1
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Hopfe C, Ospina-Jara B, Schulze T, Tischer M, Morales D, Reinhartz V, Esfahani RE, Valderrama C, Pérez-Rigueiro J, Bleidorn C, Feldhaar H, Cabra-García J, Scheibel T. Impact of environmental factors on spider silk properties. Curr Biol 2024; 34:56-67.e5. [PMID: 38118450 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.11.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/22/2023]
Abstract
Spider orb webs have evolved to stop flying prey, fast and slow alike. One of the main web elements dissipating impact energy is the radial fibers, or major ampullate silks, which possess a toughness surpassing most man-made materials. Orb webs are extended phenotypes, and as such their architectural elements, including major ampullate silks, have been selected to optimize prey capture under the respective environmental conditions. In this study, we investigated the correlation of three landscape scales and three microhabitat characteristics with intrinsic silk properties (elastic modulus, yield stress, tensile strength, extensibility, and toughness) to understand underlying ecological patterns. For this purpose, we collected and mechanically tested major ampullate silks from 50 spider species inhabiting large altitudinal and climatic gradients in Colombia. Using regression analysis and model selection, we investigated the environmental drivers of inter- and intra-specific patterns of major ampullate silk properties, taking into account phylogenetic relatedness based on newly sequenced mitochondrial genomes. We found that the total amount of energy absorbed, i.e., toughness and tensile strength, is higher for fibers from species inhabiting regions where heavy rainfall is common. Interestingly, we observe the same general trend between individuals of the same species, stressing the importance of this environmental driver. We also observe a phylogenetic conservation in the relation of environmental variables with silk tensile strength and yield stress. In conclusion, the increase in major ampullate silk tensile strength and toughness may reflect an adaptation to prevent frequent rain damage to orb webs and the associated energetic loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Hopfe
- Department of Biomaterials, Universität Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Str. 1, Bayreuth 95447, Germany.
| | - Bryan Ospina-Jara
- Department of Biology, Universidad del Valle, Cl. 13 #100-00, Cali 760042, Colombia
| | - Thilo Schulze
- Department of Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, Göttingen 37073, Germany
| | - Marta Tischer
- Department of Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, Göttingen 37073, Germany
| | - Diego Morales
- Department of Biology, Universidad del Valle, Cl. 13 #100-00, Cali 760042, Colombia
| | - Vivien Reinhartz
- Department of Biomaterials, Universität Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Str. 1, Bayreuth 95447, Germany
| | - Rashin Eshghi Esfahani
- Department of Biomaterials, Universität Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Str. 1, Bayreuth 95447, Germany
| | - Carlos Valderrama
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Rosario, Cl. 12c #6-25, Bogotá 111711, Colombia
| | - José Pérez-Rigueiro
- Center for Biomedical Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Crta. M40, Madrid 28223, Spain; Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, C/Prof. Aranguren 3, Madrid 28040, Spain; Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid 28029, Spain; Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine Group, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), C/ Prof. Martín Lagos s/n, Madrid 28040, Spain
| | - Christoph Bleidorn
- Department of Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, Göttingen 37073, Germany
| | - Heike Feldhaar
- Department of Animal Ecology I, Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research (BayCEER), Universität Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, Bayreuth 95440, Germany
| | - Jimmy Cabra-García
- Department of Biology, Universidad del Valle, Cl. 13 #100-00, Cali 760042, Colombia
| | - Thomas Scheibel
- Department of Biomaterials, Universität Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Str. 1, Bayreuth 95447, Germany; Bayreuther Zentrum für Kolloide und Grenzflächen, Universität Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, Bayreuth 95440, Germany; Bayreuther Materialzentrum, Universität Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, Bayreuth 95440, Germany; Bayreuther Zentrum für Molekulare Biowissenschaften, Universität Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, Bayreuth 95440, Germany; Bayrisches Polymerinstitut, Universität Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, Bayreuth 95440, Germany.
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2
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Greco G, Schmuck B, Jalali SK, Pugno NM, Rising A. Influence of experimental methods on the mechanical properties of silk fibers: A systematic literature review and future road map. BIOPHYSICS REVIEWS 2023; 4:031301. [PMID: 38510706 PMCID: PMC10903380 DOI: 10.1063/5.0155552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Spider silk fibers are of scientific and industrial interest because of their extraordinary mechanical properties. These properties are normally determined by tensile tests, but the values obtained are dependent on the morphology of the fibers, the test conditions, and the methods by which stress and strain are calculated. Because of this, results from many studies are not directly comparable, which has led to widespread misconceptions in the field. Here, we critically review most of the reports from the past 50 years on spider silk mechanical performance and use artificial spider silk and native silks as models to highlight the effect that different experimental setups have on the fibers' mechanical properties. The results clearly illustrate the importance of carefully evaluating the tensile test methods when comparing the results from different studies. Finally, we suggest a protocol for how to perform tensile tests on silk and biobased fibers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - S. K. Jalali
- Laboratory for Bioinspired, Bionic, Nano, Meta, Materials & Mechanics, Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Via Mesiano, 77, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | | | - Anna Rising
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed: and
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3
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Lin L, Zhong Y, Lin H, Wang C, Yang Z, Wu Q, Zhang D, Zhu W, Zhong Y, Pan Y, Yu J, Zheng H. Spider Silk-Improved Quartz-Enhanced Conductance Spectroscopy for Medical Mask Humidity Sensing. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27134320. [PMID: 35807564 PMCID: PMC9268163 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27134320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Spider silk is one of the hottest biomaterials researched currently, due to its excellent mechanical properties. This work reports a novel humidity sensing platform based on a spider silk-modified quartz tuning fork (SSM-QTF). Since spider silk is a kind of natural moisture-sensitive material, it does not demand additional sensitization. Quartz-enhanced conductance spectroscopy (QECS) was combined with the SSM-QTF to access humidity sensing sensitively. The results indicate that the resonance frequency of the SSM-QTF decreased monotonously with the ambient humidity. The detection sensitivity of the proposed SSM-QTF sensor was 12.7 ppm at 1 min. The SSM-QTF sensor showed good linearity of ~0.99. Using this sensor, we successfully measured the humidity of disposable medical masks for different periods of wearing time. The results showed that even a 20 min wearing time can lead to a >70% humidity in the mask enclosed space. It is suggested that a disposable medical mask should be changed <2 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leqing Lin
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information and Sensing Technologies of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China; (L.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.L.); (C.W.); (Z.Y.); (Q.W.); (W.Z.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Yu Zhong
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information and Sensing Technologies of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China; (L.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.L.); (C.W.); (Z.Y.); (Q.W.); (W.Z.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Haoyang Lin
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information and Sensing Technologies of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China; (L.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.L.); (C.W.); (Z.Y.); (Q.W.); (W.Z.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Chenglong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information and Sensing Technologies of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China; (L.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.L.); (C.W.); (Z.Y.); (Q.W.); (W.Z.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Zhifei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information and Sensing Technologies of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China; (L.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.L.); (C.W.); (Z.Y.); (Q.W.); (W.Z.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Qian Wu
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information and Sensing Technologies of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China; (L.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.L.); (C.W.); (Z.Y.); (Q.W.); (W.Z.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Di Zhang
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China;
| | - Wenguo Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information and Sensing Technologies of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China; (L.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.L.); (C.W.); (Z.Y.); (Q.W.); (W.Z.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Yongchun Zhong
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information and Sensing Technologies of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China; (L.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.L.); (C.W.); (Z.Y.); (Q.W.); (W.Z.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Yuwei Pan
- Department of Preventive Treatment of Disease, The Affiliated TCM Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510405, China;
| | - Jianhui Yu
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information and Sensing Technologies of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China; (L.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.L.); (C.W.); (Z.Y.); (Q.W.); (W.Z.); (Y.Z.)
