The genomic sequence of ectromelia virus, the causative agent of mousepox

Genomic Sequencing and Analysis of a Novel Human Cowpox Virus With Mosaic Sequences From North America and Old World Orthopoxvirus

Orthopoxviruses (OPXVs) not only infect their natural hosts, but some OPXVs can also cause disease in humans. Previously, we partially characterized an OPXV isolated from an 18-year-old male living in Northern Norway. Restriction enzyme analysis and partial genome sequencing characterized this virus as an atypical cowpox virus (CPXV), which we named CPXV-No-H2. In this study, we determined the complete genome sequence of CPXV-No-H2 using Illumina and Nanopore sequencing. Our results showed that the whole CPXV-No-H2 genome is 220,276 base pairs (bp) in length, with inverted terminal repeat regions of approximately 7 kbp, containing 217 predicted genes. Seventeen predicted CPXV-No-H2 proteins were most similar to OPXV proteins from the Old World, including Ectromelia virus (ECTV) and Vaccinia virus, and North America, Alaskapox virus (AKPV). CPXV-No-H2 has a mosaic genome with genes most similar to other OPXV genes, and seven potential recombination events were identified. The phylogenetic analysis showed that CPXV-No-H2 formed a separate clade with the German CPXV isolates CPXV_GerMygEK938_17 and CPXV_Ger2010_MKY, sharing 96.4 and 96.3% nucleotide identity, respectively, and this clade clustered closely with the ECTV-OPXV Abatino clade. CPXV-No-H2 is a mosaic virus that may have arisen out of several recombination events between OPXVs, and its phylogenetic clustering suggests that ECTV-Abatino-like cowpox viruses form a distinct, new clade of cowpox viruses.

The epidermal growth factor ortholog of ectromelia virus activates EGFR/ErbB1 and demonstrates mitogenic function in vitro

Many poxviruses produce proteins that are related to epidermal growth factor (EGF). Prior genome sequencing of ectromelia virus revealed a gene predicted to produce a protein with homology to EGF, which we refer to as ectromelia growth factor (ECGF). ECGF is truncated relative to vaccinia growth factor (VGF) because the former lacks a transmembrane domain. We show these proteins can experience differential N-linked glycosylation. Despite these differences, both proteins maintain the six conserved cysteine residues important for the function of EGF. Since ECGF has not been characterized, our objective was to determine if it can act as a growth factor. We added ECGF to cultured cells and found that the EGF receptor becomes activated, S-phase was induced, doubling time decreased, and in vitro wound healing occurred faster compared to untreated cells. In summary, we demonstrate that ECGF can act as a mitogen in a similar manner as VGF.

Comparative Pathogenesis, Genomics and Phylogeography of Mousepox

Ectromelia virus (ECTV), the causative agent of mousepox, has threatened laboratory mouse colonies worldwide for almost a century. Mousepox has been valuable for the understanding of poxvirus pathogenesis and immune evasion. Here, we have monitored in parallel the pathogenesis of nine ECTVs in BALB/cJ mice and report the full-length genome sequence of eight novel ECTV isolates or strains, including the first ECTV isolated from a field mouse, ECTV-MouKre. This approach allowed us to identify several genes, absent in strains attenuated through serial passages in culture, that may play a role in virulence and a set of putative genes that may be involved in enhancing viral growth in vitro. We identified a putative strong inhibitor of the host inflammatory response in ECTV-MouKre, an isolate that did not cause local foot swelling and developed a moderate virulence. Most of the ECTVs, except ECTV-Hampstead, encode a truncated version of the P4c protein that impairs the recruitment of virions into the A-type inclusion bodies, and our data suggest that P4c may play a role in viral dissemination and transmission. This is the first comprehensive report that sheds light into the phylogenetic and geographic relationship of the worldwide outbreak dynamics for the ECTV species.

MiR-518a-5p Targets GZMB to Extenuate Vascular Endothelial Cell Injury Induced by Hypoxia-Reoxygenation and Thereby Improves Myocardial Ischemia

To probe the function of miR-518a-5p/Granzyme B (GZMB) in hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) -induced vascular endothelial cell injury.The key genes of myocardial infarction were screened by bioinformatic methods. The upstream micro RNAs (miRNAs) of GZMB were predicted by TargetScan. The binding of miR-518a-5p to GZMB was verified with luciferase reporter assay. The H/R model was constructed with human vascular endothelial cell (HUVEC) in vitro. Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK8) assay was performed to detect cell proliferation. Western blot was utilized to evaluate the levels of indicated proteins.GZMB was up-regulated in patients with myocardial infarction and identified as the key gene by the bioinformatics analysis. Then the prediction from TargetScan indicated that miR-518a-5p, which is down-regulated in myocardial infarction patients, might be the potential upstream miRNA for GZMB. The following experiments verified that miR-518a-5p could bind to the 3'UTR of GZMB and negatively modulates GZMB expression. More importantly, the miR-518a-5p mimic enhanced cell proliferation and repressed apoptosis of H/R-injured HUVEC cells by inhibiting GZMB expression.We proved that miR-518a-5p could partly attenuate H/R-induced HUVEC cell injury by targeting GZMB, and perhaps the miR-518a-5p/GZMB axis could be potential therapeutic targets for myocardial infarction.

Metagenomics revealing new virus species in farm and pet animals and aquaculture

Viral metagenomics is slowly taking over the traditional and widely used molecular techniques for the investigation of pathogenic viruses responsible for illness and inflicting great economic burden on the farm animal industry. Owing to the continued improvements in sequencing technologies and the dramatic reduction of per base costs of sequencing the use of next generation sequencing have been key factors in this progress. Discoveries linked to viral metagenomics are expected to be beneficial to the field of veterinary medicine starting from the development of better diagnostic assays to the design of new subunit vaccines with minimal investments. With these achievements the research has taken a giant leap even toward the better healthcare of animals and, as a result, the animal sector could be growing at an unprecedented pace.

Molecular Detection and Characterization of the First Cowpox Virus Isolate Derived from a Bank Vole

Cowpox virus (CPXV) is a zoonotic orthopoxvirus (OPV) that infects a wide range of mammals. CPXV-specific DNA and antibodies were detected in different vole species, such as common voles (Microtus arvalis) and bank voles (Myodes glareolus). Therefore, voles are the putative main reservoir host of CPXV. However, CPXV was up to now only isolated from common voles. Here we report the detection and isolation of a bank vole-derived CPXV strain (GerMygEK 938/17) resulting from a large-scale screening of bank voles collected in Thuringia, Germany, during 2017 and 2018. Phylogenetic analysis using the complete viral genome sequence indicated a high similarity of the novel strain to CPXV clade 3 and to OPV “Abatino” but also to Ectromeliavirus (ECTV) strains. Phenotypic characterization of CPXV GerMygEK 938/17 using inoculation of embryonated chicken eggs displayed hemorrhagic pock lesions on the chorioallantoic membrane that are typical for CPXV but not for ECTV. CPXV GerMygEK 938/17 replicated in vole-derived kidney cell lines but at lower level than on Vero76 cell line. In conclusion, the first bank vole-derived CPXV isolate provides new insights into the genetic variability of CPXV in the putative reservoir host and is a valuable tool for further studies about CPXV-host interaction and molecular evolution of OPV.

