Sequestration of host plant carotenoids in the larval tissues of Helicoverpa zea

Butterfly wing color made of pigmented liquid

A previously undescribed mechanism underlying butterfly wing coloration patterns was discovered in two distantly related butterfly species, Siproeta stelenes and Philaethria diatonica. These butterflies have bright green wings, but the color pattern is not derived from solid pigments or nanostructures of the scales or from the color of the cuticular membrane but rather from a liquid retained in the wing membrane. Wing structure differs between the green and non-green areas. In the non-green region, the upper and lower cuticular membranes are attached to each other, whereas in the green region, we observed a space of 5-10 μm where green liquid is held and living cells are present. A pigment analysis and tracer experiment revealed that the color of the liquid is derived from hemolymph components, bilin and carotenoid pigments. This discovery broadens our understanding of the diverse ways in which butterfly wings obtain their coloration and patterns.

β-carotene and Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal protein differentially modulate feeding behaviour, mortality and physiology of European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis)

Maize with enhanced β-carotene production was engineered to counteract pervasive vitamin A deficiency in developing countries. Second-generation biofortified crops are being developed with additional traits that confer pest resistance. These include crops that can produce Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) insecticidal proteins. Currently, it is unknown whether β-carotene can confer fitness benefits through to insect pests, specifically through altering Ostrinia nubilalis foraging behaviour or development in the presence of Bt insecticidal toxin. Therefore the effects of dietary β-carotene plus Bt insecticidal protein on feeding behaviour, mortality, and physiology in early and late instars of O. nubilalis larvae were investigated. The results of two-choice experiments showed that irrespective of β-carotene presence, at day five 68%-90% of neonates and 69%-77% of fifth-instar larvae avoided diets with Cry1A protein. Over 65% of neonate larvae preferred to feed on diets with β-carotene alone compared to 39% of fifth-instar larvae. Higher mortality (65%-97%) in neonates fed diets supplemented with β-carotene alone and in combination with Bt protein was found, whereas <36% mortality was observed when fed diets without supplemented β-carotene or Bt protein. Diets with both β-carotene and Bt protein extended 25 days the larval developmental duration from neonate to fifth instar (compared to Bt diets) but did not impair larval or pupal weight. Juvenile hormone and 20-hydroxyecdysone regulate insect development and their levels were at least 3-fold higher in larvae fed diets with β-carotene for 3 days. Overall, these results suggest that the effects of β-carotene and Bt protein on O. nubilalis is dependent on larval developmental stage. This study is one of the first that provides insight on how the interaction of novel traits may modulate crop susceptibility to insect pests. This understanding will in turn inform the development of crop protection strategies with greater efficacy.

Trichoplusia ni (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Qualitative and Quantitative Sequestration of Host Plant Carotenoids

Carotenoids are fundamental precursors for hormones and antioxidants, and insects must acquire carotenoids from their diet. Previous research has shown that insects can selectively absorb dietary carotenoids, often modifying them qualitatively or quantitatively, and quantities may be proportional to those found in the diet. Trichoplusia ni Hübner is a generalist herbivore with host plants varying greatly in carotenoid profiles and concentrations. Larvae sequester carotenoids in their hemolymph, and carotenoid sequestration contributes to their cryptic green coloration. Our objectives were to compare the types of carotenoids found in T. ni and their host plants to determine whether qualitative changes occurred, and compare the amounts of sequestered carotenoids in T. ni reared upon different host plants to determine whether quantitative variation influences sequestration. To fulfill these objectives, larvae were fed romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. [Asterales: Asteraceae] var. longifolia) or kale (Brassica oleracea L. [Brassicales: Brassicaceae] var. sabellica) for a period of 5 d, and sequestered carotenoids from the entire insect were resolved with thin-layer chromatography and measured with spectrophotometer. All carotenoids resolved from plants were also resolved from larvae, and although the carotenoids of plants differed quantitatively, the sequestered carotenoids did not differ between host plants. Regardless of host plant species, T. ni sequestered carotenoids at concentrations up to 20 times higher than the concentrations found in the plants. Future research may be able to explicitly identify enzyme systems involved in the transport and modification of carotenoids in T. ni and other animals.