- Correspondence: (J.Y.); (H.Z.)
| | - Huadan Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information and Sensing Technologies of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China; (L.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.L.); (C.W.); (Z.Y.); (Q.W.); (W.Z.); (Y.Z.)
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China;
- Correspondence: (J.Y.); (H.Z.)
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4
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Artificial and natural silk materials have high mechanical property variability regardless of sample size. Sci Rep 2022; 12:3507. [PMID: 35241705 PMCID: PMC8894418 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-07212-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Silk fibres attract great interest in materials science for their biological and mechanical properties. Hitherto, the mechanical properties of the silk fibres have been explored mainly by tensile tests, which provide information on their strength, Young’s modulus, strain at break and toughness modulus. Several hypotheses have been based on these data, but the intrinsic and often overlooked variability of natural and artificial silk fibres makes it challenging to identify trends and correlations. In this work, we determined the mechanical properties of Bombyx mori cocoon and degummed silk, native spider silk, and artificial spider silk, and compared them with classical commercial carbon fibres using large sample sizes (from 10 to 100 fibres, in total 200 specimens per fibre type). The results confirm a substantial variability of the mechanical properties of silk fibres compared to commercial carbon fibres, as the relative standard deviation for strength and strain at break is 10–50%. Moreover, the variability does not decrease significantly when the number of tested fibres is increased, which was surprising considering the low variability frequently reported for silk fibres in the literature. Based on this, we prove that tensile testing of 10 fibres per type is representative of a silk fibre population. Finally, we show that the ideal shape of the stress–strain curve for spider silk, characterized by a pronounced exponential stiffening regime, occurs in only 25% of all tested spider silk fibres.
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5
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Kiseleva AP, Krivoshapkin PV, Krivoshapkina EF. Recent Advances in Development of Functional Spider Silk-Based Hybrid Materials. Front Chem 2020; 8:554. [PMID: 32695749 PMCID: PMC7338834 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.00554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Silkworm silk is mainly known as a luxurious textile. Spider silk is an alternative to silkworm silk fibers and has much more outstanding properties. Silk diversity ensures variation in its application in nature and industry. This review aims to provide a critical summary of up-to-date fabrication methods of spider silk-based organic-inorganic hybrid materials. This paper focuses on the relationship between the molecular structure of spider silk and its mechanical properties. Such knowledge is essential for understanding the innate properties of spider silk as it provides insight into the sophisticated assembly processes of silk proteins into the distinct polymers as a basis for novel products. In this context, we describe the development of spider silk-based hybrids using both natural and bioengineered spider silk proteins blended with inorganic nanoparticles. The following topics are also covered: the diversity of spider silk, its composition and architecture, the differences between silkworm silk and spider silk, and the biosynthesis of natural silk. Referencing biochemical data and processes, this paper outlines the existing challenges and future outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Elena F. Krivoshapkina
- Laboratory of Solution Chemistry of Advanced Materials and Technologies, ITMO University, St. Petersburg, Russia
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6
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Greco G, Pantano MF, Mazzolai B, Pugno NM. Imaging and mechanical characterization of different junctions in spider orb webs. Sci Rep 2019; 9:5776. [PMID: 30962468 PMCID: PMC6453893 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42070-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Spider silk and spider orb webs are among the most studied biological materials and structures owing to their outstanding mechanical properties. A key feature that contributes significantly to the robustness and capability to absorb high kinetic energy of spider webs is the presence of junctions connecting different silk threads. Surprisingly, in spite of their fundamental function, the mechanics of spider web junctions have never been reported. Herein, through mechanical characterization and imaging, we show for the first time that spider orb webs host two different types of junction, produced by different silk glands, which have different morphology, and load bearing capability. These differences can be explained in view of the different roles they play in the web, i.e. allowing for a localized damage control or anchoring the whole structure to the surrounding environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Greco
- Laboratory of Bio-Inspired & Graphene Nanomechanics, Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Via Mesiano, 77, 38123, Trento, Italy
- Center for Micro-BioRobotics@SSSA, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, I-56025, Pontedera, Italy
| | - Maria F Pantano
- Laboratory of Bio-Inspired & Graphene Nanomechanics, Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Via Mesiano, 77, 38123, Trento, Italy
| | - Barbara Mazzolai
- Center for Micro-BioRobotics@SSSA, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, I-56025, Pontedera, Italy
| | - Nicola M Pugno
- Laboratory of Bio-Inspired & Graphene Nanomechanics, Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Via Mesiano, 77, 38123, Trento, Italy.
