Effects of intrathecal galanin on nociceptive responses in rats with mononeuropathy

A New Gal in Town: A Systematic Review of the Role of Galanin and Its Receptors in Experimental Pain

Galanin is a neuropeptide expressed in a small percentage of sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglia and the superficial lamina of the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. In this work, we systematically reviewed the literature regarding the role of galanin and its receptors in nociception at the spinal and supraspinal levels, as well as in chronic pain conditions. The literature search was performed in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, OVID, TRIP, and EMBASE using "Galanin" AND "pain" as keywords. Of the 1379 papers that were retrieved in the initial search, we included a total of 141 papers in this review. Using the ARRIVE guidelines, we verified that 89.1% of the works were of good or moderate quality. Galanin shows a differential role in pain, depending on the pain state, site of action, and concentration. Under normal settings, galanin can modulate nociceptive processing through both a pro- and anti-nociceptive action, in a dose-dependent manner. This peptide also plays a key role in chronic pain conditions and its antinociceptive action at both a spinal and supraspinal level is enhanced, reducing animals' hypersensitivity to both mechanical and thermal stimulation. Our results highlight galanin and its receptors as potential therapeutic targets in pain conditions.

Preclinical Analgesic and Safety Evaluation of the GalR2-preferring Analog, NAX 810-2

The potential clinical utility of galanin peptidic analogs has been hindered by poor metabolic stability, lack of brain penetration, and hyperglycemia. In addition to possessing potent anticonvulsant efficacy, galanin analogs are analgesic in various assays. The purpose of these studies was to evaluate the lead galanin receptor type 2 (GalR2)-preferring analog, NAX 810-2, in various pain assays, as well as determine any potential for insulin inhibition, growth hormone stimulation, and cognitive impairment. NAX 810-2 was evaluated in mouse (carrageenan, formalin, tail flick, plantar incision) and rat pain models (partial sciatic nerve ligation). NAX 810-2 dose-dependently increased paw withdrawal latency following plantar administration of carrageenan (ED₅₀ 4.7 mg/kg). At a dose of 8 mg/kg, NAX 810-2 significantly attenuated nociceptive behaviors following plantar administration of formalin, and this was observed for both phase I (acute) and phase II (inflammatory) components of the formalin behavioral response. NAX-810-2 was active at higher doses in the mouse tail flick model (ED₅₀ 20.2 mg/kg) and similarly, reduced mechanical allodynia following plantar incision in mice at a dose of 24 mg/kg. NAX 810-2 also reduced mechanical allodynia in the partial sciatic nerve ligation model at a dose of 4 mg/kg. In addition, NAX 810-2 did not impair insulin secretion at doses of 2.5 and 8 mg/kg (acutely) or at a dose of 8 mg/kg given daily for 5 days. Similarly, 8 mg/kg (twice daily, 5 days) of NAX 810-2 did not increase growth hormone levels. These results demonstrate that NAX 810-2 possesses a favorable pre-clinical profile as a novel and first-in-class analgesic.

Physiology, signaling, and pharmacology of galanin peptides and receptors: three decades of emerging diversity

Galanin was first identified 30 years ago as a "classic neuropeptide," with actions primarily as a modulator of neurotransmission in the brain and peripheral nervous system. Other structurally-related peptides-galanin-like peptide and alarin-with diverse biologic actions in brain and other tissues have since been identified, although, unlike galanin, their cognate receptors are currently unknown. Over the last two decades, in addition to many neuronal actions, a number of nonneuronal actions of galanin and other galanin family peptides have been described. These include actions associated with neural stem cells, nonneuronal cells in the brain such as glia, endocrine functions, effects on metabolism, energy homeostasis, and paracrine effects in bone. Substantial new data also indicate an emerging role for galanin in innate immunity, inflammation, and cancer. Galanin has been shown to regulate its numerous physiologic and pathophysiological processes through interactions with three G protein-coupled receptors, GAL1, GAL2, and GAL3, and signaling via multiple transduction pathways, including inhibition of cAMP/PKA (GAL1, GAL3) and stimulation of phospholipase C (GAL2). In this review, we emphasize the importance of novel galanin receptor-specific agonists and antagonists. Also, other approaches, including new transgenic mouse lines (such as a recently characterized GAL3 knockout mouse) represent, in combination with viral-based techniques, critical tools required to better evaluate galanin system physiology. These in turn will help identify potential targets of the galanin/galanin-receptor systems in a diverse range of human diseases, including pain, mood disorders, epilepsy, neurodegenerative conditions, diabetes, and cancer.