Helicoverpa zea gut-associated bacteria indirectly induce defenses in tomato by triggering a salivary elicitor(s)

Insect gut-associated microbes modulating plant defenses have been observed in beetles and piercing-sucking insects, but the role of caterpillar-associated bacteria in regulating plant induced defenses has not been adequately examined. We identified bacteria from the regurgitant of field-collected Helicoverpa zea larvae using 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequencing and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry. A combination of biochemical, molecular, and confocal electron microscopy methods were used to determine the role of caterpillar-associated bacteria in mediating defenses in Solanum lycopersicum (tomato). Laboratory-reared H. zea inoculated with one of the bacteria identified in field-collected H. zea, Enterobacter ludwigii, induced expression of the tomato defense-related enzyme polyphenol oxidase and genes regulated by jasmonic acid (JA), whereas the salicylic acid (SA)-responsive pathogenesis-related gene was suppressed. Additionally, saliva and its main component glucose oxidase from inoculated caterpillars played an important role in elevating tomato anti-herbivore defenses. However, there were only low detectable amounts of regurgitant or bacteria on H. zea-damaged tomato leaves. Our results suggest that H. zea gut-associated bacteria indirectly mediate plant-insect interactions by triggering salivary elicitors. These findings provide a proof of concept that introducing gut bacteria to a herbivore may provide a novel approach to pest management through indirect induction of plant resistance.

Herbivore cues from the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) larvae trigger direct defenses in maize

In addition to feeding damage, herbivores release cues that are recognized by plants to elicit defenses. Caterpillar oral secretions have been shown to trigger herbivore defense responses in several different plant species. In this study, the effects of two fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) oral secretions (saliva and regurgitant) on caterpillar defense responses in maize (Zea mays) were examined. Only minute amounts of regurgitant were deposited on the maize leaf during larval feeding bouts and its application to leaves failed to induce the expression of several herbivore defense genes. On the other hand, caterpillars consistently deposited saliva on leaves during feeding and the expression of several maize defense genes significantly increased in response to saliva application and larval feeding. However, feeding by ablated caterpillars with impaired salivation did not induce these defenses. Furthermore, bioassays indicated that feeding by unablated caterpillars significantly enhanced defenses when compared with that of ablated caterpillars. Another critical finding was that the maize genotype and stage of development affected the expression of defense genes in response to wounding and regurgitant treatments. These results demonstrate that fall armyworm saliva contains elicitors that trigger herbivore defenses in maize.

Tri-trophic movement of carotenoid pigments from host plant to the parasitoid of a caterpillar

Insect parasitoids normally produce white colored eggs. Habrobracon gelechiae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is a gregarious ectoparasitoid of various caterpillars. We found that adult female H. gelechiae lays yellow colored eggs when its larvae developed from host larvae of Choristoneura rosaceana and Epiphyas postvittana (both Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) that were fed green plant leaves, but white colored eggs when these same host larvae species were fed non-plant diets. This study investigated the causes of egg color in H. gelechiae and the possible consequences in terms of parasitoid fitness resulting from differential egg color. Using high-performance liquid chromatography we demonstrated that the yellow coloration resulted from the uptake of carotenoid plant pigments (mainly lutein and β-carotene) that were initially ingested by the caterpillar larvae from plant leaves, later absorbed by the parasitoid larvae (F0) feeding on the host and carried over to the adult parasitoids, and finally translocated to the eggs (F1) of the parasitoids. The amount of plant pigments consumed by the parasitoid larvae (F0) affected the intensity of the yellow color of the parasitoid's eggs (F1). Similarly, egg color was affected by the adult female parasitoids lifetime egg production and deposition rate. Further tests suggest that the observed differences in egg color did not have a genetic basis and did not affect egg viability or fitness. To our best knowledge, this is the first report of a tri-trophic and multi-stage translocation of carotenoid plant pigments in parasitoids. We discuss possible evolutionary significance and putative functions of the absorption of plant pigments by parasitoid species.