- School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, E1 4NS, London, United Kingdom.
- Ket-Lab, Edoardo Amaldi Foundation, Via del Politecnico snc, 00133, Rome, Italy.
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7
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Dionne J, Lefèvre T, Bilodeau P, Lamarre M, Auger M. A quantitative analysis of the supercontraction-induced molecular disorientation of major ampullate spider silk. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 19:31487-31498. [PMID: 29159351 DOI: 10.1039/c7cp05739c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Spider silks exhibit remarkable properties, among which the so-called supercontraction, a physical phenomenon by which fibers undergo a longitudinal shrinkage and a radial swelling when exposed to water. The process is marked by a significant decrease in chain orientation resulting from plasticisation of the amorphous phase. Despite several studies that determined the Hermans orientation function, more quantitative data are required to be able to describe theoretically the macroscopic water-induced shrinkage from molecular reorganization. Here, we have examined the supercontraction of the major ampullate silk single fibers of Nephila clavipes (Nc) and Araneus diadematus (Ad) using polarized Raman spectromicroscopy. We determined the order parameters, the orientation distribution and the secondary structure content. Our data suggest that supercontraction induces a slight increase in β-sheet content, consistently with previous works. The β-sheet orientation is slightly affected by supercontraction compared to that of the amorphous phase, which becomes almost isotropic with shrinkage. Despite an initially lower orientation level, the Ad fiber shows a larger orientation decrease than Nc, consistently with its higher shrinkage amplitude. Although they share similar trends, absolute values of the orientation parameters from this work differ from those found in the literature. We took advantage of having determined the distribution of orientation to estimate the amplitude of shrinkage from changes in macromolecular size resulting from molecular disorientation. Our calculations show that more realistic models are needed to correlate molecular reorientation/refolding to macroscopic shrinkage. This work also underlines that more accurate data relative to molecular orientation are necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Dionne
- Département de chimie, Regroupement québécois de Recherche sur la Fonction, l'Ingénierie et les Applications des Protéines (PROTEO), Centre de Recherche sur les Matériaux Avancés (CERMA), Centre Québécois sur les Matériaux Fonctionnels (CQMF), Université Laval, Pavillon Alexandre-Vachon, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
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8
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Giesa T, Schuetz R, Fratzl P, Buehler MJ, Masic A. Unraveling the Molecular Requirements for Macroscopic Silk Supercontraction. ACS NANO 2017; 11:9750-9758. [PMID: 28846384 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b01532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Spider dragline silk is a protein material that has evolved over millions of years to achieve finely tuned mechanical properties. A less known feature of some dragline silk fibers is that they shrink along the main axis by up to 50% when exposed to high humidity, a phenomenon called supercontraction. This contrasts the typical behavior of many other materials that swell when exposed to humidity. Molecular level details and mechanisms of the supercontraction effect are heavily debated. Here we report a molecular dynamics analysis of supercontraction in Nephila clavipes silk combined with in situ mechanical testing and Raman spectroscopy linking the reorganization of the nanostructure to the polar and charged amino acids in the sequence. We further show in our in silico approach that point mutations of these groups not only suppress the supercontraction effect, but even reverse it, while maintaining the exceptional mechanical properties of the silk material. This work has imminent impact on the design of biomimetic equivalents and recombinant silks for which supercontraction may or may not be a desirable feature. The approach applied is appropriate to explore the effect of point mutations on the overall physical properties of protein based materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tristan Giesa
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Roman Schuetz
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Science Park Golm, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Peter Fratzl
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Science Park Golm, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Markus J Buehler
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Admir Masic
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Science Park Golm, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
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9
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Mortimer B, Soler A, Siviour CR, Zaera R, Vollrath F. Tuning the instrument: sonic properties in the spider's web. J R Soc Interface 2017; 13:rsif.2016.0341. [PMID: 27605164 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2016.0341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Spider orb webs are multifunctional, acting to absorb prey impact energy and transmit vibratory information to the spider. This paper explores the links between silk material properties, propagation of vibrations within webs and the ability of the spider to control and balance web function. Combining experimental and modelling approaches, we contrast transverse and longitudinal wave propagation in the web. It emerged that both transverse and longitudinal wave amplitude in the web can be adjusted through changes in web tension and dragline silk stiffness, i.e. properties that can be controlled by the spider. In particular, we propose that dragline silk supercontraction may have evolved as a control mechanism for these multifunctional fibres. The various degrees of active influence on web engineering reveals the extraordinary ability of spiders to shape the physical properties of their self-made materials and architectures to affect biological functionality, balancing trade-offs between structural and sensory functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Mortimer
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - A Soler
- Department of Continuum Mechanics and Structural Analysis, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - C R Siviour
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - R Zaera
- Department of Continuum Mechanics and Structural Analysis, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - F Vollrath
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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10
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Das R, Kumar A, Patel A, Vijay S, Saurabh S, Kumar N. Biomechanical characterization of spider webs. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2016; 67:101-109. [PMID: 27988439 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2016.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Revised: 11/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
In light of recent focus on the behaviour of the natural structures for revolutionary technological growth, spider web seems to have seized considerable attention of product designer due to its amazing behaviour. In present work, mechanism behind the structural integrity of the spider web along with the materialistic analysis of its constituent silk threads has been extensively investigated. The nanoindentation tool both in static and dynamic mode has been utilized for complete analysis of the mechanical behaviour of the spiral and radial threads separately. Both the average elastic modulus and hardness of the radial silk thread is higher than the spiral silk thread which reveals the radial silk thread is the major structural component of the web. The sustainability of spider webs under storm, windy conditions and during the impact of pray has been investigated under dynamic conditions. The radial silk thread exhibits elastic like response and the spiral silk thread exhibits viscous like response in a wide frequency range (1-200Hz). The damping characteristic of the radial and spiral silk threads, an important parameter to investigate the energy dissipation properties of the materials has also been investigated in windy conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakesh Das
- School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Nangal Road, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India
| | - Amit Kumar
- School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Nangal Road, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India
| | - Anurag Patel
- School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Nangal Road, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India
| | - Sahil Vijay
- School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Nangal Road, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India
| | - Shashank Saurabh
- School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Nangal Road, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India
| | - Navin Kumar
- School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Nangal Road, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India.
