1
|
Wang Y, Zhang J, Wang X, Wang R, Zhang H, Zhang R, Bao J. The inflammatory immunity and gut microbiota are associated with fear response differences in laying hens. Poult Sci 2024; 103:103816. [PMID: 38718537 PMCID: PMC11097073 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2024.103816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024] Open
Abstract
The fear response is a crucial adaptive mechanism for coping with environmental changes, and the individuals have different levels of fearfulness. The purpose of this study was to determine the status of the immune response and gut health in hens with different fear responses. A total of 80 healthy 75-wk-old native Lindian chickens were individually housed in conventional cages and categorized into high (TH) and low (TL) levels of fearfulness using the tonic immobility (TI) test. The immunological status and intestinal health of the laying hens were assessed, and the intestinal microbial community was sequenced using 16S rRNA testing. The results showed that the immune-related genes of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-4, IL-6, and IgG were significantly upregulated in the spleen of TH hens compared with hens in the TL group (P < 0.01). The inflammatory immune-related genes Toll-like receptor (TLR)2, TLR4, nuclear factor (NF)-κB, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, IL-10, and IgG were significantly increased in the intestinal tract, whereas IL-4, IgA, and the intestinal barrier gene claudin-4 were significantly decreased in TH hens (P < 0.05). In addition, serum concentrations of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, interferon (IFN)-α and IgG were significantly higher in TH hens (P < 0.01). A high fear response also led to changes in gut microbial diversity, with a higher Simpson's index and lower β-diversity similarity than hens with a low-fear response (P < 0.05). The TH group showed an increase in 8 genera, including Bacillaceae and Coprococcus, whereas the genus Anaerorhabdus decreased (P < 0.05). The gut microbiota has also been associated with gut barrier genes, and inflammatory cytokines. Bartonella stimulates IL-1β and IgG secretion, whereas Lactobacillus inhibits IL-6 secretion, and Coprococcus and Subdoligranulum are associated with the maintenance of intestinal barrier function. The results of this study suggest that laying hens with high fear response levels have a more sensitive immune response and a more enriched gut microbiota, which may have positive effects on adapting to a complex environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ye Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030 Harbin, China
| | - Jiaqi Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030 Harbin, China
| | - Xiaoxu Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030 Harbin, China
| | - Rui Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030 Harbin, China; Branch of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 161005 Qiqihar, China
| | - Haoran Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030 Harbin, China
| | - Runxiang Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030 Harbin, China; Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, 150030 Harbin, China.
| | - Jun Bao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030 Harbin, China; Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, 150030 Harbin, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Andreasson F, Rostedt E, Nord A. Measuring body temperature in birds - the effects of sensor type and placement on estimated temperature and metabolic rate. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:jeb246321. [PMID: 37969087 PMCID: PMC10753514 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
Several methods are routinely used to measure avian body temperature, but different methods vary in invasiveness. This may cause stress-induced increases in temperature and/or metabolic rate and, hence, overestimation of both parameters. Choosing an adequate temperature measurement method is therefore key to accurately characterizing an animal's thermal and metabolic phenotype. Using great tits (Parus major) and four common methods with different levels of invasiveness (intraperitoneal, cloacal, subcutaneous, cutaneous), we evaluated the preciseness of body temperature measurements and effects on resting metabolic rate (RMR) over a 40°C range of ambient temperatures. None of the methods caused overestimation or underestimation of RMR compared with un-instrumented birds, and body or skin temperature estimates did not differ between methods in thermoneutrality. However, skin temperature was lower compared with all other methods below thermoneutrality. These results provide empirical guidance for future research that aims to measure body temperature and metabolic rate in small bird models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fredrik Andreasson
- Department of Biology, Section for Evolutionary Ecology, Lund University, Ecology Building, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Elin Rostedt
- Department of Biology, Section for Evolutionary Ecology, Lund University, Ecology Building, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Andreas Nord
- Department of Biology, Section for Evolutionary Ecology, Lund University, Ecology Building, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jerem P, Romero LM. It's cool to be stressed: body surface temperatures track sympathetic nervous system activation during acute stress. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:jeb246552. [PMID: 37767773 PMCID: PMC10629684 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
The acute stress response can be considered the primary evolutionary adaptation to maximise fitness in the face of unpredictable environmental challenges. However, the difficulties of assessing physiology in natural environments mean that comparatively little is known about how response variation influences fitness in free-living animals. Currently, determining acute stress physiology typically involves blood sampling or cardiac monitoring. Both require trapping and handling, interrupting natural behaviour, and potentially biasing our understanding toward trappable species/individuals. Importantly, limits on repeated sampling also restrict response phenotype characterisation, vital for linking stress with fitness. Surface temperature dynamics resulting from peripheral vasomotor activity during acute stress are increasingly promoted as alternative physiological stress indicators, which can be measured non-invasively using infrared thermal imaging, overcoming many limitations of current methods. Nonetheless, which aspects of stress physiology they represent remains unclear, as the underlying mechanisms are unknown. To date, validations have primarily targeted the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, when the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) system is likely the primary driver of vasomotor activity during acute stress. To address this deficit, we compared eye and bill region surface temperatures (measured using thermal imaging) with SAM system activity (measured as heart rate variability via electrocardiogram telemetry) in wild-caught captive house sparrows (Passer domesticus) during capture and handling. We found that lower body surface temperatures were associated with increased sympathetic nervous system activation. Consequently, our data confirm that body surface temperatures can act as a proxy for sympathetic activation during acute stress, providing potentially transformative opportunities for linking the acute stress response with fitness in the wild.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Jerem
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, 9700 CC Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biology, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cococcetta C, Coutant T, Phouratsamay A, Zoller G, Bagur S, Huynh M. Effect of Hooding on Physiological Parameters During Manual Restraint in Rhode Island Red Hybrid Hens ( Gallus gallus domesticus). J Avian Med Surg 2023; 37:155-164. [PMID: 37733454 DOI: 10.1647/21-00027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Manual handling of chickens is required for many veterinary, research, and breeding procedures. This study aimed to assess the changes in physiological parameters over time during manual restraint of chickens, as well as the effect of hooding on these parameters. Heart rate, heart rate variability, respiratory rate, and body temperature were measured every 3 minutes for 15 minutes during manual restraint in 13 adult laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus). Heart rate variability was significantly higher in hooded hens than in nonhooded hens (P= 0.003) but was not significant over time. Hooded hens were also found to have significantly lower heart rate (P = 0.043) and respiratory rate (P = 0.042) compared to nonhooded hens. Heart rate and respiratory rate significantly decreased over time, independent of the use of the hood (P = 0.008; P = 0.01, respectively). Temperature was found to increase significantly (P = 0.001) over time for both groups. Overall, hooding increased heart rate variability, a factor associated with a lower stress level, and decreased heart rate and respiratory rate. In conclusion, these data suggest that the use of the hood reduces stress levels in birds during manual restraint. Therefore, the use of the hood is encouraged for short (less than 15 minutes) painless procedures, such as physical examination or radiographic acquisition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ciro Cococcetta
- Service des Nouveaux Animaux de Compagnie, Centre Hospitalier Vétérinaire Frégis, 94110 Arcueil, France,
| | - Thomas Coutant
- Service des Nouveaux Animaux de Compagnie, Centre Hospitalier Vétérinaire Frégis, 94110 Arcueil, France
| | - Albert Phouratsamay
- Service des Nouveaux Animaux de Compagnie, Centre Hospitalier Vétérinaire Frégis, 94110 Arcueil, France
| | - Graham Zoller
- Unité des Nouveaux Animaux de Compagnie, Clinique Vétérinaire Only Vet, 69800 Saint-Priest, France
| | - Sophie Bagur
- Institut de l'Audition, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Minh Huynh
- Service des Nouveaux Animaux de Compagnie, Centre Hospitalier Vétérinaire Frégis, 94110 Arcueil, France
