1
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Tomar M, Beros J, Meloni B, Rodger J. Interactions between Guidance Cues and Neuronal Activity: Therapeutic Insights from Mouse Models. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24086966. [PMID: 37108129 PMCID: PMC10138948 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24086966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Topographic mapping of neural circuits is fundamental in shaping the structural and functional organization of brain regions. This developmentally important process is crucial not only for the representation of different sensory inputs but also for their integration. Disruption of topographic organization has been associated with several neurodevelopmental disorders. The aim of this review is to highlight the mechanisms involved in creating and refining such well-defined maps in the brain with a focus on the Eph and ephrin families of axon guidance cues. We first describe the transgenic models where ephrin-A expression has been manipulated to understand the role of these guidance cues in defining topography in various sensory systems. We further describe the behavioral consequences of lacking ephrin-A guidance cues in these animal models. These studies have given us unexpected insight into how neuronal activity is equally important in refining neural circuits in different brain regions. We conclude the review by discussing studies that have used treatments such as repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) to manipulate activity in the brain to compensate for the lack of guidance cues in ephrin-knockout animal models. We describe how rTMS could have therapeutic relevance in neurodevelopmental disorders with disrupted brain organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maitri Tomar
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Jamie Beros
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Bruno Meloni
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
- Centre for Neuromuscular and Neurological Disorders, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, QEII Medical Centre, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Jennifer Rodger
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
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2
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van Beest EH, Mukherjee S, Kirchberger L, Schnabel UH, van der Togt C, Teeuwen RRM, Barsegyan A, Meyer AF, Poort J, Roelfsema PR, Self MW. Mouse visual cortex contains a region of enhanced spatial resolution. Nat Commun 2021; 12:4029. [PMID: 34188047 PMCID: PMC8242089 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24311-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The representation of space in mouse visual cortex was thought to be relatively uniform. Here we reveal, using population receptive-field (pRF) mapping techniques, that mouse visual cortex contains a region in which pRFs are considerably smaller. This region, the “focea,” represents a location in space in front of, and slightly above, the mouse. Using two-photon imaging we show that the smaller pRFs are due to lower scatter of receptive-fields at the focea and an over-representation of binocular regions of space. We show that receptive-fields of single-neurons in areas LM and AL are smaller at the focea and that mice have improved visual resolution in this region of space. Furthermore, freely moving mice make compensatory eye-movements to hold this region in front of them. Our results indicate that mice have spatial biases in their visual processing, a finding that has important implications for the use of the mouse model of vision. The representation of space in mouse visual cortex was considered to be relatively uniform. The authors show that mice have improved visual resolution in a cortical region representing a location in space directly in front and slightly above them, showing that the representation of space in mouse visual cortex is non-uniform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enny H van Beest
- Department of Vision & Cognition, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sreedeep Mukherjee
- Department of Vision & Cognition, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Lisa Kirchberger
- Department of Vision & Cognition, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ulf H Schnabel
- Department of Vision & Cognition, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Chris van der Togt
- Department of Vision & Cognition, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rob R M Teeuwen
- Department of Vision & Cognition, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Areg Barsegyan
- Department of Vision & Cognition, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Arne F Meyer
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, University College London, London, UK
| | - Jasper Poort
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Pieter R Roelfsema
- Department of Vision & Cognition, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. .,Department of Integrative Neurophysiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. .,Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Matthew W Self
- Department of Vision & Cognition, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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3
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Tkatchenko TV, Tkatchenko AV. Genetic network regulating visual acuity makes limited contribution to visually guided eye emmetropization. Genomics 2021; 113:2780-2792. [PMID: 34147636 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2021.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