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11
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Krasnov I, Seydel T, Greving I, Blankenburg M, Vollrath F, Müller M. Strain-dependent fractional molecular diffusion in humid spider silk fibres. J R Soc Interface 2016; 13:20160506. [PMID: 27628174 PMCID: PMC5046950 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2016.0506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Spider silk is a material well known for its outstanding mechanical properties, combining elasticity and tensile strength. The molecular mobility within the silk's polymer structure on the nanometre length scale importantly contributes to these macroscopic properties. We have therefore investigated the ensemble-averaged single-particle self-dynamics of the prevailing hydrogen atoms in humid spider dragline silk fibres on picosecond time scales in situ as a function of an externally applied tensile strain. We find that the molecular diffusion in the amorphous fraction of the oriented fibres can be described by a generalized fractional diffusion coefficient Kα that is independent of the observation length scale in the probed range from approximately 0.3-3.5 nm. Kα increases towards a diffusion coefficient of the classical Fickian type with increasing tensile strain consistent with an increasing loss of memory or entropy in the polymer matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Krasnov
- Institut für Experimentelle und Angewandte Physik, Universität Kiel, 24098 Kiel, Germany Institute of Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht (HZG), 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
| | - Tilo Seydel
- Institut Max von Laue-Paul Langevin (ILL), CS 20156, 38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Imke Greving
- Institute of Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht (HZG), 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
| | - Malte Blankenburg
- Institut für Experimentelle und Angewandte Physik, Universität Kiel, 24098 Kiel, Germany Institute of Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht (HZG), 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
| | - Fritz Vollrath
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX13PS, UK
| | - Martin Müller
- Institut für Experimentelle und Angewandte Physik, Universität Kiel, 24098 Kiel, Germany Institute of Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht (HZG), 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
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12
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The effect of ageing on the mechanical properties of the silk of the bridge spider Larinioides cornutus (Clerck, 1757). Sci Rep 2016; 6:24699. [PMID: 27156712 PMCID: PMC4860589 DOI: 10.1038/srep24699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Spider silk is regarded as one of the best natural polymer fibers especially in terms of low density, high tensile strength and high elongation until breaking. Since only a few bio-engineering studies have been focused on spider silk ageing, we conducted nano-tensile tests on the vertical naturally spun silk fibers of the bridge spider Larinioides cornutus (Clerck, 1757) (Arachnida, Araneae) to evaluate changes in the mechanical properties of the silk (ultimate stress and strain, Young’s modulus, toughness) over time. We studied the natural process of silk ageing at different time intervals from spinning (20 seconds up to one month), comparing silk fibers spun from adult spiders collected in the field. Data were analyzed using Linear Mixed Models. We detected a positive trend versus time for the Young’s modulus, indicating that aged silks are stiffer and possibly less effective in catching prey. Moreover, we observed a negative trend for the ultimate strain versus time, attesting a general decrement of the resistance force. These trends are interpreted as being due to the drying of the silk protein chains and the reorientation among the fibers.
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Meyer A, Pugno NM, Cranford SW. Compliant threads maximize spider silk connection strength and toughness. J R Soc Interface 2015; 11:20140561. [PMID: 25008083 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2014.0561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Millions of years of evolution have adapted spider webs to achieve a range of functionalities, including the well-known capture of prey, with efficient use of material. One feature that has escaped extensive investigation is the silk-on-silk connection joints within spider webs, particularly from a structural mechanics perspective. We report a joint theoretical and computational analysis of an idealized silk-on-silk fibre junction. By modifying the theory of multiple peeling, we quantitatively compare the performance of the system while systematically increasing the rigidity of the anchor thread, by both scaling the stress-strain response and the introduction of an applied pre-strain. The results of our study indicate that compliance is a virtue-the more extensible the anchorage, the tougher and stronger the connection becomes. In consideration of the theoretical model, in comparison with rigid substrates, a compliant anchorage enormously increases the effective adhesion strength (work required to detach), independent of the adhered thread itself, attributed to a nonlinear alignment between thread and anchor (contact peeling angle). The results can direct novel engineering design principles to achieve possible load transfer from compliant fibre-to-fibre anchorages, be they silk-on-silk or another, as-yet undeveloped, system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery Meyer
- Laboratory for Nanotechnology in Civil Engineering (NICE), Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, 400 Snell Engineering, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Nicola M Pugno
- Laboratory of Bio-Inspired and Graphene Nanomechanics, Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, Università di Trento, via Mesiano 77, 38123 Trento, Italy Center for Materials and Microsystems, Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38123 Povo (Trento), Italy
| | - Steven W Cranford
- Laboratory for Nanotechnology in Civil Engineering (NICE), Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, 400 Snell Engineering, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Sampath S, Yarger JL. Structural hysteresis in dragline spider silks induced by supercontraction: An x-ray fiber micro-diffraction study. RSC Adv 2015; 5:1462-1473. [PMID: 25621168 DOI: 10.1039/c4ra13936d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Interaction with water causes shrinkage and significant changes in the structure of spider dragline silks, which has been referred to as supercontraction in the literature. Preferred orientation or alignment of protein chains with respect to the fiber axis is extensively changed during this supercontraction process. Synchrotron x-ray micro-fiber diffraction experiments have been performed on Nephila clavipes and Argiope aurantia major and minor ampullate dragline spider fibers in the native dry, contracted (by immersion in water) and restretched (from contracted) states. Changes in the orientation of β-sheet nanocrystallites and the oriented component of the amorphous network have been determined from wide-angle x-ray diffraction patterns. While both the crystalline and amorphous components lose preferred orientation on wetting with water, the nano-crystallites regain their orientation on wet-restretching, whereas the oriented amorphous components only partially regain their orientation. Dragline major ampullate silks in both the species contract more than their minor ampullate silks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujatha Sampath
- Dept. of Physics, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA ; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Magnetic Resonance Research Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-1604, USA
| | - Jeffery L Yarger
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Magnetic Resonance Research Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-1604, USA
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15
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Abstract
Understanding the compatibility between spider silk and conducting materials is essential to advance the use of spider silk in electronic applications. Spider silk is tough, but becomes soft when exposed to water. Here we report a strong affinity of amine-functionalised multi-walled carbon nanotubes for spider silk, with coating assisted by a water and mechanical shear method. The nanotubes adhere uniformly and bond to the silk fibre surface to produce tough, custom-shaped, flexible and electrically conducting fibres after drying and contraction. The conductivity of coated silk fibres is reversibly sensitive to strain and humidity, leading to proof-of-concept sensor and actuator demonstrations. The use of spider silk in electronic devices is dependent on its compatibility with electrically conductive materials. Here the authors modify spider silk with carbon nanotubes to produce a strong, flexible and electrically conductive thread.