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Knutson KA, Petritz OA, Thomson A, Robertson J, Balko JA. Effects of Intramuscular Alfaxalone and Midazolam Compared With Midazolam and Butorphanol in Rhode Island Red Hens (Gallus gallus domesticus). J Avian Med Surg 2022; 36:287-294. [DOI: 10.1647/20-00087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
6
|
Jadhav VV, Han J, Fasina Y, Harrison SH. Connecting gut microbiomes and short chain fatty acids with the serotonergic system and behavior in Gallus gallus and other avian species. Front Physiol 2022; 13:1035538. [PMID: 36406988 PMCID: PMC9667555 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1035538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The chicken gastrointestinal tract has a diverse microbial community. There is increasing evidence for how this gut microbiome affects specific molecular pathways and the overall physiology, nervous system and behavior of the chicken host organism due to a growing number of studies investigating conditions such as host diet, antibiotics, probiotics, and germ-free and germ-reduced models. Systems-level investigations have revealed a network of microbiome-related interactions between the gut and state of health and behavior in chickens and other animals. While some microbial symbionts are crucial for maintaining stability and normal host physiology, there can also be dysbiosis, disruptions to nutrient flow, and other outcomes of dysregulation and disease. Likewise, alteration of the gut microbiome is found for chickens exhibiting differences in feather pecking (FP) behavior and this alteration is suspected to be responsible for behavioral change. In chickens and other organisms, serotonin is a chief neuromodulator that links gut microbes to the host brain as microbes modulate the serotonin secreted by the host's own intestinal enterochromaffin cells which can stimulate the central nervous system via the vagus nerve. A substantial part of the serotonergic network is conserved across birds and mammals. Broader investigations of multiple species and subsequent cross-comparisons may help to explore general functionality of this ancient system and its increasingly apparent central role in the gut-brain axis of vertebrates. Dysfunctional behavioral phenotypes from the serotonergic system moreover occur in both birds and mammals with, for example, FP in chickens and depression in humans. Recent studies of the intestine as a major site of serotonin synthesis have been identifying routes by which gut microbial metabolites regulate the chicken serotonergic system. This review in particular highlights the influence of gut microbial metabolite short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) on the serotonergic system. The role of SCFAs in physiological and brain disorders may be considerable because of their ability to cross intestinal as well as the blood-brain barriers, leading to influences on the serotonergic system via binding to receptors and epigenetic modulations. Examinations of these mechanisms may translate into a more general understanding of serotonergic system development within chickens and other avians.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vidya V. Jadhav
- Department of Biology, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Jian Han
- Department of Biology, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Yewande Fasina
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States,*Correspondence: Yewande Fasina, ; Scott H. Harrison,
| | - Scott H. Harrison
- Department of Biology, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States,*Correspondence: Yewande Fasina, ; Scott H. Harrison,
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zenth F, Corlatti L, Giacomelli S, Saleri R, Cavalli V, Andrani M, Donini V. Hair cortisol concentration as a marker of long-term stress: sex and body temperature are major determinants in wild-living Alpine marmots. Mamm Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s42991-022-00264-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AbstractHair cortisol concentration (HCC) has recently gained popularity as an easy-to-measure biomarker of long-term stress in wild and domestic animals. Hair integrates cortisol over long time periods within a single sample and it can be collected non-invasively, which makes its use particularly interesting for wildlife studies. Interpreting HCC values, however, is challenging, because they are determined by the interplay of multiple factors. Here, were explore potential determinants of HCC in the Alpine marmot Marmota marmota. We tested the relationship of sex, age class, physical condition and body temperature with the hair cortisol concentration of free-ranging marmots. We found marked sex difference in HCC, with higher levels in females. This might be related to sex-specific variation in social stress or resulting from physiological difference, e.g., in baseline and stress-induced levels of cortisol secretion. Interestingly, body temperature was also positively related to HCC, possibly hinting at individual short- and long-term stress reactivity as part of coping styles. Although further work is needed to entangle possible mechanisms underlying the neuro-endocrinological modulation on HCC, our results emphasize that determinants such as sex and body temperature in Alpine marmots should be accounted for, when using HCC as marker of chronic stress.
Collapse
|
8
|
do Amaral-Silva L, da Silva WC, Gargaglioni LH, Bícego KC. Metabolic trade-offs favor regulated hypothermia and inhibit fever in immune-challenged chicks. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:274497. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The febrile response to resist a pathogen is energetically expensive while regulated hypothermia seems to preserve energy for vital functions. We hypothesized here that immune challenged birds under metabolic trade-offs (reduced energy supply / increased energy demand) favor a regulated hypothermic response at the expense of fever. To test this hypothesis, we compared 5-days old broiler chicks exposed to fasting, cold (25oC), and fasting combined with cold to a control group fed at thermoneutral condition (30oC). The chicks were injected with saline or with a high dose of endotoxin known to induce a biphasic thermal response composed of body temperature (Tb) drop followed by fever. Then Tb, oxygen consumption (metabolic rate), peripheral vasomotion (cutaneous heat exchange), breathing frequency (respiratory heat exchange), and huddling behavior (heat conservation indicator) were analyzed. Irrespective of metabolic trade-offs, chicks presented a transient regulated hypothermia in the first hour, which relied on a suppressed metabolic rate for all groups, increased breathing frequency for chicks fed/fasted at 30oC, and peripheral vasodilation in fed/fasted chicks at 25oC. Fever was observed only in chicks kept at thermoneutrality and was supported by peripheral vasoconstriction and huddling behavior. Fed and fasted chicks at 25oC completely eliminated fever despite the ability to increase metabolic rate for thermogenesis in the phase correspondent to fever when it was pharmacologically induced by 2.4-Dinitrophenol. Our data suggest that increased competing demands affect chicks’ response to an immune challenge favoring regulated hypothermia to preserve energy while the high costs of fever to resist a pathogen are avoided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lara do Amaral-Silva
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, São Paulo State University (FCAV-UNESP), Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro (UNCG), Greensboro, NC, USA
| | - Welex Cândido da Silva
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, São Paulo State University (FCAV-UNESP), Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Luciane Helena Gargaglioni
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, São Paulo State University (FCAV-UNESP), Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Kênia Cardoso Bícego
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, São Paulo State University (FCAV-UNESP), Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Carli G, Farabollini F. Autonomic correlates of defense responses, including tonic immobility (TI). PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2022; 271:191-228. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2022.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
10
|
Czenze ZJ, Freeman MT, Kemp R, van Jaarsveld B, Wolf BO, McKechnie AE. Efficient Evaporative Cooling and Pronounced Heat Tolerance in an Eagle-Owl, a Thick-Knee and a Sandgrouse. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.799302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Avian evaporative cooling and the maintenance of body temperature (Tb) below lethal limits during heat exposure has received more attention in small species compared to larger-bodied taxa. Here, we examined thermoregulation at air temperatures (Tair) approaching and exceeding normothermic Tb in three larger birds that use gular flutter, thought to provide the basis for pronounced evaporative cooling capacity and heat tolerance. We quantified Tb, evaporative water loss (EWL) and resting metabolic rate (RMR) in the ∼170-g Namaqua sandgrouse (Pterocles namaqua), ∼430-g spotted thick-knee (Burhinus capensis) and ∼670-g spotted eagle-owl (Bubo africanus), using flow-through respirometry and a stepped Tair profile with very low chamber humidities. All three species tolerated Tair of 56–60°C before the onset of severe hyperthermia, with maximum Tb of 43.2°C, 44.3°C, and 44.2°C in sandgrouse, thick-knees and eagle-owls, respectively. Evaporative scope (i.e., maximum EWL/minimum thermoneutral EWL) was 7.4 in sandgrouse, 12.9 in thick-knees and 7.8 in eagle-owls. The relationship between RMR and Tair varied substantially among species: whereas thick-knees and eagle-owls showed clear upper critical limits of thermoneutrality above which RMR increased rapidly and linearly, sandgrouse did not. Maximum evaporative heat loss/metabolic heat production ranged from 2.8 (eagle-owls) to 5.5 (sandgrouse), the latter the highest avian value yet reported. Our data reveal some larger species with gular flutter possess pronounced evaporative cooling capacity and heat tolerance and, when taken together with published data, show thermoregulatory performance varies widely among species larger than 250 g. Our data for Namaqua sandgrouse reveal unexpectedly pronounced variation in the metabolic costs of evaporative cooling within the genus Pterocles.