Involvements of galanin and its receptors in antinociception in nucleus accumbens of rats with inflammatory pain

This study tested the hypothesis that antinociceptive effects of galanin and its receptors in nucleus accumbens (NAc) of rats with inflammatory pain provoked by subcutaneous injection of 0.1 ml of 2% carrageenin into the sole of the rat's left hindpaw. The hindpaw withdrawal latencies (HWLs) in response to thermal and mechanical stimulation significantly decreased in bilateral hindpaws at 3 and 4 hour after a subcutaneous injection of carrageenin. However intra-NAc injection of 2 and 3 nmol, but not 1 nmol of galanin markedly induced an increase in the HWLs in a dose-dependent way. Western blot also showed, that the expression of galanin receptor 1 (GalR1) and galanin receptor 2 (GalR2) were significantly upregulated in NAc at 3 hour after a subcutaneous injection of carrageenin. In addition, the rats were intra-NAc injected galanin, 5 min later following by intra-NAc injection of galanin receptor antagonist galantide, the galanin-induce antinociceptive effects were suppressed by galantide. The results demonstrated that galanin and its receptors might be involved in antinociception in the NAc of rats with inflammatory pain.

Inhibitory role of the spinal galanin system in the control of micturition

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of intrathecal galanin on the micturition reflex in rats.

METHODS

Continuous cystometrograms (0.04 mL/min infusion rate) were performed in female Sprague-Dawley rats (225-248 g) under urethane anesthesia. After stable micturition cycles were established, galanin was administered intrathecally to evaluate changes in bladder activity. Then, to examine the involvement of opioid systems in the galanin effects, galanin was administered intrathecally when the first bladder contraction was observed after intrathecal administration of naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist.

RESULTS

Intrathecal administration of galanin (1-10 μg) increased intercontraction intervals in a dose-dependent fashion. Intrathecal administration of galanin (1-10 μg) also increased pressure threshold in a dose-dependent fashion. These inhibitory effects of galanin (10 μg) were partially antagonized by intrathecal administration of naloxone (10 μg).

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that in urethane-anesthetized rats, galanin delays the onset of micturition through activation of the opioid mechanism, suggesting the inhibitory role of galanin system in the control of the micturition reflex.

Peripheral galanin receptor 2 as a target for the modulation of pain

The neuropeptide galanin is widely expressed in the nervous system and has an important role in nociception. It has been shown that galanin can facilitate and inhibit nociception in a dose-dependent manner, principally through the central nervous system, with enhanced antinociceptive actions after nerve injury. However, following nerve injury, expression of galanin within the peripheral nervous system is dramatically increased up to 120-fold. Despite this striking increase in the peripheral nervous system, few studies have investigated the role that galanin plays in modulating nociception at the primary afferent nociceptor. Here, we summarise the recent work supporting the role of peripherally expressed galanin with particular reference to the dual actions of the galanin receptor 2 in neuropathic pain highlighting this as a potential target analgesic.

The neural pathway of galanin in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus of rats: activation of beta-endorphinergic neurons projecting to periaqueductal gray matter

We have previously shown that microinjection of galanin into the arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus (ARC) produced antinociceptive effects in rats (Sun et al., 2003a). In this study, the neural pathway of galanin from ARC to midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG) in nociceptive modulation was investigated. The hindpaw withdrawal latencies (HWLs) with noxious thermal and mechanical stimulation were assessed by the hotplate and the Randall Selitto tests. Intra-ARC administration of 0.1, 0.5, or 1 nmol of galanin induced significant increases in HWLs of rats. The galanin-induced increases in HWLs were inhibited by injection of 10 microg of the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone or 1 nmol of the mu-opioid receptor antagonist beta-funaltrexamine (beta-FNA) into PAG, suggesting that the antinociceptive effects induced by intra-ARC injection of galanin occur via the neural pathway from ARC to PAG. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that the galaninergic fibers directly innervated the beta-endorphinergic neurons in ARC by immunofluorescent methods. Taken together, our results suggest that galanin produces antinociceptive effects in the ARC of rats by activating the beta-endorphinergic pathway from ARC to PAG.

Antinociceptive role of galanin in the spinal cord of rats with inflammation, an involvement of opioid systems

The present study investigated the role of galanin in the transmission of nociceptive information in the spinal cord of rats with inflammation. Bilateral decreases in hindpaw withdrawal latencies (HWLs) to thermal and mechanical stimulation were observed after acute inflammation induced by injection of carrageenan into the plantar region of the rat left hindpaw. Intrathecal injection of galanin induced significant increases in the HWLs to thermal and mechanical stimulation in rats with inflammation. The galanin-induced antinociceptive effect was more pronounced in rats with inflammation than that in intact rats. The antinociceptive effect of galanin was partly inhibited by intrathecal injection of naloxone. Furthermore, intrathecal administration of galantide, an antagonist of galanin receptor, could attenuate the antinociceptive effect induced by intraperitoneal injection of morphine, suggesting an involvement of opioid systems in the galanin-induced antinociception. The results indicate that galanin plays an important role in the transmission of nociceptive information in the spinal cord of rats with inflammation, and opioid systems are involved in the galanin-induced antinociception.