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Perea GB, Plaza GR, Guinea GV, Elices M, Velasco B, Pérez-Rigueiro J. The variability and interdependence of spider viscid line tensile properties. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 216:4722-8. [PMID: 24072798 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.094011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
True stress-true strain curves of naturally spun viscid line fibres retrieved directly from the spiral of orb-webs built by Argiope trifasciata spiders were measured using a novel methodology. This new procedure combines a method for removing the aqueous coating of the fibres and a technique that allows the accurate measurement of their cross-sectional area. Comparison of the tensile behaviour of different samples indicated that naturally spun viscid lines show a large variability, comparable to that of other silks, such as major ampullate gland silk and silkworm silk. Nevertheless, application of a statistical analysis allowed the identification of two independent parameters that underlie the variability and characterize the observed range of true stress-true strain curves. The combination of this result with previous mechanical and microstructural data suggested the assignment of these two independent effects to the degree of alignment of the protein chains and to the local relative humidity, which, in turn, depends on the composition of the viscous coating and on the external environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gracia Belén Perea
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223 Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain
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18
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Sheu H, Jean Y. Water Improve Crystal Quality in Dragline of CyrtophoraSpider. J CHIN CHEM SOC-TAIP 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/jccs.201300045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hwo‐Shuenn Sheu
- National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, 101 Hsinann Road, Hsinchu 30077, Taiwan
| | - Yuch‐Cheng Jean
- National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, 101 Hsinann Road, Hsinchu 30077, Taiwan
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Cranford SW. Increasing silk fibre strength through heterogeneity of bundled fibrils. J R Soc Interface 2013; 10:20130148. [PMID: 23486175 PMCID: PMC3627094 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2013.0148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Can naturally arising disorder in biological materials be beneficial? Materials scientists are continuously attempting to replicate the exemplary performance of materials such as spider silk, with detailed techniques and assembly procedures. At the same time, a spider does not precisely machine silk-imaging indicates that its fibrils are heterogeneous and irregular in cross section. While past investigations either focused on the building material (e.g. the molecular scale protein sequence and behaviour) or on the ultimate structural component (e.g. silk threads and spider webs), the bundled structure of fibrils that compose spider threads has been frequently overlooked. Herein, I exploit a molecular dynamics-based coarse-grain model to construct a fully three-dimensional fibril bundle, with a length on the order of micrometres. I probe the mechanical behaviour of bundled silk fibrils with variable density of heterogenic protrusions or globules, ranging from ideally homogeneous to a saturated distribution. Subject to stretching, the model indicates that cooperativity is enhanced by contact through low-force deformation and shear 'locking' between globules, increasing shear stress transfer by up to 200 per cent. In effect, introduction of a random and disordered structure can serve to improve mechanical performance. Moreover, addition of globules allows a tuning of free volume, and thus the wettability of silk (with implications for supercontraction). These findings support the ability of silk to maintain near-molecular-level strength at the scale of silk threads, and the mechanism could be easily adopted as a strategy for synthetic fibres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven W Cranford
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Spider Silk: A Smart Biopolymer with Water Switchable Shape Memory Effects -Unraveling the Mystery of Superconraction. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1108/rjta-17-02-2013-b001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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21
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Torres FG, Troncoso OP, Torres C, Cabrejos W. An experimental confirmation of thermal transitions in native and regenerated spider silks. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2013; 33:1432-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2012.12.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2012] [Revised: 11/12/2012] [Accepted: 12/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Guinea GV, Elices M, Plaza GR, Perea GB, Daza R, Riekel C, Agulló-Rueda F, Hayashi C, Zhao Y, Pérez-Rigueiro J. Minor ampullate silks from Nephila and Argiope spiders: tensile properties and microstructural characterization. Biomacromolecules 2012; 13:2087-98. [PMID: 22668322 DOI: 10.1021/bm3004644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The mechanical behavior and microstructure of minor ampullate gland silk (miS) of two orb-web spinning species, Argiope trifasciata and Nephila inaurata, were extensively characterized, enabling detailed comparison with other silks. The similarities and differences exhibited by miS when compared with the intensively studied major ampullate gland silk (MAS) and silkworm (Bombyx mori) silk offer a genuine opportunity for testing some of the hypotheses proposed to correlate microstructure and tensile properties in silk. In this work, we show that miSs of different species show similar properties, even when fibers spun by spiders that diverged over 100 million years are compared. The tensile properties of miS are comparable to those of MAS when tested in air, significantly in terms of work to fracture, but differ considerably when tested in water. In particular, miS does not show a supercontraction effect and an associated ground state. In this regard, the behavior of miS in water is similar to that of B. mori silk, and it is shown that the initial elastic modulus of both fibers can be explained using a common model. Intriguingly, the microstructural parameters measured in miS are comparable to those of MAS and considerably different from those found in B. mori. This fact suggests that some critical microstructural information is still missing in our description of silks, and our results suggest that the hydrophilicity of the lateral groups or the large scale organization of the sequences might be routes worth exploring.