Collapse
|
11
|
Weimer SL, Wideman RF, Scanes CG, Mauromoustakos A, Christensen KD, Vizzier-Thaxton Y. Impact of experimentally induced bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO) lameness on health, stress, and leg health parameters in broilers. Poult Sci 2021; 100:101457. [PMID: 34607149 PMCID: PMC8496169 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress and lameness negatively affect the health, production, and welfare of broilers. Bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO) is a leading cause of stress and lameness in commercial broilers. External changes in skin temperature related to changes in blood flow can be detected with infrared thermography (IRT), offering a noninvasive tool to assess the health of animals. This study compared physiological and noninvasive measures of stress and lameness in clinically healthy and lame male broiler chickens between 25 and 56 d. Birds were raised in pens within separate environmental chambers containing either litter flooring (sound) or wire flooring, with the latter established to induce BCO lameness (lame). Physiological and noninvasive measures of stress and lameness were collected: body weight, (BW), relative bursa weight, core body temperature, corticosterone (CORT) concentrations in serum and feathers, surface temperatures of the head (eye and beak) and leg (hock, shank, and foot) regions by infrared thermography (IRT), leg blood oxygen saturation (leg O2), and BCO lesion severity scores of tibial head necrosis (THN) and femoral head necrosis (FHN). Lame birds exhibited greater FHN and THN lesion severities, core body temperatures, and serum CORT (P < 0.05), but had lower BW, relative bursa weight, leg O2, and IRT surface temperatures of the beak, hock, shank, and foot compared with sound birds (P < 0.05). The difference in THN lesion severity between sound and lame birds decreased with age. Linear relationships between leg O2 with IRT leg surface temperatures were positive and negative between leg O2 with BCO lesion severity (P < 0.05). There were negative correlations between serum CORT with hock, shank and foot temperatures (P < 0.001), indicating that BCO is stressful. These results indicate that birds lame from BCO are stressed, have reduced oxygen saturation of blood in their legs, and that IRT surface temperatures can be used as noninvasive indicators of stress and lameness in broilers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shawna L Weimer
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
| | - Robert F Wideman
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Colin G Scanes
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Andy Mauromoustakos
- Agricultural Statistics Lab, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Evans KE, Brummett L, Combrink L, Holden K, Catalina G, Farrar S, Rodriguez C, Sparkman AM. Embryonic heart rate correlates with maternal temperature and developmental stage in viviparous snakes. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2020; 253:110874. [PMID: 33348020 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2020.110874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Interactions between the environment and maternal and embryonic physiology can have critical ramifications for early-life phenotypes and survival in a range of species. A major component of the environment-maternal-embryonic nexus is the regulation of embryonic heart rate, which can have important ramifications for developmental phenology, but remains relatively unexplored in viviparous reptiles. The goal of this study was to test for a relationship between embryonic heart rate and maternal body temperature in two species of viviparous garter snakes. The embryonic heart rates of Thamnophis elegans and T. sirtalis were assessed using a field-portable ultrasound. For both T. elegans and T. sirtalis, embryonic heart rate was strongly correlated to maternal temperature. Interestingly, there was also a strong correlation between embryonic and maternal heart rate that was most likely mediated by a common response to maternal body temperature, in spite of the effects of handling during ultrasound on maternal heart rate. Furthermore, embryos at earlier developmental stages had lower heart rates. To our knowledge, this study is the first to explore embryonic heart rate in viviparous reptiles, providing a foundation for future work using ultrasonography to test ecological and evolutionary hypotheses related to developmental dynamics in free-ranging viviparous species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly E Evans
- Westmont College, 955 La Paz Rd, Santa Barbara, CA 93108, USA
| | - Lilly Brummett
- Westmont College, 955 La Paz Rd, Santa Barbara, CA 93108, USA
| | - Lucia Combrink
- Westmont College, 955 La Paz Rd, Santa Barbara, CA 93108, USA
| | | | | | - Sierra Farrar
- Westmont College, 955 La Paz Rd, Santa Barbara, CA 93108, USA
| | - Caleb Rodriguez
- Westmont College, 955 La Paz Rd, Santa Barbara, CA 93108, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Ross M, Rausch Q, Vandenberg B, Mason G. Hens with benefits: Can environmental enrichment make chickens more resilient to stress? Physiol Behav 2020; 226:113077. [PMID: 32738316 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Resilience, the degree to which individuals are physiologically and behaviourally impacted by stressors, can be enhanced by positive experiences (e.g. positive moods in human, environmental enrichment in rodents). Such effects are important for human health, but could also have important animal welfare implications in terms of farm, laboratory and zoo animals' abilities to cope with stressors. Here we investigated whether enrichments can increase resilience in chickens, the world's most abundant agricultural animal. The stress reactivity of laying hens housed for 5-6 weeks in enriched environments was compared to that of controls housed in smaller, emptier, less preferred pens, via: 1) startle reflex amplitudes to an abrupt, intense sensory stimulus (a light flash); and 2) autonomic responses to restraint and the sudden appearance of a novel object, assessed from decreases in comb temperature. Startle amplitudes were consistently reduced in the enriched hens, exerted with around one sixth the force seen in control hens. Maximum comb temperature decreases, and latencies for comb temperatures to return to prestress levels, also both fell by around a third. Enrichment thus reduced hens' intrinsic behavioural and physiological responses to standardized stressors (doing so even outside the home pen), just as occurs in laboratory rodents. Enrichment also reduced baseline comb temperature, suggesting that this could be a non-invasive indicator of welfare. Altered judgment biases did not seem to be the mechanism. Further work should now investigate the processes underlying the apparently enhanced stress resilience of animals housed in preferred conditions, and also investigate baseline comb temperature as a chronic stress indicator in poultry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Misha Ross
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph 50 Stone Road East Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1 Canada
| | - Quinn Rausch
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph 50 Stone Road East Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1 Canada
| | - Brittany Vandenberg
- Ontario Veterinary College (Class of 2022), University of Guelph 50 Stone Road East Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1 Canada
| | - Georgia Mason
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph 50 Stone Road East Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1 Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Weimer SL, Wideman RF, Scanes CG, Mauromoustakos A, Christensen KD, Vizzier-Thaxton Y. Broiler stress responses to light intensity, flooring type, and leg weakness as assessed by heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratios, serum corticosterone, infrared thermography, and latency to lie. Poult Sci 2020; 99:3301-3311. [PMID: 32616223 PMCID: PMC7597826 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2020.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress and leg weakness are detrimental to broiler production, health, and welfare. Traditional methods to evaluate stress may be stressful to the bird because they are invasive and require handling and restraint. Two studies examined the effects of light intensity and flooring on the following in broilers: 1) traditional methods for assessing stress using heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratios and serum corticosterone (CORT) concentrations, 2) noninvasive measures of stress from infrared thermography (IRT) eye and beak surface temperatures, and 3) latency-to-lie (LTL) test times of birds tested individually and in groups of 5. Day-of-hatch male broiler chicks were placed into 6 pens (N = 120 chicks/pen). At 1 wk, pens were allocated to 3 light intensity treatments (2, 5, or 10 lux). At 4 wk, half of the birds from each pen were moved to a pen with wire flooring and the same light intensity. At 1, 4, 5, and 8 wk, blood samples were collected and IRT images of the heads of 5 clinically healthy broilers from each pen were captured. In study 2, IRT images of the heads of birds that became lame in the wire flooring pens were taken. There were no treatment effects on the LTL times of birds tested in groups or individually (P > 0.05). On day 56 in study 1, birds on wire flooring had elevated heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratios and CORT concentrations (P ≤ 0.002) and depressed IRT eye and beak temperatures (P < 0.0001). In both studies, there were negative correlations between CORT concentrations and IRT beak surface temperatures (P < 0.05). Lame birds had lower IRT eye and beak surface temperatures than sound birds (P ≤ 0.004), and the IRT beak surface temperatures of lame birds were lower than their eye surface temperatures (P = 0.004) in study 2. These studies indicate that the IRT surface temperatures of the eye, and more distinctly of the beak, can be used as sensitive noninvasive indicators of stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shawna L Weimer
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
| | - Robert F Wideman