Novel Class of Viral Ankyrin Proteins Targeting the Host E3 Ubiquitin Ligase Cullin-2

Ankyrin repeat (ANK) domains are among the most abundant motifs in eukaryotic proteins. ANK proteins are rare amongst viruses, with the exception of poxviruses, which presumably acquired them from the host via horizontal gene transfer. The architecture of poxvirus ANK proteins is, however, different from that of their cellular counterparts, and this precludes a direct acquisition event. Here we combine bioinformatics analysis and quantitative proteomics to discover a new class of viral ANK proteins with a domain organization that relates to cellular ANK proteins. These noncanonical viral ANK proteins, termed ANK/BC, interact with host Cullin-2 via a C-terminal BC box resembling that of cellular Cullin-2 substrate adaptors such as the von Hippel-Lindau protein. Mutagenesis of the BC box-like sequence abrogates binding to Cullin-2, whereas fusion of this motif to an ANK-only protein confers Cullin-2 association. We demonstrated that these viral ANK/BC proteins are potent immunomodulatory proteins suppressing the activation of the proinflammatory transcription factors NF-κB and interferon (IFN)-responsive factor 3 (IRF-3) and the production of cytokines and chemokines, including interferon, and that association with Cullin-2 is required for optimal inhibitory activity. ANK/BC proteins exist in several orthopoxviruses and cluster into 2 closely related orthologue groups in a phylogenetic lineage that is separate from that of canonical ANK/F-box proteins. Given the existence of cellular proteins with similar architecture, viral ANK/BC proteins may be closely related to the original ANK gene acquired by an ancestral orthopoxvirus. These findings uncover a novel viral strategy to antagonize innate immunity and shed light on the origin of the poxviral ANK protein family.IMPORTANCE Viruses encode multiple proteins aimed at modulating cellular homeostasis and antagonizing the host antiviral response. Most of these genes were originally acquired from the host and subsequently adapted to benefit the virus. ANK proteins are common in eukaryotes but are unusual amongst viruses, with the exception of poxviruses, where they represent one of the largest protein families. We report here the existence of a new class of viral ANK proteins, termed ANK/BC, that provide new insights into the origin of poxvirus ANK proteins. ANK/BC proteins target the host E3 ubiquitin ligase Cullin-2 via a C-terminal BC box domain and are potent suppressors of the production of inflammatory cytokines, including interferon. The existence of cellular ANK proteins whose architecture is similar suggests the acquisition of a host ANK/BC gene by an ancestral orthopoxvirus and its subsequent duplication and adaptation to widen the repertoire of immune evasion strategies.

Ectromelia virus induces tubulin cytoskeletal rearrangement in immune cells accompanied by a loss of the microtubule organizing center and increased α-tubulin acetylation

Ectromelia virus (ECTV) is an orthopoxvirus that productively replicates in dendritic cells (DCs), but its influence on the microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton in DCs is not known. Here, we show that ECTV infection of primary murine granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor-derived bone marrow cells (GM-BM) downregulates numerous genes engaged in MT cytoskeleton organization and dynamics. In infected cells, the MT cytoskeleton undergoes dramatic rearrangement and relaxation, accompanied by disappearance of the microtubule organizing centre (MTOC) and increased acetylation and stabilization of MTs, which are exploited by progeny virions for intracellular transport. This indicates a strong ability of ECTV to subvert the MT cytoskeleton of highly specialized immune cells.

Propagation and Purification of Ectromelia Virus

Ectromelia virus (ECTV) is an orthopoxvirus that causes mousepox in mice. Members of the genus orthopoxvirus are closely related and include variola (the causative agent of smallpox in humans), monkeypox, and vaccinia. Common features of variola virus and ECTV further include a restricted host range and similar disease progression in their respective hosts. Mousepox makes an excellent small animal model for smallpox to investigate pathogenesis, vaccine and antiviral agent testing, host-virus interactions, and immune and inflammatory responses. The availability of a wide variety of inbred, congenic, and gene-knockout mice allows detailed analyses of the host response. ECTV mutant viruses lacking one or more genes encoding immunomodulatory proteins are being used in numerous studies in conjunction with wild-type or gene-knockout mice to study the functions of these genes in host-virus interactions. The methods used for propagation of ECTV in cell culture, purification, and quantification of infectious particles through viral plaque assay are described. © 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Exploitation of receptor tyrosine kinases by viral-encoded growth factors

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are essential components of cell communication pathways utilized from the embryonic to adult stages of life. These transmembrane receptors bind polypeptide ligands, such as growth factors, inducing signalling cascades that control cellular processes such as proliferation, survival, differentiation, motility and inflammation. Many viruses have acquired homologs of growth factors encoded by the hosts that they infect. Production of growth factors during infection allows viruses to exploit RTKs for entry and replication in cells, as well as for host and environmental dissemination. This review describes the genetic diversity amongst virus-derived growth factors and the mechanisms by which RTK exploitation enhances virus survival, then highlights how viral ligands can be used to further understanding of RTK signalling and function during embryogenesis, homeostasis and disease scenarios.

Genome Sequences of Akhmeta Virus, an Early Divergent Old World Orthopoxvirus

Annotated whole genome sequences of three isolates of the Akhmeta virus (AKMV), a novel species of orthopoxvirus (OPXV), isolated from the Akhmeta and Vani regions of the country Georgia, are presented and discussed. The AKMV genome is similar in genomic content and structure to that of the cowpox virus (CPXV), but a lower sequence identity was found between AKMV and Old World OPXVs than between other known species of Old World OPXVs. Phylogenetic analysis showed that AKMV diverged prior to other Old World OPXV. AKMV isolates formed a monophyletic clade in the OPXV phylogeny, yet the sequence variability between AKMV isolates was higher than between the monkeypox virus strains in the Congo basin and West Africa. An AKMV isolate from Vani contained approximately six kb sequence in the left terminal region that shared a higher similarity with CPXV than with other AKMV isolates, whereas the rest of the genome was most similar to AKMV, suggesting recombination between AKMV and CPXV in a region containing several host range and virulence genes.

Chemokines cooperate with TNF to provide protective anti-viral immunity and to enhance inflammation

The role of cytokines and chemokines in anti-viral defense has been demonstrated, but their relative contribution to protective anti-viral responses in vivo is not fully understood. Cytokine response modifier D (CrmD) is a secreted receptor for TNF and lymphotoxin containing the smallpox virus-encoded chemokine receptor (SECRET) domain and is expressed by ectromelia virus, the causative agent of the smallpox-like disease mousepox. Here we show that CrmD is an essential virulence factor that controls natural killer cell activation and allows progression of fatal mousepox, and demonstrate that both SECRET and TNF binding domains are required for full CrmD activity. Vaccination with recombinant CrmD protects animals from lethal mousepox. These results indicate that a specific set of chemokines enhance the inflammatory and protective anti-viral responses mediated by TNF and lymphotoxin, and illustrate how viruses optimize anti-TNF strategies with the addition of a chemokine binding domain as soluble decoy receptors.