Use of genetically engineered transgenic mice to investigate the role of galanin in the peripheral nervous system after injury

The neuropeptide galanin is present at high levels within the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and spinal cord during development and after peripheral nerve damage in the adult. This pattern of expression suggests that it may play a role in the adaptive response of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to injury. Several experimental paradigms have demonstrated that galanin modulates pain transmission, particularly after nerve injury. In our laboratory we have used a transgenic approach to further elucidate the functions of galanin within the somatosensory system. We have generated mice which over-express galanin (either inducibly after nerve injury, or constitutively), and knock-out (KO) mice, in which galanin is absent in all cells, throughout development and in the adult. Analysis of the nociceptive behaviour of the galanin over-expressing animals, before and after nerve injury, supports the view that galanin is an inhibitory neuromodulator of spinal cord transmission. In apparent contradiction to these findings, galanin KO animals fail to develop allodynia and hyperalgesia after nerve injury. However, further studies have shown that galanin is critical for the developmental survival of a subset of small diameter, unmyelinated sensory neurons that are likely to be nociceptors. This finding may well explain the lack of neuropathic pain-like behaviour after injury in the KO animals. Furthermore, the developmental survival role played by galanin is recapitulated in the adult where the peptide is required for optimal neuronal regeneration after injury, and in the hippocampus where it plays a neuroprotective role after excitotoxic injury.

Galanin over-expression decreases the development of neuropathic pain-like behaviors in mice after partial sciatic nerve injury

The neuropeptide galanin may have a role in modulation of nociception, particularly after peripheral nerve injury. Here we assessed the development of neuropathic pain-like behaviors in mice overexpressing galanin under the dopamine beta-hydroxylase promoter. Unoperated galanin over-expressing mice exhibited a moderately reduced sensitivity to noxious heat. Both galanin over-expressing mice and wild-type controls developed mechanical and heat hypersensitivity after photochemically induced partial sciatic nerve ischemic injury. The magnitude and persistence of such pain-like behaviors were significantly less, and recovery was faster in galanin over-expressing mice compared to wild types. However, the recovery from toe-spread deficits did not differ between galanin over-expressing and wild-type mice after a crush injury to the sciatic nerve. Thus, early recovery in pain-like response is unlikely to result from accelerated regeneration in the galanin over-expressing mice. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that galanin is over-expressed both in small and large dorsal root ganglion cells in the transgene mouse, whereas large galanin-positive neurons were never seen in wild-type mice. The present results in general support an inhibitory role of galanin in nociception and indicate that increased availability of galanin in spinal dorsal horn at the time or shortly after nerve injury may reduce the development of pain-like behaviors in mice.

Involvement of opioid receptors in the oxytocin-induced antinociception in the central nervous system of rats

Recent studies showed that oxytocin and opioid peptides play important roles in pain modulation at different levels in the central nervous system. The present study was performed to explore whether opioid system is involved in the oxytocin-induced antinociception in the brain of rats. The results showed that: (1) intracerebroventricular injection of oxytocin induced dose-dependent increases in hindpaw withdrawal latencies (HWL) to noxious thermal and mechanical stimulation in rats. (2) The antinociceptive effect of oxytocin was attenuated dose-dependently by intracerebroventricular injection of naloxone, indicating an involvement of opioid system in the oxytocin-induced antinociception. (3) It is interesting that the antinociceptive effect of oxytocin was attenuated by subsequent intracerebroventricular injection of the mu-opioid antagonist beta-funaltrexamine (beta-FNA) and the kappa-opioid antagonist nor-binaltorphimine (nor-BNI), but not the delta-opioid antagonist naltrindole. The results indicate that oxytocin plays an antinociceptive role in the brain of rats; mu- and kappa-opioid receptors, not delta-receptors, are involved in the oxytocin-induced antinociception in the central nervous system of rats.

Antinociceptive effects of galanin in the rat tuberomammillary nucleus and the plasticity of galanin receptor 1 during hyperalgesia

Although the tuberomammillary nucleus (TM) is well defined in terms of anatomy and neurochemistry, little is known about its function in nociceptive modulation. There was an abundance of galanin-immunoreactive fibers in the TM, and galanin has been implicated in pain processing. The present study assessed the role of galanin in the modulation of nociception in the TM of rats. Intra-TM injection of galanin dose-dependently increased the hindpaw withdrawal latency of rats to a noxious thermal stimulus, indicating an antinociceptive role of galanin in the TM. The antinociceptive effect of galanin was blocked by a subsequent intra-TM injection of galantide, a putative galanin receptor antagonist, suggesting that the antinociceptive effect of galanin is mediated by galanin receptors. Moreover, there was abundant galanin receptor 1 (GalR1) in the TM, and the number of GalR1-positive neurons in the ipsilateral TM increased significantly after unilateral loose ligation of the sciatic nerve compared with the contralateral TM or the TM of intact rats. However, the number of GalR1-positive neurons was not significantly altered by carrageenan-induced inflammation, in either the ipsilateral or the contralateral TM. The results suggest that galanin and GalR1 in the TM may play important roles in pain regulation.