Light- induced electron transfer and ATP synthesis in a carotene synthesizing insect

A singular adaptive phenotype of a parthenogenetic insect species (Acyrthosiphon pisum) was selected in cold conditions and is characterized by a remarkable apparition of a greenish colour. The aphid pigments involve carotenoid genes well defined in chloroplasts and cyanobacteria and amazingly present in the aphid genome, likely by lateral transfer during evolution. The abundant carotenoid synthesis in aphids suggests strongly that a major and unknown physiological role is related to these compounds beyond their canonical anti-oxidant properties. We report here that the capture of light energy in living aphids results in the photo induced electron transfer from excited chromophores to acceptor molecules. The redox potentials of molecules involved in this process would be compatible with the reduction of the NAD⁺ coenzyme. This appears as an archaic photosynthetic system consisting of photo-emitted electrons that are in fine funnelled into the mitochondrial reducing power in order to synthesize ATP molecules.

Salivary glucose oxidase from caterpillars mediates the induction of rapid and delayed-induced defenses in the tomato plant

Caterpillars produce oral secretions that may serve as cues to elicit plant defenses, but in other cases these secretions have been shown to suppress plant defenses. Ongoing work in our laboratory has focused on the salivary secretions of the tomato fruitworm, Helicoverpa zea. In previous studies we have shown that saliva and its principal component glucose oxidase acts as an effector by suppressing defenses in tobacco. In this current study, we report that saliva elicits a burst of jasmonic acid (JA) and the induction of late responding defense genes such as proteinase inhibitor 2 (Pin2). Transcripts encoding early response genes associated with the JA pathway were not affected by saliva. We also observed a delayed response to saliva with increased densities of Type VI glandular trichomes in newly emerged leaves. Proteomic analysis of saliva revealed glucose oxidase (GOX) was the most abundant protein identified and we confirmed that it plays a primary role in the induction of defenses in tomato. These results suggest that the recognition of GOX in tomato may represent a case for effector-triggered immunity. Examination of saliva from other caterpillar species indicates that saliva from the noctuids Spodoptera exigua and Heliothis virescens also induced Pin2 transcripts.

Crystallization of α- and β-carotene in the foregut of Spodoptera larvae feeding on a toxic food plant

In the animal kingdom, carotenoids are usually absorbed from dietary sources and transported to target tissues. Despite their general importance, the uptake mechanism is still poorly understood. Here we report the "red crop" phenomenon, an accumulation of α- and β-carotene in crystalline inclusions in the enlarged foregut of the polyphagous Spodoptera larvae feeding on some potentially toxic plant leaves. The carotene crystals give the insect foregut a distinctive orange-red color. The crystals are embedded in a homogenous lawn of the bacterium Enterococcus casseliflavus, but the carotene seems to be selectively taken from the food plant. Caterpillars which fail to develop these carotene crystals exhibit a high mortality or fail to develop to adulthood. The crystallization of carotene and the enlargement of the foregut thus appears to manifest a multiple-step physiological adaptation of the insects to toxic food plants.

Geographical trends in the yolk carotenoid composition of the pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca)

Carotenoids in the egg yolks of birds are considered to be important antioxidants and immune stimulants during the rapid growth of embryos. Yolk carotenoid composition is strongly affected by the carotenoid composition of the female's diet at the time of egg formation. Spatial and temporal differences in carotenoid availability may thus be reflected in yolk concentrations. To assess whether yolk carotenoid concentrations or carotenoid profiles show any large-scale geographical trends or differences among habitats, we collected yolk samples from 16 European populations of the pied flycatcher, Ficedula hypoleuca. We found that the concentrations and proportions of lutein and some other xanthophylls in the egg yolks decreased from Central Europe northwards. The most southern population (which is also the one found at the highest altitude) also showed relatively low carotenoid levels. Concentrations of β-carotene and zeaxanthin did not show any obvious geographical gradients. Egg yolks also contained proportionally more lutein and other xanthophylls in deciduous than in mixed or coniferous habitats. We suggest that latitudinal gradients in lutein and xanthophylls reflect the lower availability of lutein-rich food items in the northern F. hypoleuca populations and in montane southern populations, which start egg-laying earlier relative to tree phenology than the Central European populations. Similarly, among-habitat variation is likely to reflect the better availability of lutein-rich food in deciduous forests. Our study is the first to indicate that the concentration and profile of yolk carotenoids may show large-scale spatial variation among populations in different parts of the species' geographical range. Further studies are needed to test the fitness effects of this geographical variation.