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Colin G Scanes
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Andy Mauromoustakos
- Agricultural Statistics Lab, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Karen D Christensen
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA; Office of Animal Welfare, Tyson Foods, Springdale, AR 72762, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Robertson JK, Mastromonaco G, Burness G. Evidence that stress-induced changes in surface temperature serve a thermoregulatory function. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb213421. [PMID: 31974220 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.213421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
The fact that body temperature can rise or fall following exposure to stressors has been known for nearly two millennia; however, the functional value of this phenomenon remains poorly understood. We tested two competing hypotheses to explain stress-induced changes in temperature, with respect to surface tissues. Under the first hypothesis, changes in surface temperature are a consequence of vasoconstriction that occur to attenuate blood loss in the event of injury and serve no functional purpose per se; defined as the 'haemoprotective hypothesis'. Under the second hypothesis, changes in surface temperature reduce thermoregulatory burdens experienced during activation of a stress response, and thus hold a direct functional value: the 'thermoprotective hypothesis'. To understand whether stress-induced changes in surface temperature have functional consequences, we tested predictions of these two hypotheses by exposing black-capped chickadees (n=20) to rotating stressors across an ecologically relevant ambient temperature gradient, while non-invasively monitoring surface temperature (eye region temperature) using infrared thermography. Our results show that individuals exposed to rotating stressors reduce surface temperature and dry heat loss at low ambient temperature and increase surface temperature and dry heat loss at high ambient temperature, when compared with controls. These results support the thermoprotective hypothesis and suggest that changes in surface temperature following stress exposure have functional consequences and are consistent with an adaptation. Such findings emphasize the importance of the thermal environment in shaping physiological responses to stressors in vertebrates, and in doing so, raise questions about their suitability within the context of a changing climate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua K Robertson
- Environmental and Life Sciences Graduate Program, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada, K9L 0G2
- Department of Reproductive Physiology, The Toronto Zoo, Scarborough, Ontario, Canada, M1B 5K7
| | - Gabriela Mastromonaco
- Department of Reproductive Physiology, The Toronto Zoo, Scarborough, Ontario, Canada, M1B 5K7
| | - Gary Burness
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada, K9L 0G2
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Nord A, Folkow LP. Ambient temperature effects on stress-induced hyperthermia in Svalbard ptarmigan. Biol Open 2019; 8:bio.043497. [PMID: 31182628 PMCID: PMC6602330 DOI: 10.1242/bio.043497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Stress-induced hyperthermia (SIH) is commonly observed during handling in homeotherms. However, in birds, handling in cold environments typically elicits hypothermia. It is unclear whether this indicates that SIH is differently regulated in this taxon or if it is due to size, because body temperature changes during handling in low temperatures have only been measured in small birds <0.03 kg (that are more likely to suffer high heat loss when handled). We have therefore studied thermal responses to handling stress in the intermediate-sized (0.5-1.0 kg) Svalbard ptarmigan (Lagopus muta hyperborea) in 0°C and -20°C, in winter and spring. Handling caused elevated core body temperature and peripheral vasoconstriction that reduced back skin temperature. Core temperature increased less, and back skin temperature decreased more, in -20°C than in 0°C, probably because of higher heat-loss rate at the lower temperature. Responses were qualitatively consistent between seasons, despite higher body condition/insulation in winter and dramatic seasonal changes in photoperiod, both of which could possibly affect stress responsiveness. Our study supports the notion that SIH is a general thermoregulatory reaction to acute stressors in endotherms, but also suggests that body size and thermal environment should be taken into account when evaluating this response in birds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Nord
- Department of Biology, Section for Evolutionary Ecology, Lund University, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden .,Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, University of Tromsø-the Arctic University of Norway, NO-9037 Tromsø, Norway.,Institute for Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Scottish Centre for Ecology and the Natural Environment, University of Glasgow, Rowardennan G63 0AW, United Kingdom
| | - Lars P Folkow
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, University of Tromsø-the Arctic University of Norway, NO-9037 Tromsø, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Moe R, Bohlin J, Flø A, Vasdal G, Erlandsen H, Guneriussen E, Sjökvist E, Stubsjøen S. Effects of subclinical footpad dermatitis and emotional arousal on surface foot temperature recorded with infrared thermography in turkey toms (Meleagris gallopavo). Poult Sci 2018; 97:2249-2257. [DOI: 10.3382/ps/pey033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
|
18
|
Abstract
Monitoring devices affected adult hen behaviour on the day of fitting. Hens prioritized (re)moving newly fitted devices over exploration. Devices did not increase aggressive behaviour towards equipped hens. From two days after fitting on, only a very minor effect on behaviour was observed. Peripheral eye temperature seemed related to preening behaviour rather than stress.
Automated monitoring of behaviour can offer a wealth of information in circumstances where observing behaviour is difficult or time consuming. However, this often requires attaching monitoring devices to the animal which can alter behaviour, potentially invalidating any data collected. Birds often show increased preening and energy expenditure when wearing devices and, especially in laying hens, there is a risk that individuals wearing devices will attract aggression from conspecifics. We studied the behavioural and physiological response of 20 laying hens to backpacks containing monitoring devices fastened with elastic loops around the wing base. We hypothesised that backpacks would lead to a stress-induced decrease in peripheral temperature, increased preening, more aggression from conspecifics, and reduced bodyweights. This was evaluated by thermography of the eye and comb (when isolated after fitting backpacks), direct observations of behaviour (when isolated, when placed back into the group, and on later days), and weighing (before and after each 7-day experimental period). Each hen wore a backpack during one of the two experimental periods only and was used as her own control. Contrary to our hypothesis, eye temperature was higher when hens wore a backpack (No backpack: 30.2 °C (IQR: 29.0–30.6) vs. Backpack: 30.9 °C (IQR: 30.0–32.0), P < 0.001). Eye temperature of hens wearing a backpack was strongly correlated to the time spent preening (rs = 0.8, P < 0.001), suggesting that the higher temperatures may have been due to preening itself, or to a low head position or decreased heat dissipation when preening under the wings. Aggressive behaviour was very rare and no effect of the backpacks was found. In line with our hypothesis, backpacks increased preening on the day of fitting, both when isolated (No backpack: 0% (IQR: 0–1) vs. Backpack: 22% (IQR: 1–43), P < 0.01) and when back in the group (No backpack: 0% (IQR: 0–27) vs. Backpack: 43% (IQR: 5–77), P < 0.001). However, no effect on preening was observed 2–7 days afterwards. Other behavioural changes suggested that on the day of fitting hens prioritized attempts to (re)move the backpack and were less attentive to their surroundings. However, only equipment pecking (i.e., pecking the backpack or leg rings) was still affected 2–7 days after fitting (No backpack: 0 pecks/hen/minute (IQR: 0–0), vs. Backpack: 0 (IQR: 0–0.07), P < 0.05). We found no effect of our backpacks on bodyweight. In conclusion, our backpacks seem suitable to attach monitoring equipment to hens with only a very minor effect on their behaviour after a short acclimation period (≤2 days).
Collapse
|
19
|
Phenotypic divergence despite low genetic differentiation in house sparrow populations. Sci Rep 2018; 8:394. [PMID: 29321524 PMCID: PMC5762629 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-18718-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Studying patterns of phenotypic variation among populations can shed light on the drivers of evolutionary processes. The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is one of the world's most ubiquitous bird species, as well as a successful invader. We investigated phenotypic variation in house sparrow populations across a climatic gradient and in relation to a possible scenario of an invasion. We measured variation in morphological, coloration, and behavioral traits (exploratory behavior and neophobia) and compared it to the neutral genetic variation. We found that sparrows were larger and darker in northern latitudes, in accordance with Bergmann's and Gloger's biogeographic rules. Morphology and behavior mostly differed between the southernmost populations and the other regions, supporting the possibility of an invasion. Genetic differentiation was low and diversity levels were similar across populations, indicating high gene flow. Nevertheless, the southernmost and northern populations differed genetically to some extent. Furthermore, genetic differentiation (F ST) was lower in comparison to phenotypic variation (P ST), indicating that the phenotypic variation is shaped by directional selection or by phenotypic plasticity. This study expands our knowledge on evolutionary mechanisms and biological invasions.