During postnatal development, the eye undergoes a refinement process whereby optical defocus guides eye growth towards sharp vision in a process of emmetropization. Optical defocus activates a signaling cascade originating in the retina and propagating across the back of the eye to the sclera. Several observations suggest that visual acuity might be important for optical defocus detection and processing in the retina; however, direct experimental evidence supporting or refuting the role of visual acuity in refractive eye development is lacking. Here, we used genome-wide transcriptomics to determine the relative contribution of the retinal genetic network regulating visual acuity to the signaling cascade underlying visually guided eye emmetropization. Our results provide evidence that visual acuity is regulated at the level of molecular signaling in the retina by an extensive genetic network. The genetic network regulating visual acuity makes relatively small contribution to the signaling cascade underlying refractive eye development. This genetic network primarily affects baseline refractive eye development and this influence is primarily facilitated by the biological processes related to melatonin signaling, nitric oxide signaling, phototransduction, synaptic transmission, and dopamine signaling. We also observed that the visual-acuity-related genes associated with the development of human myopia are chiefly involved in light perception and phototransduction. Our results suggest that the visual-acuity-related genetic network primarily contributes to the signaling underlying baseline refractive eye development, whereas its impact on visually guided eye emmetropization is modest.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrei V Tkatchenko
- Department of Ophthalmology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
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4
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Tkatchenko TV, Tkatchenko AV. Genome-wide analysis of retinal transcriptome reveals common genetic network underlying perception of contrast and optical defocus detection. BMC Med Genomics 2021; 14:153. [PMID: 34107987 PMCID: PMC8190860 DOI: 10.1186/s12920-021-01005-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Refractive eye development is regulated by optical defocus in a process of emmetropization. Excessive exposure to negative optical defocus often leads to the development of myopia. However, it is still largely unknown how optical defocus is detected by the retina. Methods Here, we used genome-wide RNA-sequencing to conduct analysis of the retinal gene expression network underlying contrast perception and refractive eye development. Results We report that the genetic network subserving contrast perception plays an important role in optical defocus detection and emmetropization. Our results demonstrate an interaction between contrast perception, the retinal circadian clock pathway and the signaling pathway underlying optical defocus detection. We also observe that the relative majority of genes causing human myopia are involved in the processing of optical defocus. Conclusions Together, our results support the hypothesis that optical defocus is perceived by the retina using contrast as a proxy and provide new insights into molecular signaling underlying refractive eye development. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12920-021-01005-x.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrei V Tkatchenko
- Department of Ophthalmology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA. .,Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA. .,Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute, Research Annex Room 415, 635 W. 165th Street, New York, NY, 10032, USA.
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5
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Tonazzini I, Cerri C, Del Grosso A, Antonini S, Allegra M, Caleo M, Cecchini M. Visual System Impairment in a Mouse Model of Krabbe Disease: The Twitcher Mouse. Biomolecules 2020; 11:biom11010007. [PMID: 33374753 PMCID: PMC7824544 DOI: 10.3390/biom11010007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Krabbe disease (KD, or globoid cell leukodystrophy; OMIM #245200) is an inherited neurodegenerative condition belonging to the class of the lysosomal storage disorders. It is caused by genetic alterations in the gene encoding for the enzyme galactosylceramidase, which is responsible for cleaving the glycosydic linkage of galatosylsphingosine (psychosine or PSY), a highly cytotoxic molecule. Here, we describe morphological and functional alterations in the visual system of the Twitcher (TWI) mouse, the most used animal model of Krabbe disease. We report in vivo electrophysiological recordings showing defective basic functional properties of the TWI primary visual cortex. In particular, we demonstrate a reduced visual acuity and contrast sensitivity, and a delayed visual response. Specific neuropathological alterations are present in the TWI visual cortex, with reduced myelination, increased astrogliosis and microglia activation, and around the whole brain. Finally, we quantify PSY content in the brain and optic nerves by high-pressure liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry methods. An increasing PSY accumulation with time, the characteristic hallmark of KD, is found in both districts. These results represent the first complete characterization of the TWI visual system. Our data set a baseline for an easy testing of potential therapies for this district, which is also dramatically affected in KD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Tonazzini
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy; (I.T.); (A.D.G.); (S.A.)
| | - Chiara Cerri
- Istituto Neuroscienze-CNR, Via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (C.C.); (M.A.); (M.C.)