Ectromelia virus lacking the E3L ortholog is replication-defective and nonpathogenic but does induce protective immunity in a mouse strain susceptible to lethal mousepox

All known orthopoxviruses, including ectromelia virus (ECTV), contain a gene in the E3L family. The protein product of this gene, E3, is a double-stranded RNA-binding protein. It can impact host range and is used by orthopoxviruses to combat cellular defense pathways, such as PKR and RNase L. In this work, we constructed an ECTV mutant with a targeted disruption of the E3L open reading frame (ECTVΔE3L). Infection with this virus resulted in an abortive replication cycle in all cell lines tested. We detected limited transcription of late genes but no significant translation of these mRNAs. Notably, the replication defects of ECTVΔE3L were rescued in human and mouse cells lacking PKR. ECTVΔE3L was nonpathogenic in BALB/c mice, a strain susceptible to lethal mousepox disease. However, infection with ECTVΔE3L induced protective immunity upon subsequent challenge with wild-type virus. In summary, E3L is an essential gene for ECTV.

Development of a SYBR Green I real-time PCR for detection and quantitation of orthopoxvirus by using Ectromelia virus

Ectromelia virus (ECTV) is the causative agent of mousepox, which has devastating effects in laboratory-mouse colonies and causes economic loss in biomedical research. More importantly, ECTV has been extensively used as an excellent model for studies of the pathogenesis and immunobiology of human smallpox. A rapid and sensitive SYBR Green I-based real-time PCR assay was developed and used for the detection and quantitation of orthopoxvirus by using ECTV in this study. Primers targeted to the highly conserved region of major core protein P4b gene of orthopoxvirus were designed and the standard plasmid was constructed. This assay was able to detect a minimum of 10 copies of standard DNA and 5 TCID₅₀ units of ECTV. In addition, no cross-reactions were observed with two DNA viruses, such as herpes simplex virus and swine pseudorabies virus, and one RNA virus, vesicular stomatitis virus. Furthermore, intra- and inter-assay variability data showed that this method had a highly reproducibility and reliability. Moreover, the current assay was faster and had a higher sensitivity for detection of ECTV genomic DNA in cell cultured and clinical test samples. Therefore, the high sensitivity and reproducibility of this SYBR Green real-time PCR approach is a more effective method than the conventional PCR for ECTV diagnosis and quantitation.

Ectromelia virus accumulates less double-stranded RNA compared to vaccinia virus in BS-C-1 cells

Most orthopoxviruses, including vaccinia virus (VACV), contain genes in the E3L and K3L families. The protein products of these genes have been shown to combat PKR, a host defense pathway. Interestingly, ectromelia virus (ECTV) contains an E3L ortholog but does not possess an intact K3L gene. Here, we gained insight into how ECTV can still efficiently evade PKR despite lacking K3L. Relative to VACV, we found that ECTV-infected BS-C-1 cells accumulated considerably less double-stranded (ds) RNA, which was due to lower mRNA levels and less transcriptional read-through of some genes by ECTV. The abundance of dsRNA in VACV-infected cells, detected using a monoclonal antibody, was able to activate the RNase L pathway at late time points post-infection. Historically, the study of transcription by orthopoxviruses has largely focused on VACV as a model. Our data suggest that there could be more to learn by studying other members of this genus.

Functional paralysis of GM-CSF-derived bone marrow cells productively infected with ectromelia virus

Ectromelia virus (ECTV) is an orthopoxvirus responsible for mousepox, a lethal disease of certain strains of mice that is similar to smallpox in humans, caused by variola virus (VARV). ECTV, similar to VARV, exhibits a narrow host range and has co-evolved with its natural host. Consequently, ECTV employs sophisticated and host-specific strategies to control the immune cells that are important for induction of antiviral immune response. In the present study we investigated the influence of ECTV infection on immune functions of murine GM-CSF-derived bone marrow cells (GM-BM), comprised of conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) and macrophages. Our results showed for the first time that ECTV is able to replicate productively in GM-BM and severely impaired their innate and adaptive immune functions. Infected GM-BM exhibited dramatic changes in morphology and increased apoptosis during the late stages of infection. Moreover, GM-BM cells were unable to uptake and process antigen, reach full maturity and mount a proinflammatory response. Inhibition of cytokine/chemokine response may result from the alteration of nuclear translocation of NF-κB, IRF3 and IRF7 transcription factors and down-regulation of many genes involved in TLR, RLR, NLR and type I IFN signaling pathways. Consequently, GM-BM show inability to stimulate proliferation of purified allogeneic CD4+ T cells in a primary mixed leukocyte reaction (MLR). Taken together, our data clearly indicate that ECTV induces immunosuppressive mechanisms in GM-BM leading to their functional paralysis, thus compromising their ability to initiate downstream T-cell activation events.

Cowpox virus: What's in a Name?

Traditionally, virus taxonomy relied on phenotypic properties; however, a sequence-based virus taxonomy has become essential since the recent requirement of a species to exhibit monophyly. The species Cowpox virus has failed to meet this requirement, necessitating a reexamination of this species. Here, we report the genomic sequences of nine Cowpox viruses and, by combining them with the available data of 37 additional genomes, confirm polyphyly of Cowpox viruses and find statistical support based on genetic data for more than a dozen species. These results are discussed in light of the current International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses species definition, as well as immediate and future implications for poxvirus taxonomic classification schemes. Data support the recognition of five monophyletic clades of Cowpox viruses as valid species.

Genomic characterization of a novel poxvirus from a flying fox: evidence for a new genus?

The carcass of an Australian little red flying fox (Pteropus scapulatus) which died following entrapment on a fence was submitted to the laboratory for Australian bat lyssavirus exclusion testing, which was negative. During post-mortem, multiple nodules were noted on the wing membranes, and therefore degenerate PCR primers targeting the poxvirus DNA polymerase gene were used to screen for poxviruses. The poxvirus PCR screen was positive and sequencing of the PCR product demonstrated very low, but significant, similarity with the DNA polymerase gene from members of the Poxviridae family. Next-generation sequencing of DNA extracted from the lesions returned a contig of 132 353 nucleotides (nt), which was further extended to produce a near full-length viral genome of 133 492 nt. Analysis of the genome revealed it to be AT-rich with inverted terminal repeats of at least 1314 nt and to contain 143 predicted genes. The genome contains a surprisingly large number (29) of genes not found in other poxviruses, one of which appears to be a homologue of the mammalian TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) gene. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that the poxvirus described here is not closely related to any other poxvirus isolated from bats or other species, and that it likely should be placed in a new genus.

Quantum dot-fluorescence in situ hybridisation for Ectromelia virus detection based on biotin-streptavidin interactions

Ectromelia virus (ECTV) is an pathogen that can lead to a lethal, acute toxic disease known as mousepox in mice. Prevention and control of ECTV infection requires the establishment of a rapid and sensitive diagnostic system for detecting the virus. In the present study, we developed a method of quantum-dot-fluorescence based in situ hybridisation for detecting ECTV genome DNA. Using biotin-dUTP to replace dTTP, biotin was incorporated into a DNA probe during polymerase chain reaction. High sensitivity and specificity of ECTV DNA detection were displayed by fluorescent quantum dots based on biotin-streptavidin interactions. ECTV DNA was then detected by streptavidin-conjugated quantum dots that bound the biotin-labelled probe. Results indicated that the established method can visualise ECTV genomic DNA in both infected cells and mouse tissues. To our knowledge, this is the first study reporting quantum-dot-fluorescence based in situ hybridisation for the detection of viral nucleic acids, providing a reference for the identification and detection of other viruses.