The host plant as a factor in the synthesis and secretion of salivary glucose oxidase in larval Helicoverpa zea

We investigated the effect of the host plant on the synthesis and secretion of the elicitor glucose oxidase in the salivary glands of larval Helicoverpa zea. Glucose oxidase catalyses the oxidation of d-glucose to produce d-gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide. Previous studies have found that the product hydrogen peroxide is primarily responsible for suppressing the wound-inducible defenses of the host plant. Using an antibody specific for glucose oxidase, we determined the effect of the host plant on the rate of secretion of glucose oxidase. Larval H. zea secrete microgram amounts of the enzyme glucose oxidase from their principal salivary glands, the labial glands. Larvae reared on different host plants produce varying amounts of glucose oxidase in their labial glands. We used a tissue printing procedure with our antibody to determine if larvae secrete glucose oxidase directly at the feeding or wound sites. Significant amounts of the enzyme are deposited at the feeding site, although some is deposited outside the feeding margins.

The basis for colorless hemolymph and cocoons in the Y-gene recessive Bombyx mori mutants: a defect in the cellular uptake of carotenoids

Bombyx mori is an excellent model for the study of carotenoid-binding proteins (CBP). In previous papers, we identified and molecularly characterized a CBP from the Y-gene dominant mutants. In the present study, we attempted to correlate and establish lipid metabolism and distribution in these mutants. When [3H]-triolein was fed to the mutants, typical patterns of uptake of labeled fatty acids from midgut to hemolymph and subsequent delivery to fat body and silk glands were obtained in all mutants. Further analysis of lipid and carotenoid profiles revealed that the yellow coloration in the hemolymph associated with lipophorin is not attributed to a difference in lipophorin concentrations among the mutants, nor to its lipid composition, but rather to its carotenoid content. Lipophorin of the Y+I mutant exhibited the highest concentration of total carotenoids of 55.8 microg/mg lipophorin compared to 3.1 microg/mg in the +Y+I mutant, 1.2 microg/mg in the YI mutant and 0.5 microg/mg in the +YI mutant. Characteristic retention time in HPLC of the different classes of carotenoids of lipophorin identified the presence of lutein as the major chromophore (62-77%), followed by beta-carotenes (22-38%). Although lutein and beta-carotene content of mutants' lipophorin differed significantly, the ratio of lutein to beta-carotene of 3:1 was not different among mutants. Similarly, lipid compositions of mutant silk glands were not significantly different, but carotenoid contents were. The significantly high concentration of lutein in the Y+I mutant silk gland represented more than 160-fold increase compared to +Y+I mutant (p<0.001). In this report, we conclude that lipid metabolism in the mutants is not defected and that the molecular basis for colorless hemolymph and cocoons is a defect in the cellular uptake of lutein associated with the Y-gene recessive mutants.

Deliberately added and "cryptic" antioxidants in three artificial diets for insects

Characteristics of both deliberately added and "cryptic" antioxidants were assayed from hydrophilic and lipophilic extracts from artificial diets for plant bugs, lepidopteran larvae, and green lacewings. Cryptic antioxidants are defined as substances naturally existing in diet ingredients but not deliberately added because of their antioxidant potential. Diets were tested after 1) being freshly produced, 2) stored for 48 h at 4 degrees C, or 3) held for 48 h under rearing room conditions at 27 degrees C. Tests included 1) a general assay of antioxidant capacity known as the ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. 2) a cation radical-scavenging assay, 3) an ascorbic acid assay, and 4) an assay of inhibition of lipid peroxidation. In all assays, the lepidopteran diet had the highest values for protection against reactive oxygen species (ROS). The lepidopteran diet (with 0.17-0.23-mg equivalents of gallic acid equals total phenolic compounds per gram of diet) had three- to four-fold higher concentrations of phenolic compounds than did either the plant bug diet or the lacewing diet. Unexpectedly, the plant bug and the lacewing diets caused more lipid peroxidation than did the positive controls. This was attributed to the high concentrations of iron in these diets (mainly from chicken eggs), causing an ascorbate-ferric ion-induced lipid peroxidation. Diet storage, measured after 2 d at 27 or 4-6 degrees C, caused no significant declines in overall antioxidant potential. However, storage did lead to decline in ascorbic acid. The FRAP assay offered the best potential as a general, routine test of the potential of various insect diets to resist the destructive effects of ROS. The importance of addressing issues of protection against ROS in insect diets is discussed.