Systemic galnon, a low-molecular weight galanin receptor agonist, reduces heat hyperalgesia in rats with nerve injury

We have examined the effect of systemically administered galnon, a novel low-molecular weight agonist of galanin receptors, on neuropathic pain-like behaviors in rats after photochemically induced partial nerve injury. Galnon is a galanin receptor ligand with moderate affinity to spinal cord membranes (K(D) of 6+/-0.6 microM). While intraperitoneally applied galnon produced no significant effect on mechanical or cold hypersensitivity, it dose-dependently prolonged heat withdrawal latency in nerve-injured rats. The effect of galnon was more potent on the injured side which has significantly shorter latency than the contralateral side. The anti-hyperalgesic effect of galanon was prevented by intrathecal M35, a galanin receptor antagonist. No side effects, such as sedation or motor impairment, were seen following systemic galnon treatment at the doses used. It is concluded that systemic galnon alleviated heat-hyperalgesic response in rats with partial sciatic nerve injury. This effect was likely to be mediated by activation of spinal galanin receptors.

An antinociceptive role of galanin in the arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus in intact rats and rats with inflammation

In the arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus (ARC), galaninergic fibers form synaptic contacts with proopiomelanocortin neurons, which are involved in pain modulation. The present study assessed the role of exogenous and endogenous galanin in the modulation of nociception in the ARC of rats. The hindpaw withdrawal latency (HWL) to thermal and mechanical stimulation was assessed by the hot-plate test and the Randall Selitto Test. Intra-ARC injection of galanin dose-dependently increased the HWLs in intact rats, indicating an antinociceptive role of exogenous galanin in the ARC. The antinociceptive effect of galanin was blocked by following intra-ARC injection of galantide, a putative galanin receptor antagonist, suggesting that the antinociceptive effect of galanin is mediated by galanin receptors. Moreover, intra-ARC injection of galanin increased the HWL in rats with inflammation. Intra-ARC administration of galantide alone reduced the HWLs in rats with inflammation, while there were no influences of galantide on the HWL in intact rats. Taken together, the results show that galanin has an antinociceptive role in the ARC of intact rats and rats with inflammation.

Antinociceptive role of oxytocin in the nucleus raphe magnus of rats, an involvement of μ-opioid receptor

Recent studies showed that oxytocin plays an important role in nociceptive modulation in the central nervous system. The present study was undertaken to investigate the role of oxytocin in antinociception in the nucleus raphe magnus (NRM) of rats and the possible interaction between oxytocin and the opioid systems. Intra-NRM injection of oxytocin induced dose-dependent increases in hindpaw withdrawal latencies (HWLs) to noxious thermal and mechanical stimulation in rats. The antinociceptive effect of oxytocin was significantly attenuated by subsequent intra-NRM injection of the oxytocin antagonist 1-deamino-2-D-Tyr-(Oet)-4-Thr-8-Orn-oxytocin. Intra-NRM injection of naloxone dose-dependently antagonized the increased HWLs induced by preceding intra-NRM injection of oxytocin, indicating an involvement of opioid receptors in oxytocin-induced antinociception in the NRM of rats. Furthermore, the antinociceptive effect of oxytocin was dose-dependently attenuated by subsequent intra-NRM injection of the mu-opioid antagonist beta-funaltrexamine (beta-FNA), but not by the kappa-opioid antagonist nor-binaltorphimine (nor-BNI) or the delta-opioid antagonist naltrindole. The results demonstrated that oxytocin plays an antinociceptive role in the NRM of rats through activating the oxytocin receptor. Moreover, mu-opioid receptors, not kappa and delta receptors, are involved in the oxytocin-induced antinociception in the NRM of rats.

Involvement of endogenous beta-endorphin in antinociception in the arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus in rats with inflammation

Although exogenous administration of beta-endorphin to the arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus (ARC) had been shown to produce antinociception, the role of endogenous beta-endorphin of the ARC in nociceptive processing has not been studied directly. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of endogenous beta-endorphin in the ARC on nociception in rats with carrageenan-induced inflammation. The hindpaw withdrawal latency (HWL) to noxious thermal and mechanical stimulation was assessed by the hot-plate test and the Randall Selitto Test. Intra-ARC injection of naloxone had no significant influence on the HWL to thermal and mechanical stimulation in intact rats. The HWL decreased significantly after intra-ARC injection of 1 or 10 microg of naloxone in rats with inflammation, but not with 0.1 microg of naloxone. Furthermore, intra-ARC administration of the selective mu-opioid receptor antagonist beta-funaltrexamine (beta-FNA) decreased the nociceptive response latencies to both stimulation in a dose-dependent manner in rats with inflammation, while intra-ARC administration of the selective delta-opioid receptor antagonist naltrindole or the selective kappa-opioid receptor antagonist nor-binaltorphimine (nor-BNI) showed no influences on the nociceptive response latency. The antiserum against beta-endorphin, administered to the ARC, also dose-dependently reduced the HWL in rats with inflammation. The results indicate that endogenous beta-endorphin in the ARC plays an important role in the endogenous antinociceptive system in rats with inflammation, and that its effect is predominantly mediated by the mu-opioid receptor.