Strategies of NF-κB signaling modulation by ectromelia virus in BALB/3T3 murine fibroblasts

Nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) is a pleiotropic transcription factor that regulates the expression of immune response genes. NF-κB signaling can be disrupted by pathogens that prevent host immune response. In this work, we examined the influence of ectromelia (mousepox) virus (ECTV) on NF-κB signaling in murine BALB/3T3 fibroblasts. Activation of NF-κB via tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor 1 (TNFR1) in these cells induces proinflammatory cytokine secretion. We show that ECTV does not recruit NF-κB to viral factories or induce NF-κB nuclear translocation in BALB/3T3 cells. Additionally, ECTV counteracts TNF-α-induced p65 NF-κB nuclear translocation during the course of infection. Inhibition of TNF-α-induced p65 nuclear translocation was also observed in neighboring cells that underwent fusion with ECTV-infected cells. ECTV inhibits the key step of NF-κB activation, i.e. Ser32 phosphorylation and degradation of inhibitor κBα (IκBα) induced by TNF-α. We also observed that ECTV prevents TNF-α-induced Ser536 of p65 phosphorylation in BALB/3T3 cells. Studying TNFR1 signaling provides information about regulation of inflammatory response and cell survival. Unraveling poxviral immunomodulatory strategies may be helpful in drug target identification as well as in vaccine development.

Modulation of proinflammatory NF-κB signaling by ectromelia virus in RAW 264.7 murine macrophages

Macrophages are antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that play a crucial role in the innate immune response and may be involved in both clearance and spread of viruses. Stimulation of macrophages via Toll-like receptors (TLRs) results in activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines. In this work, we show modulation of proinflammatory NF-κB signaling by a member of the family Poxviridae, genus Orthopoxvirus--ectromelia virus (ECTV)--in RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. ECTV interfered with p65 NF-κB nuclear translocation induced by TLR ligands such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (TLR4), polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)) (TLR3) and diacylated lipopeptide Pam2CSK4 (TLR2/6). We observed that ECTV modulates phosphorylation of Ser32 of inhibitor of κB (IκBα) and Ser536 of p65. Interference of ECTV with TLR signaling pathways implied that proinflammatory cytokine synthesis was inhibited. Our studies provide new insights into the strategies of proinflammatory signaling modulation by orthopoxviruses during their replication cycle in immune cells. Understanding important immune interactions between viral pathogens and APCs might contribute to the identification of drug targets and the development of vaccines.

Comparative Biochemical and Functional Analysis of Viral and Human Secreted Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) Decoy Receptors

The blockade of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) by etanercept, a soluble version of the human TNF receptor 2 (hTNFR2), is a well established strategy to inhibit adverse TNF-mediated inflammatory responses in the clinic. A similar strategy is employed by poxviruses, encoding four viral TNF decoy receptor homologues (vTNFRs) named cytokine response modifier B (CrmB), CrmC, CrmD, and CrmE. These vTNFRs are differentially expressed by poxviral species, suggesting distinct immunomodulatory properties. Whereas the human variola virus and mouse ectromelia virus encode one vTNFR, the broad host range cowpox virus encodes all vTNFRs. We report the first comprehensive study of the functional and binding properties of these four vTNFRs, providing an explanation for their expression profile among different poxviruses. In addition, the vTNFRs activities were compared with the hTNFR2 used in the clinic. Interestingly, CrmB from variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox, is the most potent TNFR of those tested here including hTNFR2. Furthermore, we demonstrate a new immunomodulatory activity of vTNFRs, showing that CrmB and CrmD also inhibit the activity of lymphotoxin β. Similarly, we report for the first time that the hTNFR2 blocks the biological activity of lymphotoxin β. The characterization of vTNFRs optimized during virus-host evolution to modulate the host immune response provides relevant information about their potential role in pathogenesis and may be used to improve anti-inflammatory therapies based on soluble decoy TNFRs.

Ectopic expression of vaccinia virus E3 and K3 cannot rescue ectromelia virus replication in rabbit RK13 cells

As a group, poxviruses have been shown to infect a wide variety of animal species. However, there is individual variability in the range of species able to be productively infected. In this study, we observed that ectromelia virus (ECTV) does not replicate efficiently in cultured rabbit RK13 cells. Conversely, vaccinia virus (VACV) replicates well in these cells. Upon infection of RK13 cells, the replication cycle of ECTV is abortive in nature, resulting in a greatly reduced ability to spread among cells in culture. We observed ample levels of early gene expression but reduced detection of virus factories and severely blunted production of enveloped virus at the cell surface. This work focused on two important host range genes, named E3L and K3L, in VACV. Both VACV and ECTV express a functional protein product from the E3L gene, but only VACV contains an intact K3L gene. To better understand the discrepancy in replication capacity of these viruses, we examined the ability of ECTV to replicate in wild-type RK13 cells compared to cells that constitutively express E3 and K3 from VACV. The role these proteins play in the ability of VACV to replicate in RK13 cells was also analyzed to determine their individual contribution to viral replication and PKR activation. Since E3L and K3L are two relevant host range genes, we hypothesized that expression of one or both of them may have a positive impact on the ability of ECTV to replicate in RK13 cells. Using various methods to assess virus growth, we did not detect any significant differences with respect to the replication of ECTV between wild-type RK13 compared to versions of this cell line that stably expressed VACV E3 alone or in combination with K3. Therefore, there remain unanswered questions related to the factors that limit the host range of ECTV.

Poxviral ankyrin proteins

Multiple repeats of the ankyrin motif (ANK) are ubiquitous throughout the kingdoms of life but are absent from most viruses. The main exception to this is the poxvirus family, and specifically the chordopoxviruses, with ANK repeat proteins present in all but three species from separate genera. The poxviral ANK repeat proteins belong to distinct orthologue groups spread over different species, and align well with the phylogeny of their genera. This distribution throughout the chordopoxviruses indicates these proteins were present in an ancestral vertebrate poxvirus, and have since undergone numerous duplication events. Most poxviral ANK repeat proteins contain an unusual topology of multiple ANK motifs starting at the N-terminus with a C-terminal poxviral homologue of the cellular F-box enabling interaction with the cellular SCF ubiquitin ligase complex. The subtle variations between ANK repeat proteins of individual poxviruses suggest an array of different substrates may be bound by these protein-protein interaction domains and, via the F-box, potentially directed to cellular ubiquitination pathways and possible degradation. Known interaction partners of several of these proteins indicate that the NF-κB coordinated anti-viral response is a key target, whilst some poxviral ANK repeat domains also have an F-box independent affect on viral host-range.