Collapse
|
20
|
Abstract
Stress affects core body temperature (Tc). Many kinds of stress induce transient, monophasic hyperthermia, which diminishes gradually if the stressor is terminated. Stronger stressors produce a longer-lasting effect. Repeated/chronic stress induces anticipatory hyperthermia, reduces diurnal changes in Tc, or slightly increases Tc throughout the day. Animals that are exposed to chronic stress or a cold environment exhibit an enhanced hyperthermic response to a novel stress. These changes persist for several days after cessation of stress exposure. In contrast, long-lasting inescapable stress sometimes induces hypothermia. In healthy humans, psychologic stress induces slight increases in Tc, which are within the normal range of Tc or just above it. Some individuals, however, develop extremely high Tc (up to 41°C) when they are exposed to emotional events or show persistent low-grade high Tc (37-38°C) during or after chronic stress situations. In addition to the nature of the stressor itself, such stress-induced thermal responses are modulated by sex, age, ambient temperature, cage mates, past stressful experiences and cold exposure, and coping. Stress-induced hyperthermia is driven by mechanisms distinct from infectious fever, which requires inflammatory mediators. However, both stress and infection activate the dorsomedial hypothalamus-rostral medullary raphe region-sympathetic nerve axis to increase Tc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takakazu Oka
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, International University of Health and Welfare Hospital, Tochigi-ken, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Gygax L. Wanting, liking and welfare: The role of affective states in proximate control of behaviour in vertebrates. Ethology 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lorenz Gygax
- Centre for Proper Housing of Ruminants and Pigs; Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO; Ettenhausen Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Lewden A, Enstipp MR, Picard B, van Walsum T, Handrich Y. High peripheral temperatures in king penguins while resting at sea: thermoregulation versus fat deposition. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [PMID: 28623225 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.158980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Marine endotherms living in cold water face an energetically challenging situation. Unless properly insulated, these animals will lose heat rapidly. The field metabolic rate of king penguins at sea is about twice that on land. However, when at sea, their metabolic rate is higher during extended resting periods at the surface than during foraging, when birds descend to great depth in pursuit of their prey. This is most likely explained by differences in thermal status. During foraging, peripheral vasoconstriction leads to a hypothermic shell, which is rewarmed during extended resting bouts at the surface. Maintaining peripheral perfusion during rest in cold water, however, will greatly increase heat loss and, therefore, thermoregulatory costs. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the maintenance of a normothermic shell during surface rest: (1) to help the unloading of N2 accumulated during diving; and (2) to allow the storage of fat in subcutaneous tissue, following the digestion of food. We tested the latter hypothesis by maintaining king penguins within a shallow seawater tank, while we recorded tissue temperature at four distinct sites. When king penguins were released into the tank during the day, their body temperature immediately declined. However, during the night, periodic rewarming of abdominal and peripheral tissues occurred, mimicking temperature patterns observed in the wild. Body temperatures, particularly in the flank, also depended on body condition and were higher in 'lean' birds (after 10 days of fasting) than in 'fat' birds. While not explicitly tested, our observation that nocturnal rewarming persists in the absence of diving activity during the day does not support the N2 unloading hypothesis. Rather, differences in temperature changes throughout the day and night, and the effect of body condition/mass supports the hypothesis that tissue perfusion during rest is required for nutritional needs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Agnès Lewden
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, IPHC UMR 7178, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Manfred R Enstipp
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, IPHC UMR 7178, F-67000 Strasbourg, France.,Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, UMR 7372, 79360 Villiers en Bois, France
| | - Baptiste Picard
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, UMR 7372, 79360 Villiers en Bois, France
| | - Tessa van Walsum
- University of Roehampton, Department of Life Sciences, London SW15 4JD, UK
| | - Yves Handrich
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, IPHC UMR 7178, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Abstract
Infrared thermography (IRT) is increasingly applied as a noninvasive technique for measuring surface body temperature alterations related to e.g. stress, emotions and leg pathologies in avian species. As a basis for the validation of IRT as a future tool for veterinary diagnostics such as detection and/or prediction of subclinical footpad pathologies in broiler chickens, this study explored effects of manual restraint at two different ages on footpad temperatures. Head region temperatures were applied as additional measures of emotional arousal and stress. The study demonstrated that footpad temperatures dropped during 10min of restraint (p<0.001, -0.45°C 95% CI (-0.49, -0.41) per min), whilst head region temperatures (e.g. nostril, wattle, eye, and average head temperature) rose (p=0.004, 0.76°C 95% CI (0.39, 1.15) per 10min), which is consistent with body temperature alterations during emotional arousal and stress, termed stress-induces hyperthermia. Temperature differed between 30 and 36 d (p<0.001, 1.71°C 95% CI (1.04, 2.38) per week), but it is impossible to draw conclusions whether this effect was caused by age or by conditioning. Furthermore, sequential sampling order affected temperature (p=0.04, 0.13°C 95% CI (0.01, 0.25)). In conclusion, one needs to take into account the duration of handling and restraint during the assessment of footpad temperatures, as well as the chickens age, previous experience and sequential sampling order, when using IRT technology as a future noninvasive tool to study temperature alterations associated with subclinical footpad pathologies in broiler chickens.
Collapse
|
24
|
Body temperature responses to handling stress in wintering Black-capped Chickadees (Poecile atricapillus L.). Physiol Behav 2017; 179:49-54. [PMID: 28528893 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Revised: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Body temperature variation in response to acute stress is typically characterized by peripheral vasoconstriction and a concomitant increase in core body temperature (stress-induced hyperthermia). It is poorly understood how this response differs between species and within individuals of the same species, and how it is affected by the environment. We therefore investigated stress-induced body temperature changes in a non-model species, the Black-capped Chickadee, in two environmental conditions: outdoors in low ambient temperature (mean: -6.6°C), and indoors, in milder ambient temperature close to thermoneutrality (mean: 18.7°C). Our results show that the change in body temperature in response to the same handling stressor differs in these conditions. In cold environments, we noted a significant decrease in core body temperature (-2.9°C), whereas the response in mild indoor conditions was weak and non-significant (-0.6°C). Heat loss in outdoor birds was exacerbated when birds were handled for longer time. This may highlight the role of behavioral thermoregulation and heat substitution from activity to body temperature maintenance in harsh condition. Importantly, our work also indicates that changes in the physical properties of the bird during handling (conductive cooling from cold hands, decreased insulation from compression of plumage and prevention of ptiloerection) may have large consequences for thermoregulation. This might explain why females, the smaller sex, lost more heat than males in the experiment. Because physiological and physical changes during handling may carry over to affect predation risk and maintenance of energy balance during short winter days, we advice caution when designing experimental protocols entailing prolonged handling of small birds in cold conditions.
Collapse
|
25
|
Huber N, Vetter SG, Evans AL, Kjellander P, Küker S, Bergvall UA, Arnemo JM. Quantifying capture stress in free ranging European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). BMC Vet Res 2017; 13:127. [PMID: 28490331 PMCID: PMC5424289 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-017-1045-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To understand and reduce the concomitant effects of trapping and handling procedures in wildlife species, it is essential to measure their physiological impact. Here, we examined individual variation in stress levels in non-anesthetized European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), which were captured in box traps and physically restrained for tagging, biometrics and bio-sampling. In winter 2013, we collected venous blood samples from 28 individuals during 28 capture events and evaluated standard measurements for stress (heart rate, body temperature, neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio, lactate and total cortisol). Additionally, we assessed stress using the immunological tool, Leukocyte Coping Capacity (LCC), a real-time proxy for stress measuring oxygen radical production by leukocytes. Finally, the behavioral response to handling was recorded using a scoring system. RESULTS LCC and therefore stress levels were negatively influenced by the time animals spent in the box trap with human presence at the capture site prior to handling. In contrast, none of the classical stress measures, including total cortisol, nor the behavioral assessment, were correlated with the stressor tested (time of human presence prior to handling) and thus did not provide a clear depiction regarding the extent of the animals short-term stress response. CONCLUSIONS Overall our study verifies the LCC as a strong method to quantify short-term stress reactions in wildlife. Moreover, our results clearly show that human presence at the trapping site prior to handling should be kept to an absolute minimum in order to reduce stress levels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaus Huber
- Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Sebastian G Vetter
- Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alina L Evans
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Faculty of Applied Ecology and Agricultural Sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Campus Evenstad, NO-2418, Elverum, Norway
| | - Petter Kjellander
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Grimsö Wildlife Research Station, SE-730 91, Riddarhyttan, Sweden
| | - Susanne Küker
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Faculty of Applied Ecology and Agricultural Sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Campus Evenstad, NO-2418, Elverum, Norway
- Department of Clinical Research and Veterinary Public Health, Veterinary Public Health Institute, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ulrika A Bergvall
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Grimsö Wildlife Research Station, SE-730 91, Riddarhyttan, Sweden
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, SE-106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jon M Arnemo
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Faculty of Applied Ecology and Agricultural Sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Campus Evenstad, NO-2418, Elverum, Norway