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Affiliation(s)
- G V Guinea
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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23
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Keerl D, Scheibel T. Characterization of natural and biomimetic spider silk fibers. BIOINSPIRED BIOMIMETIC AND NANOBIOMATERIALS 2012. [DOI: 10.1680/bbn.11.00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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24
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Lepore E, Marchioro A, Isaia M, Buehler MJ, Pugno NM. Evidence of the most stretchable egg sac silk stalk, of the European spider of the year Meta menardi. PLoS One 2012; 7:e30500. [PMID: 22347380 PMCID: PMC3275603 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2011] [Accepted: 12/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Spider silks display generally strong mechanical properties, even if differences between species and within the same species can be observed. While many different types of silks have been tested, the mechanical properties of stalks of silk taken from the egg sac of the cave spider Meta menardi have not yet been analyzed. Meta menardi has recently been chosen as the "European spider of the year 2012", from the European Society of Arachnology. Here we report a study where silk stalks were collected directly from several caves in the north-west of Italy. Field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) images showed that stalks are made up of a large number of threads, each of them with diameter of 6.03 ± 0.58 µm. The stalks were strained at the constant rate of 2 mm/min, using a tensile testing machine. The observed maximum stress, strain and toughness modulus, defined as the area under the stress-strain curve, are 0.64 GPa, 751% and 130.7 MJ/m(3), respectively. To the best of our knowledge, such an observed huge elongation has never been reported for egg sac silk stalks and suggests a huge unrolling microscopic mechanism of the macroscopic stalk that, as a continuation of the protective egg sac, is expected to be composed by fibres very densely and randomly packed. The Weibull statistics was used to analyze the results from mechanical testing, and an average value of Weibull modulus (m) is deduced to be in the range of 1.5-1.8 with a Weibull scale parameter (σ(0)) in the range of 0.33-0.41 GPa, showing a high coefficient of correlation (R(2) = 0.97).
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Affiliation(s)
- Emiliano Lepore
- Laboratory of Bio-inspired Nanomechanics “Giuseppe Maria Pugno”, Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Andrea Marchioro
- Laboratory of Bio-inspired Nanomechanics “Giuseppe Maria Pugno”, Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Marco Isaia
- Laboratory of Ecology and Terrestrial Ecosystems, Department of Human and Animal Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Markus J. Buehler
- Laboratory for Atomistic and Molecular Mechanics, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Center for Materials Science and Engineering, and Center for Computational Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Nicola M. Pugno
- Laboratory of Bio-inspired Nanomechanics “Giuseppe Maria Pugno”, Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
- National Institute of Nuclear Physics, National Laboratories of Frascati, Frascati, Italy
- National Institute of Metrological Research, Torino, Italy
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Guan J, Vollrath F, Porter D. Two Mechanisms for Supercontraction in Nephila Spider Dragline Silk. Biomacromolecules 2011; 12:4030-5. [DOI: 10.1021/bm201032v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Juan Guan
- Department
of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford
OX1 3PS, U.K
| | - Fritz Vollrath
- Department
of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford
OX1 3PS, U.K
| | - David Porter
- Department
of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford
OX1 3PS, U.K
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Elices M, Guinea G, Pérez-Rigueiro J, Plaza G. Polymeric fibers with tunable properties: Lessons from spider silk. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2010.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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27
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Elices M, Plaza GR, Pérez-Rigueiro J, Guinea GV. The hidden link between supercontraction and mechanical behavior of spider silks. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2011; 4:658-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2010.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2010] [Revised: 09/16/2010] [Accepted: 09/17/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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28
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Liao X, Yin G, Huang Z, Yao Y, Gu J, Han D. Supercontraction on cribellate spider spiral silk with wet-rebuilt micro-structure. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2010.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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29
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Boutry C, Blackledge TA. Evolution of supercontraction in spider silk: structure–function relationship from tarantulas to orb-weavers. J Exp Biol 2010; 213:3505-14. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.046110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Spider silk is a promising biomaterial with impressive performance. However, some spider silks also ‘supercontract’ when exposed to water, shrinking by up to ∼50% in length. Supercontraction may provide a critical mechanism to tailor silk properties, both for future synthetic silk production and by the spiders themselves. Several hypotheses are proposed for the mechanism and function of supercontraction, but they remain largely untested. In particular, supercontraction may result from a rearrangement of the GPGXX motif within the silk proteins, where G represents glycine, P proline and X is one of a small subset of amino acids. Supercontraction may prevent sagging in wet orb-webs or allow spiders to tailor silk properties for different ecological functions. Because both the molecular structures of silk proteins and how dragline is used in webs differ among species, we can test these hypotheses by comparing supercontraction of silk across diverse spider taxa. In this study we measured supercontraction in 28 spider taxa, ranging from tarantulas to orb-weaving spiders. We found that silk from all species supercontracted, except that of most tarantulas. This suggests that supercontraction evolved at least with the origin of the Araneomorphae, over 200 million years ago. We found differences in the pattern of evolution for two components of supercontraction. Stress generated during supercontraction of a restrained fiber is not associated with changes in silk structure and web architecture. By contrast, the shrink of unrestrained supercontracting fibers is higher for Orbiculariae spiders, whose silk contains high ratios of GPGXX motifs. These results support the hypothesis that supercontraction is caused by a rearrangement of GPGXX motifs in silk, and that it functions to tailor silk material properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Boutry
- Department of Biology and Integrated Bioscience Program, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325-3908, USA
| | - Todd Alan Blackledge
- Department of Biology and Integrated Bioscience Program, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325-3908, USA
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30
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Supercontraction of dragline silk spun by lynx spiders (Oxyopidae). Int J Biol Macromol 2010; 46:555-7. [PMID: 20359492 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2010.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2010] [Revised: 03/23/2010] [Accepted: 03/24/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Supercontraction is commonly considered as a functional adaptation of major ampullate gland (MA) silk to its role as the main structural material in orb-webs. However, the observation of supercontraction in the dragline silk of a lynx spider species, as it is shown in this work, offers a strong support to the hypothesis that the appearance of supercontraction preceded the advent of capture webs. Moreover, the absence of proline in the sequence of dragline silk spidroin in Oxyopidae and related spiders indicates that the presence of this amino acid may not be required for the existence of supercontraction. In this regard, the presence of particular subrepeats--in orb-web and non-orb-web building spiders--adds new clues for the understanding of supercontraction and associated effects.