Impact of distinct poxvirus infections on the specificities and functionalities of CD4+ T cell responses

The factors that determine CD4+ T cell (TCD4+) specificities, functional capacity, and memory persistence in response to complex pathogens remain unclear. We explored these parameters in the C57BL/6 mouse through comparison of two highly related (>92% homology) poxviruses: ectromelia virus (ECTV), a natural mouse pathogen, and vaccinia virus (VACV), a heterologous virus that nevertheless elicits potent immune responses. In addition to elucidating several previously unidentified major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II)-restricted epitopes, we observed many qualitative and quantitative differences between the TCD4+ repertoires, including responses not elicited by VACV despite complete sequence conservation. In addition, we observed functional heterogeneity between ECTV- and VACV-specific TCD4+ at both a global and individual epitope level, particularly greater expression of the cytolytic marker CD107a from TCD4+ following ECTV infection. Most striking were differences during the late memory phase where, in contrast to ECTV, VACV infection failed to elicit measurable epitope-specific TCD4+ as determined by intracellular cytokine staining. These findings illustrate the strong influence of epitope-extrinsic factors on TCD4+ responses and memory.

IMPORTANCE

Much of our understanding concerning host-pathogen relationships in the context of poxvirus infections stems from studies of VACV in mice. However, VACV is not a natural mouse pathogen, and therefore, the relevance of results obtained using this model may be limited. Here, we explored the MHC class II-restricted TCD4+ repertoire induced by mousepox (ECTV) infection and the functional profile of the responding epitope-specific TCD4+, comparing these results to those induced by VACV infection under matched conditions. Despite a high degree of homology between the two viruses, we observed distinct specificity and functional profiles of TCD4+ responses at both acute and memory time points, with VACV-specific TCD4+ memory being notably compromised. These data offer insight into the impact of epitope-extrinsic factors on the resulting TCD4+ responses.

The genome sequence of ectromelia virus Naval and Cornell isolates from outbreaks in North America

Ectromelia virus (ECTV) is the causative agent of mousepox, a disease of laboratory mouse colonies and an excellent model for human smallpox. We report the genome sequence of two isolates from outbreaks in laboratory mouse colonies in the USA in 1995 and 1999: ECTV-Naval and ECTV-Cornell, respectively. The genome of ECTV-Naval and ECTV-Cornell was sequenced by the 454-Roche technology. The ECTV-Naval genome was also sequenced by the Sanger and Illumina technologies in order to evaluate these technologies for poxvirus genome sequencing. Genomic comparisons revealed that ECTV-Naval and ECTV-Cornell correspond to the same virus isolated from independent outbreaks. Both ECTV-Naval and ECTV-Cornell are extremely virulent in susceptible BALB/c mice, similar to ECTV-Moscow. This is consistent with the ECTV-Naval genome sharing 98.2% DNA sequence identity with that of ECTV-Moscow, and indicates that the genetic differences with ECTV-Moscow do not affect the virulence of ECTV-Naval in the mousepox model of footpad infection.

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We describe the genome sequence of two highly virulent ectromelia virus isolates.

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The outbreak of ectromelia virus in USA was caused by Chinese viral isolates.

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We describe a clade of ectromelia virus isolates from China.

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We compare three different sequencing technologies to sequence large DNA viruses.

Prediction of steps in the evolution of variola virus host range

Variola virus, the agent of smallpox, has a severely restricted host range (humans) but a devastatingly high mortality rate. Although smallpox has been eradicated by a World Health Organization vaccination program, knowledge of the evolutionary processes by which human super-pathogens such as variola virus arise is important. By analyzing the evolution of variola and other closely related poxviruses at the level of single nucleotide polymorphisms we detected a hotspot of genome variation within the smallpox ortholog of the vaccinia virus O1L gene, which is known to be necessary for efficient replication of vaccinia virus in human cells. These mutations in the variola virus ortholog and the subsequent loss of the functional gene from camelpox virus and taterapox virus, the two closest relatives of variola virus, strongly suggest that changes within this region of the genome may have played a key role in the switch to humans as a host for the ancestral virus and the subsequent host-range restriction that must have occurred to create the phenotype exhibited by smallpox.

Ectromelia virus encodes a BTB/kelch protein, EVM150, that inhibits NF-κB signaling

The NF-κB signaling pathway plays a critical role in inflammation and innate immunity. Consequently, many viruses have evolved strategies to inhibit NF-κB in order to facilitate replication and evasion of the host immune response. Recently, we determined that ectromelia virus, the causative agent of mousepox, contains a family of four BTB/kelch proteins that interact with cullin-3-based ubiquitin ligases. We demonstrate here that expression of EVM150, one of the four BTB/kelch proteins, inhibited NF-κB activation induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). Although EVM150 inhibited NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation, IκBα degradation was observed, indicating that EVM150 functioned downstream of IκBα degradation. Significantly, expression of the BTB-only domain of EVM150 blocked NF-κB activation, demonstrating that EVM150 functioned independently of the kelch domain and its role as an adapter for cullin-3-based ubiquitin ligases. Furthermore, cullin-3 knockdown by small interfering RNA demonstrated that cullin-3-based ubiquitin ligases are dispensable for TNF-α-induced NF-κB activation. Interestingly, nuclear translocation of IRF3 and STAT1 still occurred in the presence of EVM150, indicating that EVM150 prevented NF-κB nuclear translocation specifically. In addition to identifying EVM150 as an inhibitor of the NF-κB pathway, this study provides new insights into the role of BTB/kelch proteins during virus infection.

IMPORTANCE

With the exception of virulence studies, little work has been done to determine the role of poxviral BTB/kelch proteins during infection. This study, for the first time, has identified a mechanism for the ectromelia virus BTB/kelch protein EVM150. Here, we show that EVM150 is a novel inhibitor of the cellular NF-κB pathway, an important component of the antiviral response. This study adds EVM150 to the growing list of NF-κB inhibitors in poxviruses and provides new insights into the role of BTB/kelch proteins during virus infection.

Poxviruses and the evolution of host range and virulence

Poxviruses as a group can infect a large number of animals. However, at the level of individual viruses, even closely related poxviruses display highly diverse host ranges and virulence. For example, variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox, is human-specific and highly virulent only to humans, whereas related cowpox viruses naturally infect a broad spectrum of animals and only cause relatively mild disease in humans. The successful replication of poxviruses depends on their effective manipulation of the host antiviral responses, at the cellular-, tissue- and species-specific levels, which constitutes a molecular basis for differences in poxvirus host range and virulence. A number of poxvirus genes have been identified that possess host range function in experimental settings, and many of these host range genes target specific antiviral host pathways. Herein, we review the biology of poxviruses with a focus on host range, zoonotic infections, virulence, genomics and host range genes as well as the current knowledge about the function of poxvirus host range factors and how their interaction with the host innate immune system contributes to poxvirus host range and virulence. We further discuss the evolution of host range and virulence in poxviruses as well as host switches and potential poxvirus threats for human and animal health.

