditional Chinese medicine, widely used for the treatment of coughs, phlegm and asthma for thousands of years. Due to an increasing demand in clinic practices, a variety of substitutes have appeared in the market, resulting in a big challenge in the differentiation of bulbus F. unibracteata and its substitutes.

AIM

To differentiate bulbus F. unibracteata and its substitutes (bulbus Fritillaria ussuriensis Maxim.) based on their main isosteroidal alkaloid contents, and to test the potentiality of chemometrics as a tool for discrimination.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The nine isosteroidal alkaloids in 61 batches of Fritillariae bulbus were simultaneously quantitated by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. Principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) were applied to classify the two kinds of Fritillariae bulbus.

RESULTS

Quantitative analysis showed that there were differences in the content of the nine alkaloids between two kinds of Fritillariae bulbus. According to the content of nine isosteroidal alkaloids, bulbus of F. unibracteata and F. ussuriensis were successfully distinguished by PCA model. Among these isosteroidal alkaloids, verticine and verticinone may be used as potential chemical markers for the identification and differentiation between the two kinds of Fritillaria bulbus.

CONCLUSION

The LC-MS/MS method coupled with PCA would be a powerful strategy to differentiate bulbus F. unibracteata and substitute specimens for quality evaluation and control.

Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus: Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, Pharmacodynamics, Pharmacokinetics and Toxicity

Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus (FTB) has been widely used as an antitussive herb for thousands of years in China. However, FTB's traditional uses, chemical compounds and pharmacological activities have not been systematically reviewed. This study aimed to review its traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics and toxicity. We searched the Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicine to explore the historical records which indicate that it acts to clear heat, resolve phlegm, relieve cough, remove toxicity and disperse abscesses and nodules. We searched 11 databases to identify potential phytochemical or pharmacological studies. Characteristics of its chemical constituents, pharmacological effects, pharmacokinetic and toxicity were descriptively summarized. A total of 9706 studies were identified and 83 of them were included. As a result, 134 chemical constituents were identified, including 26 alkaloids, 29 compounds found in essential oils, 13 diterpenoids, two carbohydrates, two sterols, 18 amino acids, six nucleosides, four nucleobases, four fatty acids, three lignans, and 27 elements. Thirteen pharmacological effects of FTB were identified, including anti-cancer, tracheobronchial relaxation, antitussive, expectorant, anti-muscarinic, anti-inflammation, anti-thyroid, regulation of blood rheology, antiulcer, anti-diarrhea, pain suppression, antioxidation and neuroprotection. These pharmacological activities may be mainly attributed to the alkaloids in FTB. Further phytochemical, pharmacological and network pharmacological studies are recommended.

Investigation of association of chemical profiles with the tracheobronchial relaxant activity of Chinese medicinal herb Beimu derived from various Fritillaria species

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fritillariae Bulbus (Beimu in Chinese) is derived from the bulbus of many Fritillaria species (family Liliaceae), which has been used as an antitussive herb in traditional Chinese medicine for more than 2000 years. Due to the complexity of plant origins and significant variations in chemical profiles, the characterization of the profile of the major bioactive constituents and its association with pharmacological activity are important for the quality control of Beimu herbs from different origins.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to investigate the distribution of major bioactive isosteroidal alkaloids in Beimu herbs of different origins and its correlation with the tracheobronchial relaxant activity.

METHODS

Quantification of 7 main bioactive 5α-cevanine isosteroidal alkaloids, including ebeiedine, ebeiedinone, hupehenine, isoverticine, verticine, verticinone and imperialine, in 23 Fritillaria species was performed using gas chromatography. The relaxant effect of different extracts of 4 commonly used Beimu herbs, namely Zhe-Beimu (F. thunbergii Miq.), Chuan-Beimu (F. cirrhosa D. Don), Hubei-Beimu (F. hupehensis Hsiao et K. C. Hsia) and Yi-Beimu (F. pallidiflora Schrenk), was evaluated using rat isolated tracheal and bronchial preparations pre-contracted with carbachol, the well established in vitro antitussive model.