- Department of Wildlife, Fish and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Marino L. Thinking chickens: a review of cognition, emotion, and behavior in the domestic chicken. Anim Cogn 2017; 20:127-147. [PMID: 28044197 PMCID: PMC5306232 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-016-1064-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2015] [Revised: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Domestic chickens are members of an order, Aves, which has been the focus of a revolution in our understanding of neuroanatomical, cognitive, and social complexity. At least some birds are now known to be on par with many mammals in terms of their level of intelligence, emotional sophistication, and social interaction. Yet, views of chickens have largely remained unrevised by this new evidence. In this paper, I examine the peer-reviewed scientific data on the leading edge of cognition, emotions, personality, and sociality in chickens, exploring such areas as self-awareness, cognitive bias, social learning and self-control, and comparing their abilities in these areas with other birds and other vertebrates, particularly mammals. My overall conclusion is that chickens are just as cognitively, emotionally and socially complex as most other birds and mammals in many areas, and that there is a need for further noninvasive comparative behavioral research with chickens as well as a re-framing of current views about their intelligence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lori Marino
- The Someone Project, The Kimmela Center for Animal Advocacy, 4100 Kanab Canyon Road, Kanab, UT, 84741, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Doss GA, Mans C. The Effect of Manual Restraint on Physiological Parameters in Barred Owls (Strix varia). J Avian Med Surg 2017; 31:1-5. [DOI: 10.1647/2016-167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
28
|
|
29
|
Rey S, Huntingford FA, Boltaña S, Vargas R, Knowles TG, Mackenzie S. Fish can show emotional fever: stress-induced hyperthermia in zebrafish. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 282:rspb.2015.2266. [PMID: 26609087 PMCID: PMC4685827 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.2266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Whether fishes are sentient beings remains an unresolved and controversial question. Among characteristics thought to reflect a low level of sentience in fishes is an inability to show stress-induced hyperthermia (SIH), a transient rise in body temperature shown in response to a variety of stressors. This is a real fever response, so is often referred to as ‘emotional fever’. It has been suggested that the capacity for emotional fever evolved only in amniotes (mammals, birds and reptiles), in association with the evolution of consciousness in these groups. According to this view, lack of emotional fever in fishes reflects a lack of consciousness. We report here on a study in which six zebrafish groups with access to a temperature gradient were either left as undisturbed controls or subjected to a short period of confinement. The results were striking: compared to controls, stressed zebrafish spent significantly more time at higher temperatures, achieving an estimated rise in body temperature of about 2–4°C. Thus, zebrafish clearly have the capacity to show emotional fever. While the link between emotion and consciousness is still debated, this finding removes a key argument for lack of consciousness in fishes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Rey
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Felicity A Huntingford
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Sebastian Boltaña
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Reynaldo Vargas
- Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Toby G Knowles
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK
| | - Simon Mackenzie
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Nilsson JÅ, Molokwu MN, Olsson O. Body Temperature Regulation in Hot Environments. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0161481. [PMID: 27548758 PMCID: PMC4993450 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 08/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Organisms in hot environments will not be able to passively dissipate metabolically generated heat. Instead, they have to revert to evaporative cooling, a process that is energetically expensive and promotes excessive water loss. To alleviate these costs, birds in captivity let their body temperature increase, thereby entering a state of hyperthermia. Here we explore the use of hyperthermia in wild birds captured during the hot and dry season in central Nigeria. We found pronounced hyperthermia in several species with the highest body temperatures close to predicted lethal levels. Furthermore, birds let their body temperature increase in direct relation to ambient temperatures, increasing body temperature by 0.22°C for each degree of increased ambient temperature. Thus to offset the costs of thermoregulation in ambient temperatures above the upper critical temperature, birds are willing to let their body temperatures increase by up to 5°C above normal temperatures. This flexibility in body temperature may be an important mechanism for birds to adjust to predicted increasing ambient temperatures in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Åke Nilsson
- Department of Biology, Lund University, SE-223 62, Lund, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| | - Mary Ngozi Molokwu
- Fauna & Flora International, 1000, Monrovia 10, Liberia
- A.P. Leventis Ornithological Research Institute, P.O. Box 13404, Jos, Nigeria
| | - Ola Olsson
- Department of Biology, Lund University, SE-223 62, Lund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Doss GA, Mans C. Changes in Physiologic Parameters and Effects of Hooding in Red-tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) During Manual Restraint. J Avian Med Surg 2016; 30:127-32. [DOI: 10.1647/2015-096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
32
|
Lee A, Lennox A. Sedation and Local Anesthesia as an Alternative to General Anesthesia in 3 Birds. J Exot Pet Med 2016. [DOI: 10.1053/j.jepm.2016.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
33
|
Travain T, Colombo ES, Grandi LC, Heinzl E, Pelosi A, Prato Previde E, Valsecchi P. How good is this food? A study on dogs' emotional responses to a potentially pleasant event using infrared thermography. Physiol Behav 2016; 159:80-7. [PMID: 26996276 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/16/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how animals express positive emotions is becoming an interesting and promising area of research in the study of animal emotions and affective experiences. In the present study, we used infrared thermography in combination with behavioral measures, heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV), to investigate dogs' emotional responses to a potentially pleasant event: receiving palatable food from the owner. Nineteen adult pet dogs, 8 females and 11 males, were tested and their eye temperature, HR, HRV and behavior were recorded during a 30-minutestestconsisting of three 10-minute consecutive phases: Baseline (Phase 1), positive stimulation through the administration of palatable treats (Feeding, Phase 2) and Post-feeding condition following the positive stimulation (Phase 3). Dogs' eye temperature and mean HR significantly increased during the positive stimulation phase compared with both Baseline and Post-feeding phases. During the positive stimulation with food (Phase 2), dogs engaged in behaviors indicating a positive emotional state and a high arousal, being focused on food treats and increasing tail wagging. However, there was no evidence of an increase in HRV during Phase 2 compared to the Phase 1, with SDNN significantly increasing only in Phase 3, after the positive stimulation occurred. Overall results point out that IRT may be a useful tool in assessing emotional states in dogs in terms of arousal but fails to discriminate emotional valence, whose interpretation cannot disregard behavioral indexes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiziano Travain
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Unità di Biologia del Comportamento, Università degli Studi di Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Elisa Silvia Colombo
- Dipartimento di Fisiopatologia Medico-Chirurgica e dei Trapianti, Sezione di Neuroscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Fratelli Cervi 93, Segrate, 20090 MI, Italy.
| | - Laura Clara Grandi
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Unità di Fisiologia, Università degli Studi di Parma, via Volturno 39, 43125 Parma, Italy.
| | - Eugenio Heinzl
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie e Sanità Pubblica, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 10, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Annalisa Pelosi
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Unità di Psicologia, Università degli Studi di Parma, Piazzale San Francesco 1, 43121 Parma, Italy.
| | - Emanuela Prato Previde
- Dipartimento di Fisiopatologia Medico-Chirurgica e dei Trapianti, Sezione di Neuroscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Fratelli Cervi 93, Segrate, 20090 MI, Italy.
| | - Paola Valsecchi
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Unità di Biologia del Comportamento, Università degli Studi di Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Updates in Perioperative Care: Ideas from the Human Field. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2015; 19:1-12. [PMID: 26611921 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2015.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The article focuses mainly on appropriate patient preparation for an anesthetic episode. Special attention is given to evaluate the environmental situation for optimal adjustment to reduce stress before the anesthetic event. During the anesthetic event, special attention must be paid regarding monitoring and, evaluating the patient during and after the anesthetic episode.
Collapse
|
35
|
Jerem P, Herborn K, McCafferty D, McKeegan D, Nager R. Thermal Imaging to Study Stress Non-invasively in Unrestrained Birds. J Vis Exp 2015:e53184. [PMID: 26575985 PMCID: PMC4692699 DOI: 10.3791/53184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress, a central concept in biology, describes a suite of emergency responses to challenges. Among other responses, stress leads to a change in blood flow that results in a net influx of blood to key organs and an increase in core temperature. This stress-induced hyperthermia is used to assess stress. However, measuring core temperature is invasive. As blood flow is redirected to the core, the periphery of the body can cool. This paper describes a protocol where peripheral body temperature is measured non-invasively in wild blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) using infrared thermography. In the field we created a set-up bringing the birds to an ideal position in front of the camera by using a baited box. The camera takes a short thermal video recording of the undisturbed bird before applying a mild stressor (closing the box and therefore capturing the bird), and the bird’s response to being trapped is recorded. The bare skin of the eye-region is the warmest area in the image. This allows an automated extraction of the maximum eye-region temperature from each image frame, followed by further steps of manual data filtering removing the most common sources of errors (motion blur, blinking). This protocol provides a time series of eye-region temperature with a fine temporal resolution that allows us to study the dynamics of the stress response non-invasively. Further work needs to demonstrate the usefulness of the method to assess stress, for instance to investigate whether eye-region temperature response is proportional to the strength of the stressor. If this can be confirmed, it will provide a valuable alternative method of stress assessment in animals and will be useful to a wide range of researchers from ecologists, conservation biologists, physiologists to animal welfare researchers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Jerem
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow
| | - Katherine Herborn
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow
| | - Dominic McCafferty
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow
| | - Dorothy McKeegan
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow
| | - Ruedi Nager
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow;