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, Via Bonanno Pisano 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Ambra Del Grosso
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy; (I.T.); (A.D.G.); (S.A.)
| | - Sara Antonini
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy; (I.T.); (A.D.G.); (S.A.)
| | - Manuela Allegra
- Istituto Neuroscienze-CNR, Via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (C.C.); (M.A.); (M.C.)
- Department of Neuroscience, Institut Pasteur, 25 Rue du Dr Roux, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Matteo Caleo
- Istituto Neuroscienze-CNR, Via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (C.C.); (M.A.); (M.C.)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Viale G. Colombo 3, 35131 Padua, Italy
| | - Marco Cecchini
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy; (I.T.); (A.D.G.); (S.A.)
- Correspondence:
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6
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Tong M, Yu X, Shao J, Shao Z, Li W, Lin W. Automated measuring method based on Machine learning for optomotor response in mice. Neurocomputing 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neucom.2020.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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7
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Crijns E, Op de Beeck H. The Visual Acuity of Rats in Touchscreen Setups. Vision (Basel) 2019; 4:vision4010004. [PMID: 31906140 PMCID: PMC7157561 DOI: 10.3390/vision4010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Touchscreen setups are increasingly used in rodents for a wide range of cognitive tasks, including visual discrimination. The greater automation and high throughput of this platform could greatly facilitate future vision research. However, little information is available regarding decision distance and on the limitations of stimulus size. Especially when studying visual functions, the lack of control of basic visual properties is a drawback. Therefore, we determined the maximal number of cycles per screen gratings can have so that Long Evans rats can reliably perform orientation discrimination. To relate our results to literature on visual acuity we tried to make an estimate of the decision distance in the touchscreen platform. The rats can discriminate between orientations with 70% accuracy up to 44 cycles per screen. This could roughly translates to the previously reported visual acuity of 1 c/degree assuming a viewing distance of 12.5 cm. This could be useful when designing new stimuli based on published results in c/degree. One could assume a viewing distance of 12.5 cm and expect similar discrimination performance in the touchscreen setup as in other tasks with a predefined viewing distance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Els Crijns
- Laboratory for Biological Psychology, Department of Brain and Cognition, KU Leuven, Tiensestraat 102 box 3714, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
- Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Hans Op de Beeck
- Laboratory for Biological Psychology, Department of Brain and Cognition, KU Leuven, Tiensestraat 102 box 3714, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
- Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Correspondence:
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8
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Blankenship PA, Normann MC, Donaldson TN, Baumeister J, McNeal N, Grippo AJ, Wallace DG. Making waves: Comparing Morris water task performance in rats and prairie voles. Behav Brain Res 2018; 360:7-15. [PMID: 30472112 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Spatial processing is a critical component for survival. This domain of information processing has been extensively studied in rats and mice. Limited work has examined the capacity of other rodent species, like the prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster), to process spatial information. The Morris water task (MWT) is a classic spatial task that has been used to examine spatial cognition in rodents. This task involves an animal developing configural relationships between extra-maze cues and the location of a hidden platform to successfully escape from a pool of water. The current study compared performance in the MWT between rats and prairie voles. Rats were observed to outperform prairie voles in key aspects of the task including latency to find the platform, directness of swim paths to the platform, and degrees of heading error. These results may be attributed to potential interspecies differences in spatial cognition, stress reactivity, physiology, or motivation. This study provides the foundation for future work investigating the spatial cognition of prairie voles and the factors that contribute to water task performance in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marigny C Normann
- Psychology Department, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115-2892 USA
| | - Tia N Donaldson
- Psychology Department, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115-2892 USA
| | - Joanna Baumeister
- Psychology Department, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115-2892 USA
| | - Neal McNeal
- Psychology Department, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115-2892 USA
| | - Angela J Grippo
- Psychology Department, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115-2892 USA
| | - Douglas G Wallace
- Psychology Department, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115-2892 USA
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9
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Optimization of Optomotor Response-based Visual Function Assessment in Mice. Sci Rep 2018; 8:9708. [PMID: 29946119 PMCID: PMC6018764 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27329-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Optomotor response/reflex (OMR) assays are emerging as a powerful and versatile tool for phenotypic study and new drug discovery for eye and brain disorders. Yet efficient OMR assessment for visual performance in mice remains a challenge. Existing OMR testing devices for mice require a lengthy procedure and may be subject to bias due to use of artificial criteria. We developed an optimized staircase protocol that utilizes mouse head pausing behavior as a novel indicator for the absence of OMR, to allow rapid and unambiguous vision assessment. It provided a highly sensitive and reliable method that can be easily implemented into automated or manual OMR systems to allow quick and unbiased assessment for visual acuity and contrast sensitivity in mice. The sensitivity and quantitative capacity of the protocol were validated using wild type mice and an inherited mouse model of retinal degeneration – mice carrying rhodopsin deficiency and exhibiting progressive loss of photoreceptors. Our OMR system with this protocol was capable of detecting progressive visual function decline that was closely correlated with the loss of photoreceptors in rhodopsin deficient mice. It provides significant advances over the existing methods in the currently available OMR devices in terms of sensitivity, accuracy and efficiency.