Characterization of ectromelia virus deficient in EVM036, the homolog of vaccinia virus F13L, and its application for rapid generation of recombinant viruses

The orthopoxvirus (OPV) vaccinia virus (VACV) requires an intact F13L gene to produce enveloped virions (EV) and to form plaques in cell monolayers. Simultaneous introduction of an exogenous gene and F13L into F13L-deficient VACV results in expression of the foreign gene and restoration of plaque size. This is used as a method to rapidly generate VACV recombinants without the need for drug selection. However, whether other OPVs require the orthologs of F13L to generate EV and form plaques, whether F13L orthologs and EV are important for OPV pathogenesis in natural hosts, and whether a system based on F13L ortholog deficiency can be used to generate recombinant OPVs other than VACV have not been reported. The F13L ortholog in ectromelia virus (ECTV), the agent of mousepox, is EVM036. We show that ECTV lacking EVM036 formed small plaques and was highly attenuated in vivo but still induced strong antibody responses. Reintroduction of EVM036 in tandem with the DsRed gene resulted in a virus that expressed DsRed in infected cells but was indistinguishable from wild-type ECTV in terms of plaque size and in vivo virulence. Thus, our data show that, like F13L in VACV, EVM036 is required for ECTV plaque formation and that EVM036 and EV are important for ECTV virulence. Our experiments also suggest that OPVs deficient in F13L orthologs could serve as safer anti-OPV vaccines. Further, our results demonstrate that ECTV deficient in EVM036 can be exploited for the rapid generation of fully virulent ECTV expressing foreign genes of interest.

Orthopoxvirus genes that mediate disease virulence and host tropism

In the course of evolution, viruses have developed various molecular mechanisms to evade the defense reactions of the host organism. When understanding the mechanisms used by viruses to overcome manifold defense systems of the animal organism, represented by molecular factors and cells of the immune system, we would not only comprehend better but also discover new patterns of organization and function of these most important reactions directed against infectious agents. Here, study of the orthopoxviruses pathogenic for humans, such as variola (smallpox), monkeypox, cowpox, and vaccinia viruses, may be most important. Analysis of the experimental data, presented in this paper, allows to infer that variola virus and other orthopoxviruses possess an unexampled set of genes whose protein products efficiently modulate the manifold defense mechanisms of the host organisms compared with the viruses from other families.

Loss of cytoskeletal transport during egress critically attenuates ectromelia virus infection in vivo

Egress of wrapped virus (WV) to the cell periphery following vaccinia virus (VACV) replication is dependent on interactions with the microtubule motor complex kinesin-1 and is mediated by the viral envelope protein A36. Here we report that ectromelia virus (ECTV), a related orthopoxvirus and the causative agent of mousepox, encodes an A36 homologue (ECTV-Mos-142) that is highly conserved despite a large truncation at the C terminus. Deleting the ECTV A36R gene leads to a reduction in the number of extracellular viruses formed and to a reduced plaque size, consistent with a role in microtubule transport. We also observed a complete loss of virus-associated actin comets, another phenotype dependent on A36 expression during VACV infection. ECTV ΔA36R was severely attenuated when used to infect the normally susceptible BALB/c mouse strain. ECTV ΔA36R replication and spread from the draining lymph nodes to the liver and spleen were significantly reduced in BALB/c mice and in Rag-1-deficient mice, which lack T and B lymphocytes. The dramatic reduction in ECTV ΔA36R titers early during the course of infection was not associated with an augmented immune response. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the critical role that subcellular transport pathways play not only in orthopoxvirus infection in an in vitro context but also during orthopoxvirus pathogenesis in a natural host. Furthermore, despite the attenuation of the mutant virus, we found that infection nonetheless induced protective immunity in mice, suggesting that orthopoxvirus vectors with A36 deletions may be considered another safe vaccine alternative.

Genome sequence of erythromelalgia-related poxvirus identifies it as an ectromelia virus strain

Erythromelagia is a condition characterized by attacks of burning pain and inflammation in the extremeties. An epidemic form of this syndrome occurs in secondary students in rural China and a virus referred to as erythromelalgia-associated poxvirus (ERPV) was reported to have been recovered from throat swabs in 1987. Studies performed at the time suggested that ERPV belongs to the orthopoxvirus genus and has similarities with ectromelia virus, the causative agent of mousepox. We have determined the complete genome sequence of ERPV and demonstrated that it has 99.8% identity to the Naval strain of ectromelia virus and a slighly lower identity to the Moscow strain. Small DNA deletions in the Naval genome that are absent from ERPV may suggest that the sequenced strain of Naval was not the immediate progenitor of ERPV.

Viral Infections of Laboratory Mice

Viral infections of laboratory mice have considerable impact on research results, and prevention of such infections is therefore of crucial importance. This chapter covers infections of mice with the following viruses: herpesviruses, mousepox virus, murine adenoviruses, polyomaviruses, parvoviruses, lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, mammalian orthoreovirus serotype 3, murine hepatitis virus, murine norovirus, murine pneumonia virus, murine rotavirus, Sendai virus, and Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus. For each virus, there is a description of the agent, epizootiology, clinical symptoms, pathology, methods of diagnosis and control, and its impact on research.

The attenuated NYCBH vaccinia virus deleted for the immune evasion gene, E3L, completely protects mice against heterologous challenge with ectromelia virus

The New York City Board of Health (NYCBH) vaccinia virus (VACV) vaccine strain was deleted for the immune evasion gene, E3L, and tested for its pathogenicity and ability to protect mice from heterologous challenge with ectromelia virus (ECTV). NYCBHΔE3L was found to be highly attenuated for pathogenicity in a newborn mouse model and showed a similar attenuated phenotype as the NYVAC strain of vaccinia virus. Scarification with one or two doses of the attenuated NYCBHΔE3L was able to protect mice equally as well as NYCBH from death, weight loss, and viral spread to visceral organs. A single dose of NYCBHΔE3L resulted in low poxvirus-specific antibodies, and a second dose increased levels of poxvirus-specific antibodies to a level similar to that seen in animals vaccinated with a single dose of NYCBH. However, similar neutralizing antibody titers were observed following one or two doses of NYCBHΔE3L or NYCBH. Thus, NYCBHΔE3L shows potential as a candidate for a safer human smallpox vaccine since it protects mice from challenge with a heterologous poxvirus.

A naturally occurring cowpox virus with an ectromelia virus A-type inclusion protein gene displays atypical A-type inclusions

Human orthopoxvirus (OPV) infections in Europe are usually caused by cowpox virus (CPXV). The genetic heterogeneity of CPXVs may in part be due to recombination with other OPV species. We describe the characterization of an atypical CPXV (CPXV-No-H2) isolated from a human patient in Norway. CPXV-No-H2 was characterized on the basis of A-type inclusion (ATI) phenotype as well as the DNA region containing the p4c and atip open reading frames. CPXV-No-H2 produced atypical V(+/) ATI, in which virions are on the surface of ATI but not within the ATI matrix. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the atip gene of CPXV-No-H2 clustered closely with that of ectromelia virus (ECTV) with a bootstrap support of 100% whereas its p4c gene is diverged compared to homologues in other OPV species. By recombination analysis we identified a putative crossover event at nucleotide 147, downstream the start of the atip gene. Our results suggest that CPXV-No-H2 originated from a recombination between CPXV and ECTV. Our findings are relevant to the evolution of OPVs.