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Agnarsson I, Dhinojwala A, Sahni V, Blackledge TA. Spider silk as a novel high performance biomimetic muscle driven by humidity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 212:1990-4. [PMID: 19525423 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.028282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The abrupt halt of a bumble bee's flight when it impacts the almost invisible threads of an orb web provides an elegant example of the amazing strength and toughness of spider silk. Spiders depend upon these properties for survival, yet the impressive performance of silk is not limited solely to tensile mechanics. Here, we show that silk also exhibits powerful cyclic contractions, allowing it to act as a high performance mimic of biological muscles. These contractions are actuated by changes in humidity alone and repeatedly generate work 50 times greater than the equivalent mass of human muscle. Although we demonstrate that this response is general and occurs weakly in diverse hydrophilic materials, the high modulus of spider silk is such that it generates exceptional force. Furthermore, because this effect already operates at the level of single silk fibers, only 5 microm in diameter, it can easily be scaled across the entire size range at which biological muscles operate. By contrast, the most successful synthetic muscles developed so far are driven by electric voltage, such that they cannot scale easily across large ranges in cross-sectional areas. The potential applicability of silk muscles is further enhanced by our finding that silkworm fibers also exhibit cyclic contraction because they are already available in commercial quantities. The simplicity of using wet or dry air to drive the biomimetic silk muscle fibers and the incredible power generated by silk offer unique possibilities in designing lightweight and compact actuators for robots and micro-machines, new sensors, and green energy production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingi Agnarsson
- Department of Biology, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA
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Plaza GR, Corsini P, Marsano E, Pérez-Rigueiro J, Biancotto L, Elices M, Riekel C, Agulló-Rueda F, Gallardo E, Calleja JM, Guinea GV. Old Silks Endowed with New Properties. Macromolecules 2009. [DOI: 10.1021/ma9017235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo R. Plaza
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Paola Corsini
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Università di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 31-16146 Genova, Italy
| | - Enrico Marsano
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Università di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 31-16146 Genova, Italy
| | - José Pérez-Rigueiro
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Lautaro Biancotto
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Manuel Elices
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Christian Riekel
- European Synchroton Radiation Facility, B.P. 220, F-38043, Grenoble Cedex, France
| | | | - Eva Gallardo
- Departamento de Física de Materiales, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - José M. Calleja
- Departamento de Física de Materiales, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Gustavo V. Guinea
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Blackledge TA, Boutry C, Wong SC, Baji A, Dhinojwala A, Sahni V, Agnarsson I. How super is supercontraction? Persistent versus cyclic responses to humidity in spider dragline silk. J Exp Biol 2009; 212:1981-9. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.028944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Spider dragline silk has enormous potential for the development of biomimetic fibers that combine strength and elasticity in low density polymers. These applications necessitate understanding how silk reacts to different environmental conditions. For instance, spider dragline silk`supercontracts' in high humidity. During supercontraction, unrestrained dragline silk contracts up to 50% of its original length and restrained fibers generate substantial stress. Here we characterize the response of dragline silk to changes in humidity before, during and after supercontraction. Our findings demonstrate that dragline silk exhibits two qualitatively different responses to humidity. First, silk undergoes a previously unknown cyclic relaxation–contraction response to wetting and drying. The direction and magnitude of this cyclic response is identical both before and after supercontraction. By contrast, supercontraction is a `permanent' tensioning of restrained silk in response to high humidity. Here, water induces stress,rather than relaxation and the uptake of water molecules results in a permanent change in molecular composition of the silk, as demonstrated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Even after drying, silk mass increased by∼1% after supercontraction. By contrast, the cyclic response to humidity involves a reversible uptake of water. Dried, post-supercontraction silk also differs mechanically from virgin silk. Post-supercontraction silk exhibits reduced stiffness and stress at yield, as well as changes in dynamic energy storage and dissipation. In addition to advancing understanding supercontraction, our findings open up new applications for synthetic silk analogs. For example, dragline silk emerges as a model for a biomimetic muscle, the contraction of which is precisely controlled by humidity alone.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cecilia Boutry
- Department of Biology, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA
| | - Shing-Chung Wong
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325,USA
| | - Avinash Baji
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325,USA
| | - Ali Dhinojwala
- Department of Polymer Science, Integrated Bioscience Program, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA
| | - Vasav Sahni
- Department of Polymer Science, Integrated Bioscience Program, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA
| | - Ingi Agnarsson
- Department of Biology, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, PO Box 23360, San Juan, PR 00931, USA
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Agnarsson I, Boutry C, Wong SC, Baji A, Dhinojwala A, Sensenig AT, Blackledge TA. Supercontraction forces in spider dragline silk depend on hydration rate. ZOOLOGY 2009; 112:325-31. [PMID: 19477107 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2008.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2008] [Revised: 11/17/2008] [Accepted: 11/26/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Spider dragline silk is a model biological polymer for biomimetic research due to its many desirable and unusual properties. 'Supercontraction' describes the dramatic shrinking of dragline silk fibers when wetted. In restrained silk fibers, supercontraction generates substantial stresses of 40-50 MPa above a critical humidity of approximately 70% relative humidity (RH). This stress may maintain tension in webs under the weight of rain or dew and could be used in industry for robotics, sensor technology, and other applications. Our own findings indicate that supercontraction can generate stress over a much broader range than previously reported, from 10 to 140 MPa. Here we show that this variation in supercontraction stress depends upon the rate at which the environment reaches the critical level of humidity causing supercontraction. Slow humidity increase, over several minutes, leads to relatively low supercontraction stress, while fast humidity increase, over a few seconds, typically results in higher supercontraction stress. Slowly supercontracted fibers take up less water and differ in thermostability from rapidly supercontracted fibers, as shown by thermogravimetric analysis. This suggests that spider silk achieves different molecular configurations depending upon the speed at which supercontraction occurs. Ultimately, rate-dependent supercontraction may provide a mechanism to tailor the properties of silk or biomimetic fibers for various applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingi Agnarsson
- Department of Biology, Integrated Bioscience Program, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325-3908, USA
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35
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Heim M, Keerl D, Scheibel T. Spinnenseide: vom löslichen Protein zur außergewöhnlichen Faser. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200803341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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36