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10
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Kirkels LAMH, Zhang W, Havenith MN, Tiesinga P, Glennon J, van Wezel RJA, Duijnhouwer J. The opto-locomotor reflex as a tool to measure sensitivity to moving random dot patterns in mice. Sci Rep 2018; 8:7710. [PMID: 29769564 PMCID: PMC5955912 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-25844-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
We designed a method to quantify mice visual function by measuring reflexive opto-locomotor responses. Mice were placed on a Styrofoam ball at the center of a large dome on the inside of which we projected moving random dot patterns. Because we fixed the heads of the mice in space and the ball was floating on pressurized air, locomotion of the mice was translated to rotation of the ball, which we registered. Sudden onsets of rightward or leftward moving patterns caused the mice to reflexively change their running direction. We quantified the opto-locomotor responses to different pattern speeds, luminance contrasts, and dot sizes. We show that the method is fast and reliable and the magnitude of the reflex is stable within sessions. We conclude that this opto-locomotor reflex method is suitable to quantify visual function in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A M H Kirkels
- Department of Biophysics, Donders Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - W Zhang
- Department of Biophysics, Donders Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - M N Havenith
- Department of Neuroinformatics, Donders Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute, RadboudUMC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - P Tiesinga
- Department of Neuroinformatics, Donders Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - J Glennon
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute, RadboudUMC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - R J A van Wezel
- Department of Biophysics, Donders Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Biomedical Signals and Systems, MIRA, Twente University, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - J Duijnhouwer
- Department of Biophysics, Donders Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, USA
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11
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Abstract
We compared the rate of acquisition and strength of retention of conditioned context aversion (CCA) with conditioned taste aversion (CTA) using pigmented, genetically heterogeneous mice (derived from Large and Small strains). Extending previous findings, in Experiment 1, mice accustomed to drinking from large glass bottles in the colony room learned to avoid graduated tubes after a single conditioning trial when drinking from these novel tubes was paired with injections of LiCl. The results also showed that CCA could be developed even when there was a 30-minute delay between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. Retention of the aversion lasted for 4 weeks in both Immediate and Delay groups. Studies of conditioned saccharin aversion were conducted in Experiment 2. CTA acquisition was very similar to that observed in CCA and duration of aversion retention was similar in the CCA and CTA Delay groups, although at least 2 weeks longer in the Immediate group. Thus, CCA acquisition and retention characteristics are closer to those seen for CTA than has previously been reported. In Experiment 3, we examined whether albino mice (which are known to have weaker visual abilities compared to pigmented mice) would develop CCA comparable to those of pigmented mice. The development of conditioned aversion and its duration of retention was similar in albinos and pigmented mice. Nonspecific aversion emerged as an important contributor to strength of aversion during retention trials in both CCA and CTA paradigms with pigmented (but not albino) mice and deserves additional scrutiny in this field of inquiry.