The ectromelia virus SPI-2 protein causes lethal mousepox by preventing NK cell responses

Ectromelia virus (ECTV) is a natural pathogen of mice that causes mousepox, and many of its genes have been implicated in the modulation of host immune responses. Serine protease inhibitor 2 (SPI-2) is one of these putative ECTV host response modifier proteins. SPI-2 is conserved across orthopoxviruses, but results defining its mechanism of action and in vivo function are lacking or contradictory. We studied the role of SPI-2 in mousepox by deleting the SPI-2 gene or its serine protease inhibitor reactive site. We found that SPI-2 does not affect viral replication or cell-intrinsic apoptosis pathways, since mutant viruses replicate in vitro as efficiently as wild-type virus. However, in the absence of SPI-2 protein, ECTV is attenuated in mousepox-susceptible mice, resulting in lower viral loads in the liver, decreased spleen pathology, and substantially improved host survival. This attenuation correlates with more effective immune responses in the absence of SPI-2, including an earlier serum gamma interferon (IFN-γ) response, raised serum interleukin 18 (IL-18), increased numbers of granzyme B(+) CD8(+) T cells, and, most notably, increased numbers and activation of NK cells. Both virus attenuation and the improved immune responses associated with SPI-2 deletion from ECTV are lost when mice are depleted of NK cells. Consequently, SPI-2 renders mousepox lethal in susceptible strains by preventing protective NK cell defenses.

Disabling complement regulatory activities of vaccinia virus complement control protein reduces vaccinia virus pathogenicity

Poxviruses encode a repertoire of immunomodulatory proteins to thwart the host immune system. One among this array is a homolog of the host complement regulatory proteins that is conserved in various poxviruses including vaccinia (VACV) and variola. The vaccinia virus complement control protein (VCP), which inhibits complement by decaying the classical pathway C3-convertase (decay-accelerating activity), and by supporting inactivation of C3b and C4b by serine protease factor I (cofactor activity), was shown to play a role in viral pathogenesis. However, the role its individual complement regulatory activities impart in pathogenesis, have not yet been elucidated. Here, we have generated monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that block the VCP functions and utilized them to evaluate the relative contribution of complement regulatory activities of VCP in viral pathogenesis by employing a rabbit intradermal model for VACV infection. Targeting VCP by mAbs that inhibited the decay-accelerating activity as well as cofactor activity of VCP or primarily the cofactor activity of VCP, by injecting them at the site of infection, significantly reduced VACV lesion size. This reduction however was not pronounced when VCP was targeted by a mAb that inhibited only the decay-accelerating activity. Further, the reduction in lesion size by mAbs was reversed when host complement was depleted by injecting cobra venom factor. Thus, our results suggest that targeting VCP by antibodies reduces VACV pathogenicity and that principally the cofactor activity of VCP appears to contribute to the virulence.

Phylogenetic analysis of the large family of poxvirus ankyrin-repeat proteins reveals orthologue groups within and across chordopoxvirus genera

Ankyrin-repeat (ANK) protein-interaction domains are common in cellular proteins but are relatively rare in viruses. Chordopoxviruses, however, encode a large number of ANK domain-containing ORFs of largely unknown function. Recently, a second protein-interaction domain, an F-box-like motif, was identified in several poxvirus ANK proteins. Cellular F-box proteins recruit substrates to the ubiquitination machinery of the cell, a putative function for ANK/poxviral F-box proteins. Using publicly available genome sequence data we examined all 328 predicted ANK proteins encoded by 27 chordopoxviruses that represented the eight vertebrate poxvirus genera whose members encode ANK proteins. Within these we identified 15 putative ANK protein orthologue groups within orthopoxviruses, five within parapoxviruses, 23 within avipoxviruses and seven across members of the genera Leporipoxvirus, Capripoxvirus, Yatapoxvirus, Suipoxvirus and Cervidpoxvirus. Sequence comparisons showed that members of each of these four clusters of orthologues were not closely related to members of any of the other clusters. Of these ORFs, 67% encoded a C-terminal poxviral F-box-like motif, whose absence could largely be attributed to fragmentation of ORFs. Our findings suggest that the large family of poxvirus ANK proteins arose by extensive gene duplication and divergence that occurred independently in four major genus-based groups after the groups diverged from each other. It seems likely that the ancestor ANK proteins of poxviruses contained both the N-terminal ANK repeats and a C-terminal F-box-like domain, with the latter domain subsequently being lost in a small subset of these proteins.

Poxvirus interleukin-4 expression overcomes inherent resistance and vaccine-induced immunity: pathogenesis, prophylaxis, and antiviral therapy

In 2001, Jackson et al. reported that murine IL-4 expression by a recombinant ectromelia virus caused enhanced morbidity and lethality in resistant C57BL/6 mice as well as overcame protective immune memory responses. To achieve a more thorough understanding of this phenomenon and to assess a variety of countermeasures, we constructed a series of ECTV recombinants encoding murine IL-4 under the control of promoters of different strengths and temporal regulation. We showed that the ECTV-IL-4 recombinant expressing the highest level of IL-4 was uniformly lethal for C57BL/6 mice even when previously immunized. The lethality of the ECTV-IL-4 recombinants resulted from virus-expressed IL-4 signaling through the IL-4 receptor but was not due to IL-4 toxicity. A number of treatment approaches were evaluated against the most virulent IL-4 encoding virus. The most efficacious therapy was a combination of two antiviral drugs (CMX001(®) and ST-246(®)) that have different mechanisms of action.

Poxvirus exploitation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system

Ubiquitination plays a critical role in many cellular processes. A growing number of viruses have evolved strategies to exploit the ubiquitin-proteasome system, including members of the Poxviridae family. Members of the poxvirus family have recently been shown to encode BTB/kelch and ankyrin/F-box proteins that interact with cullin-3 and cullin-1 based ubiquitin ligases, respectively. Multiple members of the poxvirus family also encode ubiquitin ligases with intrinsic activity. This review describes the numerous mechanisms that poxviruses employ to manipulate the ubiquitin-proteasome system.

Orthopoxvirus genome evolution: the role of gene loss

Poxviruses are highly successful pathogens, known to infect a variety of hosts. The family Poxviridae includes Variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox, which has been eradicated as a public health threat but could potentially reemerge as a bioterrorist threat. The risk scenario includes other animal poxviruses and genetically engineered manipulations of poxviruses. Studies of orthologous gene sets have established the evolutionary relationships of members within the Poxviridae family. It is not clear, however, how variations between family members arose in the past, an important issue in understanding how these viruses may vary and possibly produce future threats. Using a newly developed poxvirus-specific tool, we predicted accurate gene sets for viruses with completely sequenced genomes in the genus Orthopoxvirus. Employing sensitive sequence comparison techniques together with comparison of syntenic gene maps, we established the relationships between all viral gene sets. These techniques allowed us to unambiguously identify the gene loss/gain events that have occurred over the course of orthopoxvirus evolution. It is clear that for all existing Orthopoxvirus species, no individual species has acquired protein-coding genes unique to that species. All existing species contain genes that are all present in members of the species Cowpox virus and that cowpox virus strains contain every gene present in any other orthopoxvirus strain. These results support a theory of reductive evolution in which the reduction in size of the core gene set of a putative ancestral virus played a critical role in speciation and confining any newly emerging virus species to a particular environmental (host or tissue) niche.