Hyperalgesia and increased neuropathic pain-like response in mice lacking galanin receptor 1 receptors

The neuropeptide galanin may have a role in modulation of nociception, particularly after peripheral nerve injury. The effect of galanin is mediated by at least three subtypes of receptors. In the present study, we assessed the nociceptive sensitivity in mice lacking the galanin receptor 1 gene (Galr1) and the development of neuropathic pain-like behaviours after photochemically induced partial sciatic nerve ischaemic injury. Under basal condition, Galr1 knock-out (Galr1(-/-)) mice had shortened response latency on the hot plate, but not tail flick and paw radiant heat, tests. The mechanical sensitivity was not different between Galr1(-/-) and wild type (Galr1(+/+)) mice, whereas the cold response was moderately enhanced in Galr1(-/-) mice. Both Galr1(-/-) mice and Galr1(+/+) controls developed mechanical and heat hypersensitivity after partial sciatic nerve injury. The duration of such pain-like behaviours was significantly increased in Galr1(-/-). The Galr1(-/-) mice and Galr1(+/+) mice did not differ in their recovery from deficits in toe-spread after sciatic nerve crush. The results provide some evidence for an inhibitory function for the neuropeptide galanin acting on galanin receptor 1 (GALR1) in nociception and neuropathic pain after peripheral nerve injury in mice.

Transgenic overexpression of galanin in the dorsal root ganglia modulates pain-related behavior

The neuropeptide galanin is expressed in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and spinal cord and is thought to be involved in the modulation of pain processing. However, its mechanisms of action are complex and poorly understood, as both facilitatory and inhibitory effects have been described. To understand further the role played by galanin in nociception, we have generated two transgenic lines that overexpress galanin in specific populations of primary afferent DRG neurons in either an inducible or constitutive manner. In the first line, a previously defined enhancer region from the galanin locus was used to target galanin to the DRG (Gal-OE). Transgene expression recapitulates the spatial endogenous galanin distribution pattern in DRG neurons and markedly overexpresses the peptide in the DRG after nerve injury but not in the uninjured state. In the second line, an enhancer region of the c-Ret gene was used to constitutively and ectopically target galanin overexpression to the DRG (Ret-OE). The expression of this second transgene does not alter significantly after nerve injury. Here, we report that intact Ret-OE, but not Gal-OE, animals have significantly elevated mechanical and thermal thresholds. After nerve damage, using a spared nerve-injury model, mechanical allodynia is attenuated markedly in both the Gal-OE and Ret-OE mice compared with WT controls. These results support an inhibitory role for galanin in the modulation of nociception both in intact animals and in neuropathic pain states.

Reduced spinal cord sensitization to C-fibre stimulation in mice over-expressing galanin

The neuropeptide galanin may have a role in spinal nociception. In this study, we examined the excitability of the flexor reflex and its sensitization by repetitive stimulation of nociceptive C-fibres in anaesthetized mice that over-express galanin. No difference was seen between over-expressing galanin and wild-type mice in the magnitude of the baseline flexor reflex. Repetitive conditioning stimulation of C-fibres (10 stimuli at 1 Hz) produced a gradual increase in reflex magnitude during the conditioning stimulation (wind-up), as well as an increase in spinal reflex excitability after the termination of the stimulus train (central sensitization) in wild-type mice. Although the wind-up did not differ between over-expressing galanin and wild-type mice, the magnitude of central sensitization was significantly reduced in the over-expressing galanin mice (24 +/- 13% peak increase compared with 164 +/- 65% in the wild-type). Intrathecal administration of M35, a galanin receptor antagonist, markedly enhanced central sensitization in over-expressing galanin mice in association with C-fibre conditioning stimulation, while having no effect in wild-type mice. These results provide further electrophysiological evidence for an inhibitory function of galanin in modulation of central sensitization in response to C-fibre stimulation.

Galanin-immunoreactive cells and their relation to calcitonin gene-related peptide-, substance P- and somatostatin-immunoreactive cells in rat lumbar dorsal root ganglia

We report upon the distribution of galanin-immunoreactive (GAL-IR) cells in the lumbar dorsal root ganglia (DRG) of the rat, and upon the distribution of GAL-IR cells, which also contain calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-, substance P (SP)- and somatostatin (SOM)-immunoreactivity. Neuropeptide-immunoreactive lumbar DRG cells were 55.8% for CGRP, 12.7% for SP, and 6.5% for GAL in lumbar DRG cells. There was no significant difference between the right and left DRGs (L1-L6) for any neuropeptide-immunoreactive cell (P < 0.01). In terms of size distribution, CGRP-immunoreactive cells were identified below 1500 microm2, and SP-, and GAL-IR cells below 600 microm2. Neuropeptide immunoreactive cells showed various immunoreactivities in the cytoplasm according to each neuropeptide. CGRP and SP immunoreactive cells were colocalized with GAL immunoreactive cells in the serial sections about 83.3 and 60% respectively, but SOM colocalizing with GAL-IR cells were not in evidence. The current results confirm and extend previous results, and show that neuropeptides can coexist in single sensory neurones of the rat DRG. In addition, our results demonstrate that the normal distribution of some neurotransmitters modulating sensory action in Wistar Kyoto rat, make this model more prone to develop neuropathic pain than Sprague-Dawley rat.