RESULTS

Amongst 23 Fritillaria species detected, significant variations of the types and quantities of 7 major isosteroidal alkaloids were determined, which served as an important indicator for the classification of different Beimu herbs with distinct geographic distributions. Based on the type and quantity of these alkaloids, different origins of Beimu could be clearly clustered into several subgroups by principal component analysis. Furthermore, both crude alkaloid and water extracts of all 4 Beimu herbs showed a dose-dependent tracheobronchial relaxation with different potencies. The total content of alkaloids (weight adjusted based on the activity of individual alkaloids) in Beimu extracts significantly correlated with their tracheobronchial relaxation effects (r² > 0.9, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The results demonstrated that the differences in chemical profile of major bioactive isosteroidal alkaloids and pharmacological activity of Beimu could be incorporated into a simple and unified method for quality control and potential prediction of activity of Beimu herbs from different origins.

Determining the Liquid Light Scattering Cross Section and Depolarization Spectra Using Polarized Resonance Synchronous Spectroscopy

Rayleigh scattering is a universal material property because all materials have nonzero polarizability. Reliable quantification of the material light scattering cross section in the liquid phase and its depolarization spectra is, however, challenging due to a host of sample and instrument issues. Using the recently developed polarized resonance synchronous spectroscopic method, we reported the light scattering cross section and depolarization spectra measured for a total of 29 liquids including water, methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol, dimethylformamide, carbon disulfide, dimethyl sulfoxide, hexane and two hexane isomers (3-methylpentane and 2,3-dimethylbutane), tetrahydrofuran, cyclohexane, acetonitrile, pyridine, chloromethanes including di-, tri, tetrachloromethane, acetone, benzene and eight benzene derivatives (toluene, fluorobenzene, 1,2-, 1,3-, and 1,4-difluorobenzene, chlorobenzene, 1,2- and 1,3-dichlorobenzene, and nitrobenzene). The solvent light scattering depolarization is wavelength-independent for the model solvents, and it varies from 0.023 ± 0.011 for CCl₄ to 0.619 ± 0.022 for nitrobenzene. The light scattering cross-section spectra can be approximated with the function of σ(λ) = αλ^-4 with the α value varying from 7.2 ± 0.2 × 10^-45 cm⁶ for water to a maximum of 8.5 ± 0.6 × 10^-43 cm⁶ for nitrobenzene. Structural isomerization has no significant effect on either the depolarization or the scattering cross sections for both hexanes and difluorobenzene isomers. This work represents the most comprehensive experimental study on liquid light scattering features. The insight from this work should be important for understanding the correlation between the material structure and optical properties. The described method can be readily implemented by researchers with access to conventional spectrofluorometers equipped with excitation and detection polarizers.

The killer of Socrates: Coniine and Related Alkaloids in the Plant Kingdom

Coniine, a polyketide-derived alkaloid, is poisonous to humans and animals. It is a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, which leads to inhibition of the nervous system, eventually causing death by suffocation in mammals. Coniine’s most famous victim is Socrates who was sentenced to death by poison chalice containing poison hemlock in 399 BC. In chemistry, coniine holds two historical records: It is the first alkaloid the chemical structure of which was established (in 1881), and that was chemically synthesized (in 1886). In plants, coniine and twelve closely related alkaloids are known from poison hemlock (Conium maculatum L.), and several Sarracenia and Aloe species. Recent work confirmed its biosynthetic polyketide origin. Biosynthesis commences by carbon backbone formation from butyryl-CoA and two malonyl-CoA building blocks catalyzed by polyketide synthase. A transamination reaction incorporates nitrogen from l-alanine and non-enzymatic cyclization leads to γ-coniceine, the first hemlock alkaloid in the pathway. Ultimately, reduction of γ-coniceine to coniine is facilitated by NADPH-dependent γ-coniceine reductase. Although coniine is notorious for its toxicity, there is no consensus on its ecological roles, especially in the carnivorous pitcher plants where it occurs. Lately there has been renewed interest in coniine’s medical uses particularly for pain relief without an addictive side effect.