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Heim M, Keerl D, Scheibel T. Spider Silk: From Soluble Protein to Extraordinary Fiber. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2009; 48:3584-96. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.200803341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 394] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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37
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Fu C, Shao Z, Fritz V. Animal silks: their structures, properties and artificial production. Chem Commun (Camb) 2009:6515-29. [DOI: 10.1039/b911049f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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38
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Inspiration from Natural Silks and Their Proteins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2377(08)00205-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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39
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Liu
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, and Department of Macromolecular Science and The Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers of Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhengzhong Shao
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, and Department of Macromolecular Science and The Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers of Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
| | - Fritz Vollrath
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, and Department of Macromolecular Science and The Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers of Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
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Plaza GR, Corsini P, Pérez-Rigueiro J, Marsano E, Guinea GV, Elices M. Effect of water onBombyx mori regenerated silk fibers and its application in modifying their mechanical properties. J Appl Polym Sci 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/app.28288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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41
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Pérez-Rigueiro J, Elices M, Plaza GR, Rueda J, Guinea GV. Fracture surfaces and tensile properties of UV-irradiated spider silk fibers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/polb.21118 er] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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42
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Pérez-Rigueiro J, Elices M, Plaza GR, Rueda J, Guinea GV. Fracture surfaces and tensile properties of UV-irradiated spider silk fibers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/polb.21118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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43
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Guinea GV, Pérez-Rigueiro J, Plaza GR, Elices M. Volume constancy during stretching of spider silk. Biomacromolecules 2006; 7:2173-7. [PMID: 16827584 DOI: 10.1021/bm060138v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The characterization of silk properties requires a reliable measurement of stress-strain curves from tensile tests, which calls for a detailed analysis of what is considered the cross section of the sample and how it varies during the experiments. Here, spider silk fibers from the major ampullate gland (MAS) of Argiope trifasciata spiders are tensile tested, and the cross-sectional area is measured under different strained configurations. It has been found that the fiber volume remains practically constant during stretching, and deformation proceeds homogeneously in all the fibers. The conservation of volume is validated independently of the type of fiber and the strain level. This result, applied to compute true stress-strain curves for different MAS fibers, shows that the description of their properties depends noticeably on which set of tensile parameters is chosen (true or engineering), and that engineering values could lead to misinterpretation of experiments that combine results from different strain ranges.
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Affiliation(s)
- G V Guinea
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, ETS de Ingenieros de Caminos, c/ Profesor Aranguren s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Guinea GV, Pérez-Rigueiro J, Plaza GR, Elices M. Volume Constancy during Stretching of Spider Silk. Biomacromolecules 2006. [DOI: 10.1021/bm060138v er] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G. V. Guinea
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, ETS de Ingenieros de Caminos, c/ Profesor Aranguren s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - J. Pérez-Rigueiro
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, ETS de Ingenieros de Caminos, c/ Profesor Aranguren s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - G. R. Plaza
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, ETS de Ingenieros de Caminos, c/ Profesor Aranguren s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - M. Elices
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, ETS de Ingenieros de Caminos, c/ Profesor Aranguren s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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45
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Plaza GR, Guinea GV, Pérez-Rigueiro J, Elices M. Thermo-hygro-mechanical behavior of spider dragline silk: Glassy and rubbery states. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/polb.20751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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46
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Guinea GV, Elices M, Pérez-Rigueiro J, Plaza GR. Stretching of supercontracted fibers: a link between spinning and the variability of spider silk. J Exp Biol 2005; 208:25-30. [PMID: 15601874 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.01344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
The spinning of spider silk requires a combination of aqueous environment and stretching, and the aim of this work was to explore the role of stretching silk fibers in an aqueous environment and its effect on the tensile properties of spider silk. In particular, the sensitivity of the spider silk tensile behaviour to wet-stretching could be relevant in the search for a relationship between processing and the variability of the tensile properties. Based on this idea and working with MAS silk from Argiope trifasciata orb-web building spiders, we developed a novel procedure that permits modification of the tensile properties of spider silk: silk fibers were allowed to supercontract and subsequently stretched in water. The ratio between the length after stretching and the initial supercontracted length was used to control the process. Tensile tests performed in air, after drying,demonstrated that this simple procedure allows to predictable reproduction of the stress-strain curves of either naturally spun or forcibly silked fibers. These results suggest that the supercontracted state has a critical biological function during the spinning process of spider silk.
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Affiliation(s)
- G V Guinea
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, ETS de Ingenieros de Caminos, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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47
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48
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Eles PT, Michal CA. Strain Dependent Local Phase Transitions Observed during Controlled Supercontraction Reveal Mechanisms in Spider Silk. Macromolecules 2004. [DOI: 10.1021/ma035567p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Philip T. Eles
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia, 6224 Agricultural Rd, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 1Z1
| | - Carl A. Michal
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia, 6224 Agricultural Rd, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 1Z1
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49
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Eles PT, Michal CA. Strain Dependent Local Phase Transitions Observed during Controlled Supercontraction Reveal Mechanisms in Spider Silk. Macromolecules 2004. [DOI: 10.1021/ma035567p er] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Philip T. Eles
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia, 6224 Agricultural Rd, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 1Z1
| | - Carl A. Michal
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia, 6224 Agricultural Rd, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 1Z1
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