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12
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Leinonen H, Tanila H. Vision in laboratory rodents-Tools to measure it and implications for behavioral research. Behav Brain Res 2017; 352:172-182. [PMID: 28760697 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Mice and rats are nocturnal mammals and their vision is specialized for detection of motion and contrast in dim light conditions. These species possess a large proportion of UV-sensitive cones in their retinas and the majority of their optic nerve axons target superior colliculus rather than visual cortex. Therefore, it was a widely held belief that laboratory rodents hardly utilize vision during day-time behavior. This dogma is being questioned as accumulating evidence suggests that laboratory rodents are able to perform complex visual functions, such as perceiving subjective contours, and that declined vision may affect their performance in many behavioral tasks. For instance, genetic engineering may have unexpected consequences on vision as mouse models of Alzheimer's and Huntington's diseases have declined visual function. Rodent vision can be tested in numerous ways using operant training or reflex-based behavioral tasks, or alternatively using electrophysiological recordings. In this article, we will first provide a summary of visual system and explain its characteristics unique to rodents. Then, we present well-established techniques to test rodent vision, with an emphasis on pattern vision: visual water test, optomotor reflex test, pattern electroretinography and pattern visual evoked potentials. Finally, we highlight the importance of visual phenotyping in rodents. As the number of genetically engineered rodent models and volume of behavioral testing increase simultaneously, the possibility of visual dysfunctions needs to be addressed. Neglect in this matter potentially leads to crude biases in the field of neuroscience and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henri Leinonen
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, Neulaniementie 2, 70211 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Heikki Tanila
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, Neulaniementie 2, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
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13
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Kuhrt H, Bringmann A, Härtig W, Wibbelt G, Peichl L, Reichenbach A. The Retina of Asian and African Elephants: Comparison of Newborn and Adult. BRAIN, BEHAVIOR AND EVOLUTION 2017; 89:84-103. [PMID: 28437785 DOI: 10.1159/000464097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Elephants are precocial mammals that are relatively mature as newborns and mobile shortly after birth. To determine whether the retina of newborn elephants is capable of supporting the mobility of elephant calves, we compared the retinal structures of 2 newborn elephants (1 African and 1 Asian) and 2 adult animals of both species by immunohistochemical and morphometric methods. For the first time, we present here a comprehensive qualitative and quantitative characterization of the cellular composition of the newborn and the adult retinas of 2 elephant species. We found that the retina of elephants is relatively mature at birth. All retinal layers were well discernible, and various retinal cell types were detected in the newborns, including Müller glial cells (expressing glutamine synthetase and cellular retinal binding protein; CRALBP), cone photoreceptors (expressing S-opsin or M/L-opsin), protein kinase Cα-expressing bipolar cells, tyrosine hydroxylase-, choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-, calbindin-, and calretinin-expressing amacrine cells, and calbindin-expressing horizontal cells. The retina of newborn elephants contains discrete horizontal cells which coexpress ChAT, calbindin, and calretinin. While the overall structure of the retina is very similar between newborn and adult elephants, various parameters change after birth. The postnatal thickening of the retinal ganglion cell axons and the increase in ganglion cell soma size are explained by the increase in body size after birth, and the decreases in the densities of neuronal and glial cells are explained by the postnatal expansion of the retinal surface area. The expression of glutamine synthetase and CRALBP in the Müller cells of newborn elephants suggests that the cells are already capable of supporting the activities of photoreceptors and neurons. As a peculiarity, the elephant retina contains both normally located and displaced giant ganglion cells, with single cells reaching a diameter of more than 50 µm in adults and therefore being almost in the range of giant retinal ganglion cells found in aquatic mammals. Some of these ganglion cells are displaced into the inner nuclear layer, a unique feature of terrestrial mammals. For the first time, we describe here the occurrence of many bistratified rod bipolar cells in the elephant retina. These bistratified bipolar cells may improve nocturnal contrast perception in elephants given their arrhythmic lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidrun Kuhrt
- Paul Flechsig Institute of Brain Research, University of Leipzig Medical Faculty, Leipzig, Germany
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14