Determination and Visualization of Peimine and Peiminine Content in Fritillaria thunbergii Bulbi Treated by Sulfur Fumigation Using Hyperspectral Imaging with Chemometrics

Rapid, non-destructive, and accurate quantitative determination of the effective components in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is required by industries, planters, and regulators. In this study, near-infrared hyperspectral imaging was applied for determining the peimine and peiminine content in Fritillaria thunbergii bulbi under sulfur fumigation. Spectral data were extracted from the hyperspectral images. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was conducted to determine the reference peimine and peiminine content. The successive projection algorithm (SPA), weighted regression coefficient (Bw), competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS), and random frog (RF) were used to select optimal wavelengths, while the partial least squares (PLS), least-square support vector machine (LS–SVM) and extreme learning machine (ELM) were used to build regression models. Regression models using the full spectra and optimal wavelengths obtained satisfactory results with the correlation coefficient of calibration (r_c), cross-validation (r_cv) and prediction (r_p) of most models being over 0.8. Prediction maps of peimine and peiminine content in Fritillaria thunbergii bulbi were formed by applying regression models to the hyperspectral images. The overall results indicated that hyperspectral imaging combined with regression models and optimal wavelength selection methods were effective in determining peimine and peiminine content in Fritillaria thunbergii bulbi, which will help in the development of an online detection system for real-world quality control of Fritillaria thunbergii bulbi under sulfur fumigation.

A non-derivative method for the quantitative analysis of isosteroidal alkaloids from Fritillaria by high performance liquid chromatography combined with charged aerosol detection

A non-derivative method was developed for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of isosteroidal alkaloids from Fritillaria thunbergii. During method development the performance of two universal detectors, the charged aerosol detector (CAD) and evaporative light scattering detector (ELSD), were evaluated. The CAD was found to be 30 to 55 times more sensitive than ELSD enabling the measurement of low levels of reference compound impurities that could not be detected by ELSD. The peak area percent of the reference compound, peimisine, obtained by CAD was 50.10%, but 91.66% by ELSD showing that CAD is suitable to estimate the presence of impurities. The CAD showed good reproducibility with overall intra- and inter-day peak area RSD values of less than 1.8% and 2.7%, respectively and had a linear dynamic range of up to 4 orders of magnitude (0.06-44mg/L) for peimine and peiminine. The optimized method was used for the quantitative analysis of peimine and peiminine from F. thunbergii.

Esterase and peroxidase isoforms in different stages of morphogenesis in Fritillaria meleagris L. in bulb-scale culture

Morphogenesis in vitro is a complex and still poorly defined process. We investigated esterase and peroxidase isoforms detected in bulb scale, during Fritillaria meleagris morphogenesis. Bulbs were grown either at 4 °C or on a medium with an increased concentration of sucrose (4.5%) for 30 days. After these pre-treatments, the bulb scales were further grown on nutrient media that contained different concentrations of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and kinetin (KIN) or thidiazuron (TDZ). Regeneration of somatic embryos and bulblets occurred at the same explant. The highest numbers of somatic embryos and bulblets were regenerated on the medium containing 2,4-D and KIN (1mg/L each), while morphogenesis was most successful at a TDZ concentration between 0.5 and 1mg/L. Monitoring of esterases and peroxidases was performed by growing bulb scales on a medium enriched with 2,4-D and KIN or TDZ (1mg/L), and the number and activity of isoforms were followed every 7 days for 4 weeks. In control explants, six isoforms of esterase were observed. Three isoforms of peroxidase were not detected in the control bulb scale, which has not begun its morphogenesis process.

Quantification of steroidal alkaloids in Buxus papillosa using electrospray ionization liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry

Buxus papillosa is one of the most extensively studied species of the genus Buxus known to possess steroidal alkaloids which can be used for assessing the various pharmacological activities of this plant. This paper describes the liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-QQQ-MS) method for the quantification of six steroidal alkaloids as chemical markers in the extracts of leaves, roots and stems of B. papillosa. Quantitative MS/MS analysis was carried out by optimization of the most sensitive transition for each analyte. This has yielded detection and quantification limits of 0.486-8.08 ng/mL and 1.473-24.268 ng/mL, respectively for all analytes. Linearity of response was also achieved and the regression coefficient found to be >0.99 for all analyzed compounds. The newly developed MRM (Multiple Reaction Monitoring) method showed excellent sensitivity for the quantification of steroidal alkaloids within 15 min run time. This paper describes the application of LC-QQQ-MS technique for steroidal alkaloids analysis in plant samples.