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Herborn KA, Graves JL, Jerem P, Evans NP, Nager R, McCafferty DJ, McKeegan DEF. Skin temperature reveals the intensity of acute stress. Physiol Behav 2015; 152:225-30. [PMID: 26434785 PMCID: PMC4664114 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.09.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Revised: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Acute stress triggers peripheral vasoconstriction, causing a rapid, short-term drop in skin temperature in homeotherms. We tested, for the first time, whether this response has the potential to quantify stress, by exhibiting proportionality with stressor intensity. We used established behavioural and hormonal markers: activity level and corticosterone level, to validate a mild and more severe form of an acute restraint stressor in hens (Gallus gallus domesticus). We then used infrared thermography (IRT) to non-invasively collect continuous temperature measurements following exposure to these two intensities of acute handling stress. In the comb and wattle, two skin regions with a known thermoregulatory role, stressor intensity predicted the extent of initial skin cooling, and also the occurrence of a more delayed skin warming, providing two opportunities to quantify stress. With the present, cost-effective availability of IRT technology, this non-invasive and continuous method of stress assessment in unrestrained animals has the potential to become common practice in pure and applied research. We measured skin temperature in hens following a mild or more severe acute stressor. The temperature of thermoregulatory tissues temporarily dropped under acute stress. The magnitude of this skin temperature change reflected acute stressor intensity. Infrared thermography offers a non-invasive method of stress assessment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Herborn
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
| | - James L Graves
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Paul Jerem
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Neil P Evans
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Ruedi Nager
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Dominic J McCafferty
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Dorothy E F McKeegan
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Eye surface temperature detects stress response in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). Neuroreport 2015; 26:642-6. [DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000000403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
38
|
Stress-induced core temperature changes in pigeons (Columba livia). Physiol Behav 2015; 139:449-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.11.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Revised: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
39
|
Proctor HS, Carder G. Nasal temperatures in dairy cows are influenced by positive emotional state. Physiol Behav 2014; 138:340-4. [PMID: 25446197 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2014] [Revised: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how animals express positive emotions is an important area of focus for animal welfare science, yet it is widely neglected. Emotions can be either positive or negative in valence, depending on the rewarding or punishing nature of the stimulus, and they can vary in the degree of arousal or excitement. Previous literature has shown a strong connection between peripheral temperatures and high arousal, negative experiences. Stress, fear and frustration have all been found to cause a drop in peripheral temperature. Little is known however, about whether the experience of positive emotions affects peripheral temperatures. In this study we sought to identify whether the nasal temperature of cows was affected by emotions, and if nasal temperature could be reliably used as a measure of emotional state in cows. We induced a positive, low arousal emotional state by stroking cows in preferred regions, in a similar manner to allogrooming. We performed 350 full focal observations, each comprising three conditions; pre-stroking, stroking, and post-stroking. During each 15minute focal observation we remotely took the focal cow's nasal temperature six times, twice during each condition. We analysed the data using the one-way ANOVA repeated measures test and found a significant difference overall (F (2, 1.935)=9.372, p<0.01). Post-hoc pairwise comparisons indicated that the total mean nasal temperature decreased significantly during the stroking condition (25.91°C, SD=1.21), compared with both the pre-stroking (26.27°C, SD=1.01, p<0.01) and post-stroking conditions (26.44°C, SD=1.12, p<0.01). There was no significant difference between the pre-stroking and post-stroking conditions (p=0.14). We suggest that the cows were in a low state of arousal during the entire focal observation, as no other changes to the cows' environment had been made, and the cows were habituated to both the procedure and the researchers. Furthermore, the stroking stimulus is known to induce a state of relaxation and lower the heart rate of cows. This leads us to conclude that the drop in nasal temperature was indicative of the change in valence, rather than a change in arousal. These findings show that positive emotional state may have the same effect on the peripheral temperatures of mammals as a negative state does. This raises questions regarding the triggers for emotional fever, which is often considered to be associated only with negative states and high arousal. Our results indicate that nasal temperature in cows may prove to be a useful measure of a change in emotional state, but further research is required to validate these findings and to explore the effect of arousal on peripheral temperatures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helen S Proctor
- World Animal Protection, 5th Floor, 222 Gray's Inn Rd, London WC1X 8HB, UK.
| | - Gemma Carder
- World Animal Protection, 5th Floor, 222 Gray's Inn Rd, London WC1X 8HB, UK
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Smith CF, Gavaghan BJ, McSweeney D, Powell V, Lisle A. Comparison of the measurement of heart rate in adult free-range chickens (Gallus domesticus) by auscultation and electrocardiography. Aust Vet J 2014; 92:509-11. [PMID: 25294609 DOI: 10.1111/avj.12254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the heart rates of adult free-range chickens (Gallus domesticus) measured by auscultation with a stethoscope with those measured simultaneously using electrocardiography (ECG). METHODS With each bird in a standing position, estimation of the heart rate was performed by placing a mark on paper for every 4 beats for roosters and 8 beats for hens as detected by auscultation over 30 s, while simultaneous ECG was performed. RESULTS Heart rates measured by auscultation showed a high correlation (r = 0.97) with those measured by ECG. CONCLUSION There was a high correlation between the heart rates of adult free-range chickens measured by auscultation with a stethoscope and those measured simultaneously using ECG.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C F Smith
- School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Davies AC, Nicol CJ, Persson ME, Radford AN. Behavioural and physiological effects of finely balanced decision-making in chickens. PLoS One 2014; 9:e108809. [PMID: 25275440 PMCID: PMC4183509 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0108809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2014] [Accepted: 08/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In humans, more difficult decisions result in behavioural and physiological changes suggestive of increased arousal, but little is known about the effect of decision difficulty in other species. A difficult decision can have a number of characteristics; we aimed to monitor how finely balanced decisions, compared to unbalanced ones, affected the behaviour and physiology of chickens. An unbalanced decision was one in which the two options were of unequal net value (1 (Q1) vs. 6 (Q6) pieces of sweetcorn with no cost associated with either option); a finely balanced decision was one in which the options were of equal net value (i.e. hens were "indifferent" to both options). To identify hens' indifference, a titration procedure was used in which a cost (electromagnetic weight on an access door) was applied to the Q6 option, to find the individual point at which hens chose this option approximately equally to Q1 via a non-weighted door. We then compared behavioural and physiological indicators of arousal (head movements, latency to choose, heart-rate variability and surface body temperature) when chickens made decisions that were unbalanced or finely balanced. Significant physiological (heart-rate variability) and behavioural (latency to pen) differences were found between the finely balanced and balanced conditions, but these were likely to be artefacts of the greater time and effort required to push through the weighted doors. No other behavioural and physiological measures were significantly different between the decision categories. We suggest that more information is needed on when best to monitor likely changes in arousal during decision-making and that future studies should consider decisions defined as difficult in other ways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna C Davies
- School of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Christine J Nicol
- School of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Mia E Persson
- Avian Behavioural Genomics and Physiology Group, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Andrew N Radford
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Deguchi T, Suryan RM, Ozaki K. Muscle damage and behavioral consequences from prolonged handling of albatross chicks for transmitter attachment. J Wildl Manage 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Deguchi
- Division of Avian Conservation; Yamashina Institute for Ornithology; Konoyama 115 Abiko Chiba 270-1145 Japan
| | - Robert M. Suryan
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife; Oregon State University; Hatfield Marine Science Center; 2030S.E. Marine Science Drive Newport OR 97365 USA
| | - Kiyoaki Ozaki
- Division of Avian Conservation; Yamashina Institute for Ornithology; Konoyama 115 Abiko Chiba 270-1145 Japan
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Moe RO, Nordgreen J, Janczak AM, Bakken M, Spruijt BM, Jensen P. Anticipatory and foraging behaviors in response to palatable food reward in chickens: effects of dopamine D2 receptor blockade and domestication. Physiol Behav 2014; 133:170-7. [PMID: 24878313 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2014] [Revised: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Behaviors associated with anticipation and search for palatable food may provide information about dopaminergic reward processes and positive motivational affect in animals. The overall aim was to investigate the involvement of dopamine signaling in the regulation of cue-induced anticipation and search for palatable food reward in chicken, and whether domestication has affected expression of reward-related behaviors. The specific aims were to describe effects of mealworms (palatable food for hens) and haloperidol (a dopamine D2 antagonist) on foraging behaviors and cue-induced anticipatory behaviors in Red Junglefowl (RJF; the wild ancestor of modern laying hens) and a white layer hybrid (LSL). RJF (n=26) and LSL (n=20) were initially trained on a conditioning schedule to anticipate mealworms (unconditioned stimulus; US) 25s after exposure to a red light (conditioned stimulus; CS). For the experiment, hens received haloperidol or saline injections 30 min before exposure to one CS+US combination. Behavior was registered 10 min before CS and 10 min after US (foraging behaviors), and during the CS-US interval (anticipatory behaviors). Higher frequencies of CS-induced anticipatory head movements, faster approach to rewards, and higher frequency of foraging behaviors were found in LSL compared to RJF. Haloperidol suppressed CS-induced head movements in both breeds, and the frequency of foraging behaviors after reward delivery. The results support a role of dopamine signaling in the regulation of reward processes in chickens, and suggest that domestication has changed the threshold for perceiving food incentives and/or for expressing reward-related behaviors that may be indicative of positive motivational affect in hens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Randi Oppermann Moe
- Animal Welfare Research Group, NMBU, School of Veterinary Science, P.O. Box 8146 dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway; Department of Production Animal Clinical Sciences, Norway.
