Internally controlled quantitative assays for PKR mRNA and protein from liver biopsies and other finite clinical samples

Proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines - but not interferon-β - produced in response to HSV-2 in primary human genital epithelial cells are associated with viral replication and the presence of the virion host shutoff protein

PROBLEM

It is unknown whether viral replication or viral components that subvert innate responses in other cells, specifically the virion host shutoff (VHS) protein, play a role in determining primary genital epithelial cell (GEC) innate antiviral responses.

METHOD OF STUDY

Cultures of primary female GECs were exposed to wildtype (WT), VHS-deleted (vhsB), or UV-inactivated HSV-2. Antiviral pathway induction was evaluated by measuring nuclear factor-κB (NFκB) translocation by immunofluorescent microscopy. Proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and interferon (IFN) were measured by Luminex or ELISA. Biological activity of IFN-β was evaluated via VSV-GFP bioassay, by blocking secreted IFN-β with neutralizing antibodies and by measuring interferon-stimulated genes by RT-PCR.

RESULTS

Proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines were upregulated in primary GECs in response to replication-competent HSV-2, but suppressed in the presence of the VHS protein. In contrast, upregulation of IFN-β depended on viral replication, but was not affected by VHS. However, the IFN-β produced was biologically active and reduced the viral burden.

CONCLUSION

Viral factors such as replication and the presence of the VHS protein play important roles in regulating innate antiviral responses against HSV-2 from primary GECs.

Human endometrial epithelial cells cyclically express Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and exhibit TLR3-dependent responses to dsRNA

Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) responds to dsRNA, a product of most viral life cycles, and initiates production of proinflammatory and antiviral cytokines. The role of TLR3 in human mucosal immunity of the endometrium has not been examined. The effects of TLR3 ligation in endometrial epithelium could be significant as the endometrium is a significant site for viral entry and infection. Additionally, the cytokine milieu plays an essential role in normal functions of the endometrium such as uterine cycle progression, epithelial proliferation and shedding, and embryo implantation. In this study, we demonstrated cycle dependent expression of functional TLR3 in primary endometrial epithelial tissue and expression of intracellular TLR3 in human endometrial epithelial cell lines. We established that stimulation of TLR3-positive cell lines and primary human endometrial epithelial cells with dsRNA leads to TLR3-dependent expression of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, interferon (IFN)-inducible protein 10, RANTES, and IFN-beta. These results indicate that the cytokine profile of human endometrial epithelial cells can be modified through TLR3 stimulation. Our findings suggest that TLR3 is involved in the immune responses of endometrial epithelial cells after exposure to dsRNA and has the potential to alter the cytokine milieu and influence the outcome and consequences of infection.

Expression of Toll-like receptors in human endometrial epithelial cells and cell lines

PROBLEM

Are toll-like receptors (TLRs) expressed by human endometrium and endometrial cell lines?

METHODS OF STUDY

Expression of each TLR mRNA species was determined by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis of proliferative-phase human endometrium, separated endometrial epithelial cells, and the Ishikawa and RL95-2 endometrial epithelial cell lines. U-937 and SKW 6.4 cell lines were used as positive controls. Functional relevance of PCR findings was tested by enzyme-linked immunsorbent assay (ELISA)analysis of IL-8 production after stimulating cell lines with ligands for TLR2-5.

RESULTS

TLR1-6 and 9 mRNA species were detected in both whole endometrium and separated endometrial epithelial cells. Ishikawa cells expressed TLR2 and TLR5, while RL95-2 cells expressed TLR3, 5, and 9. Response of RL95-2, Ishikawa, and U-937 cells to TLR2-5 ligands was consistent with RT-PCR findings except response to flagellin by Ishikawa cells.

CONCLUSION

These studies provide the first evidence of TLR expression in the endometrium of any species and suggest the usefulness of endometrial cell lines to study TLR function.

Impaired translational response and increased protein kinase PKR expression in T cells from lupus patients

Activation of peripheral blood T cells results in a rapid and substantial rise in translation rates and proliferation, but proliferation in response to mitogen stimulation is impaired in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). We have investigated translation rates and initiation factor activities in T cells from SLE patients in response to activating signals. Activation by PMA plus ionomycin strongly increased protein synthesis in control T cells but not in T cells from SLE patients. The rate of protein synthesis is known to be strongly dependent on the activity of two eukaryotic translation initiation factors, eIF4E and eIF2alpha. We show that following stimulation, eIF4E expression and phosphorylation increased equivalently in control and SLE T cells. Expression of eIF4E interacting proteins - eIF4G, an inducer, and 4E-BP1 and 4E-BP2, two specific repressors of eIF4E function - and the phosphorylation level of 4E-BP1, were all identical in control and SLE T cells. In contrast, the protein kinase PKR, which is responsible for the phosphorylation and consequent inhibition of eIF2alpha activity, was specifically overexpressed in activated SLE T cells, correlating with an increase in eIF2alpha phosphorylation. Therefore, high expression of PKR and subsequent eIF2alpha phosphorylation is likely responsible, at least in part, for impaired translational and proliferative responses to mitogens in T cells from SLE patients.