Transgenic over-expression of galanin in injured primary sensory neurons

The 29 amino acid neuropeptide galanin is normally expressed in < 5% of sensory neurons in the adult dorsal root ganglia. After nerve transection (axotomy), the galanin content of the dorsal root ganglia rises 120-fold and the peptide is then expressed in > 50% of neurons. Published data suggest that galanin plays a role in the modulation of pain processing and may be involved in the regeneration of sensory neurons. Here we describe the initial characterisation of a new line of transgenic mice that selectively over-express galanin in the dorsal root ganglia in an inducible manner following axotomy of the sciatic nerve, but not in the uninjured state. Results of acute thermal or mechanosensory pain tests are normal in intact transgenic animals when compared to wild-type controls. The generation of these novel transgenic animals will be most useful as genetic tools to further elucidate the role played by galanin in the adaptive response of the peripheral nervous system to injury.

The participation of galanin in pain processing at the spinal level

Galanin, a 29-amino-acid peptide expressed in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and spinal dorsal horn interneurones, is regulated by nerve injury and peripheral inflammation. The functional significance of such regulation has been subject to intense studies, including the analysis of galanin null mice, with the production of apparently conflicting results. Here, we suggest that upregulation of galanin in DRG neurones following nerve injury results in antinociception via stimulation of galanin GAL1 receptors on dorsal horn neurones, and that the pro-nociceptive effect of galanin is related to presynaptic galanin GAL2 receptors on primary afferents. A selective GAL1 receptor agonist could therefore be valuable for the treatment of neuropathic pain.

Involvement of 5-hydroxytryptamine(1A) receptors in the descending anti-nociceptive pathway from periaqueductal gray to the spinal dorsal horn in intact rats, rats with nerve injury and rats with inflammation

Studies have shown that 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) plays an important role in the descending pathway of pain modulation from brainstem to the spinal cord. Using selective 5-HT receptor antagonists, the present study investigated which type of 5-HT receptor(s) in the spinal cord was involved in the morphine-induced anti-nociception in intact rats, in rats with nerve injury and in rats with inflammation. The hindpaw withdrawal latencies decreased significantly after sciatic nerve injury and hindpaw inflammation compared with intact rats. Intrathecal administration of 25 or 10 microg of the selective 5-HT(1A) recepter antagonist spiroxatrine, but not 1 microg of spiroxatrine, significantly blocked the increased hindpaw withdrawal latencies to thermal and mechanical stimulation induced by intra-periaqueductal gray injection of 1 microg of morphine in intact rats. Intrathecal injection of the 5-HT(2) receptor antagonist RS 102221 and the 5-HT(3) receptor antagonist MDL 72222 had no significant effects on the increased hindpaw withdrawal latencies to both noxious stimulations induced by intra-periaqueductal gray injection of morphine. Furthermore, intrathecal administration of spiroxatrine, but not RS 102221 nor MDL 72222, significantly attenuated the increased hindpaw withdrawal latencies induced by intra-periaqueductal gray administration of morphine in rats with nerve injury and in rats with inflammation. The results demonstrate that the 5-HT(1A) receptor, not 5-HT(2) nor 5-HT(3) receptor, plays an important role in the descending pathway of anti-nociception from the brainstem to the spinal cord in intact rats, in rats with nerve injury and in rats with inflammation.

Endogenous galanin is required for the full expression of central sensitization following peripheral nerve injury

The neuropeptide galanin is known to be involved in nociceptive sensory processing in the spinal cord. We have attempted to better characterise the function of endogenous galanin in nociceptive signalling by examining a mouse strain carrying a loss of function mutation in the galanin gene (gal-/-). Galanin expression is significantly up-regulated following damage to a peripheral nerve. To address what effect this up-regulation has on spinal cord excitability we have examined wild type (gal+/+) and gal-/- mice 3 days after complete transection of the sciatic nerve using an electrophysiological paradigm, the flexor withdrawal reflex. We demonstrate that the up-regulation of galanin has no direct effect on basal spinal excitability after nerve injury. However, galanin is shown to be a crucial neuromodulator involved in the development of the central sensitization as both windup and the facilitation of spinal reflexes following conditioning stimulation are significantly impaired in gal-/- mice following peripheral nerve injury.