Ectromelia virus inhibitor of complement enzymes protects intracellular mature virus and infected cells from mouse complement

Poxviruses produce complement regulatory proteins to subvert the host's immune response. Similar to the human pathogen variola virus, ectromelia virus has a limited host range and provides a mouse model where the virus and the host's immune response have coevolved. We previously demonstrated that multiple components (C3, C4, and factor B) of the classical and alternative pathways are required to survive ectromelia virus infection. Complement's role in the innate and adaptive immune responses likely drove the evolution of a virus-encoded virulence factor that regulates complement activation. In this study, we characterized the ectromelia virus inhibitor of complement enzymes (EMICE). Recombinant EMICE regulated complement activation on the surface of CHO cells, and it protected complement-sensitive intracellular mature virions (IMV) from neutralization in vitro. It accomplished this by serving as a cofactor for the inactivation of C3b and C4b and by dissociating the catalytic domain of the classical pathway C3 convertase. Infected murine cells initiated synthesis of EMICE within 4 to 6 h postinoculation. The levels were sufficient in the supernatant to protect the IMV, upon release, from complement-mediated neutralization. EMICE on the surface of infected murine cells also reduced complement activation by the alternative pathway. In contrast, classical pathway activation by high-titer antibody overwhelmed EMICE's regulatory capacity. These results suggest that EMICE's role is early during infection when it counteracts the innate immune response. In summary, ectromelia virus produced EMICE within a few hours of an infection, and EMICE in turn decreased complement activation on IMV and infected cells.

Interaction of orthopoxviruses with the cellular ubiquitin-ligase system

Protein modification by ubiquitin or ubiquitin-like polypeptides is important for the fate and functions of the majority of proteins in the eukaryotic cell and can be involved in regulation of various biological processes, including protein metabolism (degradation), protein transport to several cellular compartments, rearrangement of cytoskeleton, and transcription of cytoprotective genes. The accumulated experimental data suggest that the ankyrin-F-box-like and BTB-kelch-like proteins of orthopoxviruses, represented by the largest viral multigene families, interact with the cellular Cullin-1- and Cullin-3-containing ubiquitin-protein ligases, respectively. In addition, orthopoxviruses code for their own RING-domain-containing ubiquitin ligase. In this review, this author discusses the differences between variola (smallpox), monkeypox, cowpox, vaccinia, and ectromelia (mousepox) viruses in the organization of ankyrin-F-box and BTB-kelch protein families and their likely functions.

Caspase-dependent inhibition of mousepox replication by gzmB

Background

Ectromelia virus is a natural mouse pathogen, causing mousepox. The cytotoxic T (Tc) cell granule serine-protease, granzyme B, is important for its control, but the underlying mechanism is unknown. Using ex vivo virus immune Tc cells, we have previously shown that granzyme B is able to activate several independent pro-apoptotic pathways, including those mediated by Bid/Bak/Bax and caspases-3/-7, in target cells pulsed with Tc cell determinants.

Methods and Findings

Here we analysed the physiological relevance of those pro-apoptotic pathways in ectromelia infection, by incubating ectromelia-immune ex vivo Tc cells from granzyme A deficient (GzmB⁺ Tc cells) or granzyme A and granzyme B deficient (GzmA×B^−/− Tc cell) mice with ectromelia-infected target cells. We found that gzmB-induced apoptosis was totally blocked in ectromelia infected or peptide pulsed cells lacking caspases-3/-7. However ectromelia inhibited only partially apoptosis in cells deficient for Bid/Bak/Bax and not at all when both pathways were operative suggesting that the virus is able to interfere with apoptosis induced by gzmB in case not all pathways are activated. Importantly, inhibition of viral replication in vitro, as seen with wild type cells, was not affected by the lack of Bid/Bak/Bax but was significantly reduced in caspase-3/-7-deficient cells. Both caspase dependent processes were strictly dependent on gzmB, since Tc cells, lacking both gzms, neither induced apoptosis nor reduced viral titers.

Significance

Out findings present the first evidence on the biological importance of the independent gzmB-inducible pro-apoptotic pathways in a physiological relevant virus infection model.

A role for NKG2D in NK cell-mediated resistance to poxvirus disease

Ectromelia virus (ECTV) is an orthopoxvirus (OPV) that causes mousepox, the murine equivalent of human smallpox. C57BL/6 (B6) mice are naturally resistant to mousepox due to the concerted action of innate and adaptive immune responses. Previous studies have shown that natural killer (NK) cells are a component of innate immunity that is essential for the B6 mice resistance to mousepox. However, the mechanism of NK cell–mediated resistance to OPV disease remains undefined. Here we show that B6 mice resistance to mousepox requires the direct cytolytic function of NK cells, as well as their ability to boost the T cell response. Furthermore, we show that the activating receptor NKG2D is required for optimal NK cell–mediated resistance to disease and lethality. Together, our results have important implication towards the understanding of natural resistance to pathogenic viral infections.

Ectromelia virus (ECTV) causes mousepox, a murine disease that is the equivalent of human smallpox. ECTV normally penetrates through the periphery but rapidly spreads through the lymphatic system to vital organs. In mousepox-sensitive strains of mice, ECTV infection culminates with either rapid death or overt symptoms of mousepox due to very high loads that the virus reaches in vital organs, particularly the liver. However, some strains of mice such as C57BL/6 (B6) and 129 also become infected with ECTV but naturally resist mousepox by controlling the virus loads in vital organs and clearing the virus without clinical symptoms of disease. Natural killer (NK) cells are cells of the innate immune system previously shown to play an important role in natural resistance to mousepox. However, how NK cells protect from this disease is still unknown. In this paper we show that NK cells directly contribute to antiviral defenses by curbing virus dissemination to vital organs and also indirectly by augmenting the antiviral T cell response. We also demonstrate that optimal protection requires the activating NK cell receptor NKG2D which facilitates killing of ECTV-infected cells. Our work has important implications for the understanding of natural resistance to viral disease.

The orthopoxvirus type I IFN binding protein is essential for virulence and an effective target for vaccination

Nonliving antiviral vaccines traditionally target proteins expressed at the surface of the virion with the hope of inducing neutralizing antibodies. Orthopoxviruses (OPVs), such as the human smallpox virus and the mouse-equivalent ectromelia virus (ECTV; an agent of mousepox), encode immune response modifiers (IRMs) that can increase virulence by decreasing the host immune response. We show that one of these IRMs, the type I interferon (IFN) binding protein (bp) of ECTV, is essential for ECTV virulence and is a natural target of the antibody response. More strikingly, we demonstrate that immunization with recombinant type I IFN bp protects mice from lethal mousepox. Collectively, our experiments have important implications for our understanding of the role of IRMs in OPV virulence and of type I IFNs in OPV infections. Furthermore, our work provides proof of concept that effective antiviral vaccines can be made to prevent disease by targeting virulence factors as an alternative to the traditional approach that attempts to prevent infection by virus neutralization.