Peimisine and peiminine production by endophytic fungus Fusarium sp. isolated from Fritillaria unibracteata var. wabensis

Steroidal alkaloids, as the major biologically active components in Bulbus Fritillariae, possess a variety of toxicological and pharmacological effects on humans. The objective of this work was to determine whether endophytic fungi isolated from fresh bulbs of Fritillaria unibracteata var. wabensis can produce one or more alkaloids like its host plant. Four classical reagents including Wagner's, iodine-potassium iodide, Mayer's and improved Dragendorff's were used for primary screening. Then thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high performance liquid chromatography-evaporative light scattering detection (HPLC-ELSD) were employed to identify the fermentation products of the selected strains. The results showed that extract from one stain (WBS007) has positive reactions in process of primary screening. A further TLC scan and HPLC-ELSD showed that strain WBS007 had two components with the same TLC relative front (Rf) value and HPLC retention time (RT) as authentic peimisine and peiminine. In addition, strain WBS007 was identified as Fusarium sp. based on phylogenetic analysis of ITS sequences. Thus, strain WBS007 produced the bioactive ingredient peimisine and peiminine, as does its host plant, and could be used for the production of peimisine and peiminine by fermentation.

Sex dependent pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution and excretion of peimine and peiminine in rats assessed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fritillaria thunbergii Miq. has been traditionally used in China as antitussive and expectorant herbs, and newly used in the clinical treatment of leukemia in recent years.

AIM

To investigate whether gender exerted a significant influence on the pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution and excretion of peimine and peiminine in Sprague-Dawley rats who were given a single oral administration of 4.25 g/kg Fritillaria thunbergii Miq. extract.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned into two groups based on the gender and orally administered 4.25 g/kg Fritillaria thunbergii Miq. extract for each individual pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution and excretion study.

RESULTS

Compared with female rats, peimine and peiminine were eliminated slowly from male rat plasma, and significant gender-related differences were observed in the pharmacokinetic parameters. Drug blood and tissue levels in male rats were significantly higher than the female counterparts except for several tissues, such as fat, muscle and skin. Gender also exerted a significant influence on the urine excretion but such effect was not observed in the feces excretion study.

CONCLUSIONS

Gender exerted a significant influence on the pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution and urine excretion of peimine and peiminine. It is assumed that the sex-associated differences of peimine and peiminine in rats might be mainly result from sex-dependent expression and activity of drug metabolism enzymes and P-glycoprotein.

Determination of peimine and peiminine in Bulbus Fritillariae Thunbergii by capillary electrophoresis by indirect UV detection using N-(1-naphthyl)ethylenediamine dihydrochloride as probe

A simple and inexpensive CE method was developed for the determination of peimine and peiminine. Because of the lack of an UV chromophore of peimine and peiminine, the detection method chosen was indirect UV detection, with N-(1-naphthyl)ethylenediamine dihydrochloride (NED) as the UV absorbing probe. It was thought that NED, a chromophoric ion, may form hydrogen bonding pairs with the analytes to cause significant changes in separation selectivity. Additionally, the hydrophobic interactions between analytes and the probe also play a crucial role in achieving a resolution between the two analytes. The analyses were carried out with a background electrolyte composed of 66% MeOH-ACN (1:1, v/v), 34% aqueous buffer containing 15 mM NaH₂PO₄, 2.5 mM NED, 4 mM H₃PO₄. MeOH-ACN mixtures used as organic modifiers can not only reduce the adsorption of NED to the capillary wall, but also decrease the baseline noise and drift. The method provided a linear response ranging from 5 to 200 μg/mL. The limits of detection (LODs) for peimine and peiminine were 3.9 and 4.1 μg/mL, respectively. The repeatabilities (n = 3) reached relative standard deviation values (RSDs) of 3.4 and 4.1% for the peak areas, 4.0 and 4.4% for the peak heights, and 0.29 and 0.30% for the migration time of peimine and peiminine, respectively. Regression equations revealed linear relationships (r = 0.9995-0.9996) between the peak area of each analyte and the concentration. The method developed was successfully applied to quantify peimine and peiminine in chloroform extracts of the ground Bulbus Fritillariae Thunbergii.