The effect of galanin on wide-dynamic range neuron activity in the spinal dorsal horn of rats

The present study investigated the effect of galanin on wide-dynamic range (WDR) neuron activity in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord of rats. The evoked discharge of WDR neurons was elicited by transdermic electrical stimulation applied on the ipsilateral hindpaw of rats. Galanin was administered directly on the spinal dorsal surface of L3-L5. The evoked discharge frequency of the WDR neurons decreased significantly after the administration of galanin and the effect lasted for more than 30 min. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect of galanin on the evoked discharge frequency of WDR neurons was blocked by following administration of the galanin antagonist galantide, indicating that the inhibitory effect of galanin on the activity of WDR neurons was induced by activating galanin receptors in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. The results suggest that galanin has an inhibitory role in the transmission of presumed nociceptive information in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord in rats.

Blockade effects of (Nphe1)Nociceptin(1-13)-NH(2) on anti-nociception induced by intrathecal administration of nociceptin in rats

The present study investigated the roles of the opioid-receptor-like (ORL1) receptor and its endogenous ligand nociceptin on nociception in the spinal cord of rats. Intrathecal administration of 10 nmol of nociceptin produced significant increases in hindpaw withdrawal latencies (HWLs) to thermal and mechanical stimulation. There were no significant changes of average maximum angles in inclined plane tests after intrathecal injection of 10 nmol of nociceptin in rats. The intrathecal nociceptin-induced increases in HWL were antagonized by intrathecal administration of (Nphe1)Nociceptin(1-13)-NH(2), a selective antagonist of ORL1 receptor, in a dose-dependent manner. The results demonstrated that ORL1 receptor is involved in the nociceptin-induced anti-nociceptive effect in the spinal cord of rats.

Endogenous galanin potentiates spinal nociceptive processing following inflammation

We have undertaken a series of experiments using galanin null mutant mice to better define the role of endogenous galanin in spinal excitability following inflammation and in response to centrally sensitizing stimuli. We have employed a behavioural paradigm, the formalin test, as a model of tonic nociception in both galanin knock-out (gal-/-) and wild-type (gal+/+) mice. In this model, we find that gal-/- mice are markedly hypo-responsive, especially in the second phase response. Additionally, we have examined the thermal hyperalgesia which develops following peripheral injection of carrageenan into the plantar surface of one hindpaw. In this inflammatory paradigm, thermal hyperalgesia is markedly attenuated in gal-/- mice. These behavioural findings suggest that endogenous galanin contributes to nociceptive processing. We have tested this hypothesis further by employing an electrophysiological measure of spinal excitability, the flexor withdrawal reflex in gal-/- and gal+/+ mice. We found no differences in acute reflex responses to single stimuli at C-fibre strength or in the time course and magnitude of wind-up induced by a short conditioning train between non-inflamed gal+/+ and gal-/- mice. However, the long-lasting post-conditioning enhancement of reflex excitability was only seen in gal+/+ mice. Moreover, following carrageenan inflammation, there was a marked increase in spinal nociceptive reflex excitability in the inflamed gal+/+ mice, but this enhanced excitability was absent in gal-/- animals. These findings illustrate that endogenous galanin is necessary for the full expression of central sensitization, and as such, plays a critical role in the development of hyperalgesia following peripheral tissue injury.

Receptor subtype-specific pronociceptive and analgesic actions of galanin in the spinal cord: selective actions via GalR1 and GalR2 receptors

Galanin is a 29-aa neuropeptide with a complex role in pain processing. Several galanin receptor subtypes are present in dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord with a differential distribution. Here, we describe a generation of a specific galanin R2 (GalR2) agonist, AR-M1896, and its application in studies of a rat neuropathic pain model (Bennett). The results show that in normal rats mechanical and cold allodynia of the hindpaw are induced after intrathecal infusion of low-dose galanin (25 ng per 0.5 microl/h). The same effect is seen with equimolar doses of AR-M1896 or AR-M961, an agonist both at GalR1 and GalR2 receptors. In allodynic Bennett model rats, the mechanical threshold increased dose-dependently after intrathecal injection of a high dose of AR-M961, whereas no effect was observed in the control or AR-M1896 group. No effect of either of the two compounds was observed in nonallodynic Bennett model rats. These data indicate that a low dose of galanin has a nociceptive role at the spinal cord level mediated by GalR2 receptors, whereas the antiallodynic effect of high-dose galanin on neuropathic pain is mediated by the GalR1 receptors. Thus, a selective GalR1 agonist may be used to treat neuropathic pain.

Effect of intrathecal galanin and its putative antagonist M35 on pain behavior in a neuropathic pain model

There is currently some debate over a possible role of galanin in pain processing. It was recently reported that the levels of galanin in dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) seem related to development of allodynia after unilateral sciatic nerve constriction injury. In our present study, we aimed at characterizing the effect of exogenous and endogenous galanin on pain behavior in allodynic and non-allodynic rats in which the levels of galanin in DRG neurons are low and high, respectively [28]. The results show that in allodynic rats, the mechanical threshold increases dose-dependently after intrathecal (i.t.) injection of galanin, while no significant changes were observed in groups treated with the putative galanin antagonist M35 or saline. In non-allodynic rats i.t. injection of M35 induced a significant mechanical allodynic state, which did not occur after injection of galanin, bradykinin, the bradykinin fragment(2-9) or saline. The results suggest that in the present experimental paradigm exogenous galanin has an anti-allodynic effect in the allodynic rats, and that endogenous galanin has a tonic inhibitory effect in the non-allodynic group.