| | - Janicke Nordgreen
- Animal Welfare Research Group, NMBU, School of Veterinary Science, P.O. Box 8146 dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway; Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Norway
| | - Andrew M Janczak
- Animal Welfare Research Group, NMBU, School of Veterinary Science, P.O. Box 8146 dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway; Department of Production Animal Clinical Sciences, Norway
| | - Morten Bakken
- NMBU, Department of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, 1432 Aas, Norway
| | - Berry M Spruijt
- University of Utrecht, Department of Biology, P.O. Box 80125, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Per Jensen
- Linköping University, IFM Biology, AVIAN Behavioural Genomics and Physiology Group, S-581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Part CE, Kiddie JL, Hayes WA, Mills DS, Neville RF, Morton DB, Collins LM. Physiological, physical and behavioural changes in dogs (Canis familiaris) when kennelled: testing the validity of stress parameters. Physiol Behav 2014; 133:260-71. [PMID: 24866912 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Revised: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) housed in kennelling establishments are considered at risk of suffering poor welfare. Previous research supporting this hypothesis has typically used cortisol:creatinine ratios (C/Cr) to measure acute and chronic stress in kennelled dogs. However, the value of C/Cr as a welfare indicator has been questioned. This study aimed to test the validity of a range of physiological, physical and behavioural welfare indicators and to establish baseline values reflecting good dog welfare. Measurements were taken from 29 privately-owned dogs (14 males, 15 females), ranging in age and breed, in their own home and in a boarding kennel environment, following a within-subjects, counterbalanced design. Pairwise comparisons revealed that C/Cr and vanillylmandelic acid:creatinine ratios (VMA/Cr) were higher in the kennel than home environment (P=0.003; P=0.01, respectively) and were not associated with differences in movement/exercise between environments. Dogs' surface temperature was lower in kennels (P=0.001) and was not associated with ambient temperature. No association with age, or effects of kennel establishment, kennelling experience, sex or source were found. Dogs were generally more active in kennels, but showed considerable individual variability. C/Cr and 5-HIAA:creatinine ratios (5-HIAA/Cr) were negatively correlated with lip licking in kennels. Baseline values for each parameter are presented. The emotional valence of responses was ambiguous and no definitive evidence was found to suggest that dogs were negatively stressed by kennelling. It was concluded that C/Cr and, particularly, VMA/Cr and surface temperature provide robust indicators of psychological arousal in dogs, while spontaneous behaviour might be better used to facilitate interpretation of physiological and physical data on an individual level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C E Part
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, Lisburn Road, Belfast BT7 9BL, UK
| | - J L Kiddie
- The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
| | - W A Hayes
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Riseholme Park, Lincoln LN2 2LG, UK
| | - D S Mills
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Riseholme Park, Lincoln LN2 2LG, UK
| | - R F Neville
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Riseholme Park, Lincoln LN2 2LG, UK
| | - D B Morton
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - L M Collins
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, Lisburn Road, Belfast BT7 9BL, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
To ESK, Laberge F. Illness-dependent conditioned prey avoidance in an amphibian. Behav Processes 2014; 103:291-6. [PMID: 24480408 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2014.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2013] [Revised: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Conditioned taste avoidance (CTA) helps prevent consumption of dangerous foods. It results from the pairing of a novel food or taste with subsequent aversive consequences, such as illness. Previous studies of CTA in amphibians have produced conflicting results. Establishing the presence or absence of CTA in amphibians is needed to clarify the phylogeny of this phenomenon. This experiment evaluated the ability of the fire-bellied toad Bombina orientalis to avoid a novel food item previously paired with subsequent illness or unpalatable taste. Mealworms, a novel prey item for the subjects, were coated with a solution of either 2% HCl or 3% CuSO4 to make them unpalatable or nauseating, respectively. Lengthy and obvious signs of illness such as face wiping and retching followed the consumption of mealworms coated with CuSO4, whereas consumption of mealworms coated with HCl only resulted in distinct and short lived aversive reactions at the time of consumption. The results showed that consumption of mealworms tainted with CuSO4, but not HCl, rapidly induced prey avoidance. This response was specific to mealworms; the usual food (crickets) was not avoided. The results suggest that CTA following illness is not restricted to amniote vertebrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric S K To
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada N1G 2W1
| | - Frédéric Laberge
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada N1G 2W1.
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Agha M, Murphy MO, Lovich JE, Ennen JR, Oldham CR, Meyer K, Bjurlin C, Austin M, Madrak S, Loughran C, Tennant L, Price SJ. The effect of research activities and winter precipitation on voiding behaviour of Agassiz’s desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii). WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2014. [DOI: 10.1071/wr14196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Context
There is little information available on how research activities might cause stress responses in wildlife, especially responses of threatened species such as the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii).
Aims
The present study aims to detect behavioural effects of researcher handling and winter precipitation on a natural population of desert tortoises in the desert of Southwestern United States, over the period 1997 to 2014, through extensive assessments of capture events during multiple research studies, and capture–mark–recapture survivorship analysis.
Methods
Juvenile and adult desert tortoises were repeatedly handled with consistent methodology across 18 years during 10 study seasons. Using a generalised linear mixed-effects model, we assessed the effects of both research manipulation and abiotic conditions on probability of voiding. Additionally, we used a Cormack–Jolly–Seber model to assess the effects of winter precipitation and voiding on long-term apparent survivorship.
Key results
Of 1008 total capture events, voiding was recorded on 83 (8.2%) occasions in 42 different individuals. Our top models indicated that increases in handling time led to significantly higher probabilities of voiding for juveniles, females and males. Similarly, increases in precipitation resulted in significantly higher probabilities of voiding for juveniles and females, but not for males. Tortoise capture frequency was negatively correlated with voiding occurrence. Cormack–Jolly–Seber models demonstrated a weak effect of winter precipitation on survivorship, but a negligible effect for both voiding behaviour and sex.
Conclusions
Handling-induced voiding by desert tortoises may occur during common research activities and years of above average winter precipitation. Increased likelihood of voiding in individuals with relatively low numbers of recaptures suggested that tortoises may have perceived researchers initially as predators, and therefore voided as a defensive strategy. Voiding does not appear to impact long-term survivorship in desert tortoises at this site.
Implications
This study has demonstrated that common handling practices on desert tortoise may cause voiding behaviour. These results suggest that in order to minimise undesirable behavioural responses in studied desert tortoise populations, defined procedures or protocols must be followed by the investigators to reduce contact period to the extent feasible.
Collapse
|
47
|
Edgar J, Nicol C, Pugh C, Paul E. Surface temperature changes in response to handling in domestic chickens. Physiol Behav 2013; 119:195-200. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Revised: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 06/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
48
|
Mans C, Guzman DSM, Lahner LL, Paul-Murphy J, Sladky KK. Sedation and Physiologic Response to Manual Restraint After Intranasal Administration of Midazolam in Hispaniolan Amazon Parrots (Amazona ventralis). J Avian Med Surg 2012; 26:130-9. [DOI: 10.1647/2011-037r.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
49
|
Moe RO, Stubsjøen SM, Bohlin J, Flø A, Bakken M. Peripheral temperature drop in response to anticipation and consumption of a signaled palatable reward in laying hens (Gallus domesticus). Physiol Behav 2012; 106:527-33. [PMID: 22513240 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.03.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2011] [Revised: 01/23/2012] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The present study describes effects of anticipation and consumption of a palatable reward on comb surface temperature. The purpose was to investigate temperature responses as a potential physiological indicator of positive emotional states in laying hens. A rise in body temperature in response to stimuli predictive of or during exposure to unpleasant events has been interpreted as evidence of emotions in mammals and avians. However, this phenomenon has so far only been studied during anticipation of or exposure to negative events; i.e., emotions of a negative valence. Infrared thermography was used to record potential alterations in comb surface temperature to a conditioned cue signaling a reward (mealworms) and during reward delivery. On average, comb temperature dropped 1.5 °C (95% CI: +/-1.2 °C) after exposure to CS and consumption of reward (p~0.0014) when initial comb temperature was above 30 °C. Such temperature drop indicates a peripheral vasoconstriction and has clear resemblances to emotional fever as seen during negative emotional states. Thus, we propose that a drop in peripheral temperature reflects emotional arousal more than emotional valence. Substantial temperature responses due to diet-induced thermogenesis were found, further emphasizing a cautious interpretation of altered comb temperature in studies of animal welfare.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Randi Oppermann Moe
- Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Box 8146 Dep., NO-0033 Oslo, Norway.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Wilson DR, Evans CS. Fowl communicate the size, speed and proximity of avian stimuli through graded structure in referential alarm calls. Anim Behav 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
|