Study on the destructive effect to inherent quality of Fritillaria thunbergii Miq. (Zhebeimu) by sulfur-fumigated process using chromatographic fingerprinting analysis

The after-harvesting sun-dried processing of Fritillariae thunbergii bulbus (Zhebeimu) was the traditional treatment for commodity. Over recent decades the natural drying process for bulbus of Fritillariae has been replaced by sulfur-fumigation for reducing the drying duration and pest control. We used ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with evaporative light scattering detection (UPLC-ELSD) fingerprinting analysis and major alkaloids determination to investigate the potential damaging effect of the sulfur-fumigating process. The experimental conditions were as follows: Chromatography was proceeded on Waters Acquity UPLC BEH C(18) column; the linear gradient elution was conducted with mobile phase prepared from acetonitrile-0.02% triethylamine; the drift tube temperature was set at 40°C with a nitrogen flow-rate of 30psi, and the spray parameter was set 40%. All calibration curves showed good linear regression (R>0.9991) within the tested range. The method was validated for precision, accuracy, limit of detection and quantification. The study also has shown that sulfur-fumigated samples had significant loss of the main active compounds and a more destructive fingerprint profile when compared to the sun-dried samples.

Simultaneous determination of peimine and peiminine in rat plasma by LC-ESI-MS employing solid-phase extraction

A simple and reliable LC-ESI-MS method for the determination of peimine and peiminine in rat plasma was developed for the first time. The method was proven to be specific and sensitive by carrying out validation. The analytes were extracted from rat plasma via solid-phase extraction on Waters Oasis MCX cartridges. Chromatography separation was achieved on a C(18) column using 10 mM ammonium acetate (adjusted to pH 3.0 with glacial acetic acid)-acetonitrile (85:15, v/v) as mobile phase. The linear range was 1-100 ng/mL for peimine and peiminine. Intra- and inter-day precisiond were less than 10%. Accuracies were within 85-115% of their nominal concentrations. The limit of quantification was 1 ng/mL for both analytes. The developed assay was successfully applied to pharmacokinetic study of peimine and peiminine in rats orally administered the alkaloids extracts from Bulbus Fritillariae, demonstrating a possible broader spectrum of applications of this method.

Simultaneous determination of nine nucleosides and nucleobases in different Fritillaria species by HPLC-diode array detector

A sensitive and reliable HPLC-diode-array detector method was developed for the first time to simultaneously determine nine nucleosides and nucleobases including uracil, cytidine, guanine, uridine, thymine, inosine, guanosine, thymidine and adenosine in 13 different Fritillaria species. The analysis was performed on a BaseLine C18 column with a gradient of acetonitrile in water at a flow rate of 0.8 mL/min. The diode-array detector wavelength was set at 260 nm for the UV detection of nucleosides and nucleobases. Satisfactory separation of these compounds was obtained in less than 40 min. The optimized method provided good linear relation (r(2)>0.9995 for all the investigated analytes), satisfactory precision (RSD <1.51%) and good recovery (from 97.64 to 101.16%). The established method was successfully applied to simultaneous determination of nine nucleosides and nucleobases in 61 batches of samples from 13 Fritillaria species collected from different habitats in China, which could be helpful to control the quality of Fritillaria bulbs.

Indigenous use and bio-efficacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa District, Central Nepal

BACKGROUND

By revealing historical and present plant use, ethnobotany contributes to drug discovery and socioeconomic development. Nepal is a natural storehouse of medicinal plants. Although several ethnobotanical studies were conducted in the country, many areas remain unexplored. Furthermore, few studies have compared indigenous plant use with reported phytochemical and pharmacological properties.