Effects of galanin on wide-dynamic range neuron activity in the spinal dorsal horn of rats with sciatic nerve ligation

Galanin is a 29-amino acid peptide with a suggested role in nociception. The effect of galanin on wide-dynamic range neuron discharge frequency in rats with nerve ligation, used as a model of neurogenic pain, was investigated by extracellular recording methods. Seven to 14 days after sciatic nerve ligation, 0.1, 0.5 or 1 nmol of galanin was administered directly on the dorsal surface of the L3-L5 spinal cord of rats with sciatic nerve ligation. It was found that galanin inhibited the activity of wide-dynamic range neurons dose-dependently, an effect was more pronounced in sciatic nerve ligated rats than intact rats. Furthermore, when 1 nmol of galantide, the galanin antagonist, was administered on the dorsal surface of the L3-L5 spinal cord, the wide-dynamic range neuron discharge frequency increased significantly. The results suggest that galanin plays an important role in the modulation of presumed nociception in mononeuropathy.

Antinociceptive role of galanin in periaqueductal grey of rats with experimentally induced mononeuropathy

The present study was performed in rats with experimentally induced mononeuropathy after left common sciatic nerve ligation. The hindpaw withdrawal latencies to thermal and mechanical stimulation increased significantly after intra-periaqueductal grey injection of 2 or 3nmol, but not 1nmol of galanin in rats with mononeuropathy. Intraperitoneal administration of 4.5mg/kg morphine induced significant increases in hindpaw withdrawal latencies to both noxious stimulation, which were attenuated by following intra-periaqueductal grey injection of 2nmol of the galanin antagonist galantide. Furthermore, the antinociceptive effect induced by intra-periaqueductal grey injection of 26.6nmol of morphine was attenuated significantly by following intra-periaqueductal gray administration of 2nmol of galantide. The results demonstrated that in periaqueductal grey galanin plays an antinociceptive role in rats with mononeuropathy and galanin is involved in the mechanisms of opioid-induced antinociception.

Galanin and spinal nociceptive mechanisms: recent advances and therapeutic implications

Galanin is a peptide consisting of 29 or 30 (in humans) amino acids that is present in sensory and spinal dorsal horn neurons. Endogenous galanin may have an important modulatory function on nociceptive input at the spinal level. In addition, exogenously administered galanin exerts complex effects on spinal nociceptive transmission, where inhibitory action appears to predominate. Peripheral nerve injury and inflammation, conditions associated with chronic pain, upregulate the synthesis of galanin in sensory neurons and spinal cord neurons, respectively. Hence, the sensory effect of galanin may be increased under these conditions, raising the possibility that modulation of the activity of the galanin system may produce antinociception.

An interaction of opioids and galanin in dorsal horn of the spinal cord in mononeuropathic rats

The present study was performed in rats with experimentally induced mononeuropathy after common sciatic nerve ligation. The hind-paw withdrawal latencies to thermal and mechanical stimulation were increased significantly after intrathecal injection of 3 nmol of galanin. The increased hind-paw response latencies induced by galanin were attenuated by following intrathecal injection of 22 nmol, but not 11 or 2.75 nmol of the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone. Further, the increased hind-paw response latencies induced by galanin were prevented by following intrathecal injection of 10 nmol of mu-opioid receptor antagonist, beta-funaltrexamine (beta-FNA), but not by 10 nmol of delta-opioid receptor antagonist, natrindole or 10 nmol of kappa-opioid receptor antagonist, nor-binaltorphimine (nor-BNI). Intrathecal 10 nmol of beta-FNA alone had no significant effects on the hind-paw withdrawal responses. These results demonstrate the existence of a specific interaction between galanin and opioids in the transmission of presumed nociceptive information in the spinal cord of mononeuropathic rats. This interaction involves the activation of mu-opioid receptor.

Interactions of galanin and morphine in the spinal antinociception in rats with mononeuropathy

The increased hind-paw withdrawal latency (HWL) to thermal stimulation and hind-paw withdrawal threshold (HWT) to mechanical stimulation induced by morphine were attenuated by intrathecal injection of 1 or 3 nmol, but not 0.3 nmol of the selective galanin antagonist galantide. The result indicated a possible interaction between galanin and opioids in the transmission of presumed nociceptive information in the spinal cord of rats with mononeuropathy.

Intra-periaqueductal grey injection of galanin increases the nociceptive response latency in rats, an effect reversed by naloxone

The nociceptive response latencies were increased significantly after intra-periaqueductal grey (PAG) administration of 1.0 or 3.0 nmol of galanin, but not 0.3 nmol, in rats. The effect of galanin was attenuated by following injection of 5.5 nmol of naloxone into PAG. These results indicate an anti-nociceptive role of galanin, and a possible interaction between galanin and opioid peptides in PAG in rats.