METHODS

Ethnopharmacological data was collected in the Rasuwa district of Central Nepal by conducting interviews and focus group discussions with local people. The informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated in order to estimate use variability of medicinal plants. Bio-efficacy was assessed by comparing indigenous plant use with phytochemical and pharmacological properties determined from a review of the available literature. Criteria were used to identify high priority medicinal plant species.

RESULTS

A total of 60 medicinal formulations from 56 plant species were documented. Medicinal plants were used to treat various diseases and disorders, with the highest number of species being used for gastro-intestinal problems, followed by fever and headache. Herbs were the primary source of medicinal plants (57% of the species), followed by trees (23%). The average FIC value for all ailment categories was 0.82, indicating a high level of informant agreement compared to similar studies conducted elsewhere. High FIC values were obtained for ophthalmological problems, tooth ache, kidney problems, and menstrual disorders, indicating that the species traditionally used to treat these ailments are worth searching for bioactive compounds: Astilbe rivularis, Berberis asiatica, Hippophae salicifolia, Juniperus recurva, and Swertia multicaulis. A 90% correspondence was found between local plant use and reported plant chemical composition and pharmacological properties for the 30 species for which information was available. Sixteen medicinal plants were ranked as priority species, 13 of which having also been prioritized in a country-wide governmental classification.

CONCLUSIONS

The Tamang people possess rich ethnopharmacological knowledge. This study allowed to identify many high value and high priority medicinal plant species, indicating high potential for economic development through sustainable collection and trade.

Superoxide dismutase activity and isoenzyme profiles in bulbs of snake's head fritillary in response to cold treatment

The activities and isoenzyme profiles of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in in vitro Fritillaria meleagris bulbs in response to cold treatment (4?C) were investigated. Differences in SOD activity and isoenzyme profiles in bulbs under standard growth conditions, six weeks chilling, as well as seven days after the completion of cold treatment are presented. SOD activity initially decreased but then rapidly increased seven days after cold treatment. Four isoforms of SOD are active under standard and chilling conditions, while three isoforms are presented 7 days after cold treatment. Native gel electrophoresis indicated the presence of mitochondrial and chloroplast localized SODs. .

Simultaneous quantification of three major triterpenoids in radix asteris by high-performance liquid chromatography with evaporative light scattering detection

INTRODUCTION

Radix asteris, with triterpenoids as its main pharmacological effective compounds, has been widely used for moistening the lung, dispersing phlegm and relieving cough. Quantification of the triterpenoids is important for the quality control of Radix asteris.

OBJECTIVE

To establish a high-performance liquid chromatography method with evaporative light scattering detection for simultaneous determination of three major triterpenoids, shionone, friedelin and epi-friedelinol, in Radix asteris.

METHODOLOGY

The optimal chromatographic conditions were achieved on an RP(18) column with gradient elution by acetonitrile and 0.05% acetic acid in 22 min with ELSD set at an evaporating temperature of 40 degrees C. Validation of the method included tests of linearity, sensitivity, precision, repeatability, stability and accuracy.

RESULTS

All calibration curves showed good linear regression (r(2) > 0.9991) within test ranges. The established method showed good precision and accuracy with overall intra-day and inter-day variations of 1.61-2.97 and 1.74-2.42%, respectively, and overall recoveries of 97.35-101.13% for the three compounds analysed.

CONCLUSION

The method developed was successfully applied to quantify the main triterpenoids in 14 Radix asteris samples.

Simultaneous determination of seven triterpenoids and triterpenoid saponins in Folium llicis Purpureae by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with evaporative light scattering detection

A new HPLC coupled with evaporative light scattering detection method was established for the simultaneous determination of seven triterpenoids and triterpenoid saponins in Folium Ilicis Purpureae traditional Chinese medicinal herb derived from the leaf of Ilex purpurea, namely, 3-omicron-beta-D-glucopyranosyl (1-->2)-beta-D-[6-omicron-methyl-glucuronopyranosyl]-28-omicron-beta-D-glucopyranosyl oleanolic acid (SQ-1), pedunculoside (SQ-2), 23-hydroxytormentic acid 28-omicron-beta-D-glucopyranoside (SQ-3), 23-hydroxytormentic acid (SQ-4), rutundic acid (SQ-5), ilexoside B (SQ-6), and ursolic acid (SQ-7). The optimal chromatographic conditions were achieved on a C18 column with a linear gradient elution of mobile phase A: deionized water-isopropyl alcohol-THF-acetic acid (90:10:6:1, v/v) and B: methanol-isopropyl alcohol-THF-acetic acid (90:10:6:1, v/v) at the flow rate of 1.0 mL/min; temperature for drift tube was set at 98degreesC and nitrogen flow rate was 2.8 L/min. All calibration curves of the seven compounds showed good linear regression (r2 > 0.995) within test ranges. The developed method has good repeatability for quantitation of all analytes interested with overall intraday and interday variation of less than 4.1%. The LOD (S/N = 3) and LOQ (S/N = 10) were less than 0.13 and 0.26 microg/mL, respectively, for all analytes. The established method was successfully used to evaluate the quality of Folium Ilicis Purpureae samples of different collections.

Simultaneous quantitation of three major triterpenoid glycosides inCentella asiatica extracts by high performance liquid chromatography with evaporative light scattering detection

A high-performance liquid chromatography method with evaporative light scattering detection was established for simultaneous determination of three major triterpenoid glycosides, i.e. asiaticoside, madecassoside and asiaticoside-B, in Centella asiatica extracts. The optimal chromatographic conditions were achieved on a COSMOSIL 5C(18)-MS-II column by constant elution with water (0.01% trifluoroacetic acid, v/v) and acetonitrile (1.0% methyl tert-butyl ether, 0.01% trifluoroacetic acid, v/v) (78:22) as mobile phase at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min; the column temperature was 30 degrees C. The evaporative light scattering detector was set at an evaporating temperature of 40 degrees C and nitrogen gas pressure of 3.5 bar. The validation of the method included tests of linearity, sensitivity, precision, repeatability, stability and accuracy. All calibration curves showed good linear regression (r(2) > 0.9993) within test ranges. The established method showed good precision and accuracy with overall intra-day and inter-day variations of 1.73-3.06 and 3.89%-4.92%, respectively, and overall recoveries of 97.63-99.39% for the three compounds analyzed. The method developed was successfully applied to quantify the main triterpenoid glycosides in Centella asiatica extracts from different companies.

Action of anti-tussive drugs on the emetic reflex of Suncus murinus (house musk shrew)

The cough and emetic reflexes involve a synchronized firing of motor neurones involved in respiratory control. Tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonists and 5-HT1A receptor agonists are examples of centrally acting drugs that reduce cough and emesis. In the present studies, therefore, we examined the possibility that other classes of drugs known to reducing cough have anti-emetic properties to prevent emesis induced by diverse challenges. We examined the potential of codeine (1-10 mg/kg), baclofen (1-10 mg/kg), scopolamine (0.3-10 mg/kg), diphenhydramine (1-10 mg/kg), imperialine (1-30 mg/kg) and verticine (0.3-3 mg/kg) to inhibit emesis induced by nicotine (5 mg/kg, s.c.), copper sulphate (120 mg/kg, intragastric), and provocative motion (4 cm horizontal displacement, delivered at 1 Hz) in Suncus murinus (house musk shrew). Only codeine had broad inhibitory properties (P<0.05) to antagonize emesis induced by all challenges with ID50 values ranging from 1.2 to 2.3 mg/kg. Baclofen antagonized emesis induced by nicotine (maximum reduction was 44.9%, P<0.05) and motion (maximum reduction was 97.3%, P<0.01), but potentiated copper sulphate-induced emesis (maximum potentiation was 73.0%, P<0.05). Scopolamine antagonized copper sulphate-induced emesis (maximum reduction was 61.2%, P<0.05) and imperialine antagonized nicotine-induced emesis (maximum reduction was 30.2%, P<0.01), but verticine potentiated motion-induced emesis (maximum potentiation was 60.0%, P<0.05). Diphenhydramine did not significantly reduce emesis induced by any of the challenges (P>0.05). In conclusion, codeine has broad inhibitory anti-emetic actions but a known ability to reduce coughing does not necessarily predict broad inhibitory anti-emetic properties.