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Integrative properties of retinal ganglion cell electrical responsiveness depend on neurotrophic support and genotype in the mouse. Exp Eye Res 2015; 145:68-74. [PMID: 26614910 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2015.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Revised: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Early stages of glaucoma and optic neuropathies are thought to show inner retina remodeling and functional changes of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) before they die. To assess RGC functional plasticity, we investigated the contrast-gain control properties of the pattern electroretinogram (PERG), a sensitive measure of RGC function, as an index of spatio-temporal integration occurring in the inner retina circuitry subserving PERG generators. We studied the integrative properties of the PERG in mice exposed to different conditions of neurotrophic support. We also investigated the effect of genotypic differences among mouse strains with different susceptibility to glaucoma (C57BL/6J, DBA/2J, DBA/2.Gpnmb(+)). Results show that the integrative properties of the PERG recorded in the standard C57BL/6J inbred mouse strain are impaired after deficit of neurotrophic support and partially restored after exogenous neurotrophic administration. Changes in PERG amplitude, latency, and contrast-dependent responses differ between mouse strains with different susceptibility to glaucoma. Results represent a proof of concept that the PERG could be used as a tool for in-vivo monitoring of RGC functional plasticity before RGC death, the effect of neuroactive treatments, as well as for high-throughput tool for phenotypic screening of different mouse genotypes.
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Cehajic-Kapetanovic J, Eleftheriou C, Allen AE, Milosavljevic N, Pienaar A, Bedford R, Davis KE, Bishop PN, Lucas RJ. Restoration of Vision with Ectopic Expression of Human Rod Opsin. Curr Biol 2015; 25:2111-22. [PMID: 26234216 PMCID: PMC4540256 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2015] [Revised: 06/19/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Many retinal dystrophies result in photoreceptor loss, but the inner retinal neurons can survive, making them potentially amenable to emerging optogenetic therapies. Here, we show that ectopically expressed human rod opsin, driven by either a non-selective or ON-bipolar cell-specific promoter, can function outside native photoreceptors and restore visual function in a mouse model of advanced retinal degeneration. Electrophysiological recordings from retinal explants and the visual thalamus revealed changes in firing (increases and decreases) induced by simple light pulses, luminance increases, and naturalistic movies in treated mice. These responses could be elicited at light intensities within the physiological range and substantially below those required by other optogenetic strategies. Mice with rod opsin expression driven by the ON-bipolar specific promoter displayed behavioral responses to increases in luminance, flicker, coarse spatial patterns, and elements of a natural movie at levels of contrast and illuminance (≈50–100 lux) typical of natural indoor environments. These data reveal that virally mediated ectopic expression of human rod opsin can restore vision under natural viewing conditions and at moderate light intensities. Given the inherent advantages in employing a human protein, the simplicity of this intervention, and the quality of vision restored, we suggest that rod opsin merits consideration as an optogenetic actuator for treating patients with advanced retinal degeneration. Ectopic human rod opsin restores visual functions in advanced retinal degeneration Rod opsin has greater sensitivity than current optogenetic strategies Rod opsin-treated animals respond to spatial stimuli, flicker, and natural scenes As a human protein ordinarily found in retinal tissue, barriers to clinic are minimized
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmina Cehajic-Kapetanovic
- Centre for Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, Institute of Human Development, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK; Manchester Royal Eye Hospital, CMFT, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester M13 9NT, UK
| | - Cyril Eleftheriou
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Annette E Allen
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Nina Milosavljevic
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Abigail Pienaar
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Robert Bedford
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Katherine E Davis
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Paul N Bishop
- Centre for Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, Institute of Human Development, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK; Manchester Royal Eye Hospital, CMFT, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester M13 9NT, UK.
| | - Robert J Lucas
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK.
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16
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Porciatti V. Electrophysiological assessment of retinal ganglion cell function. Exp Eye Res 2015; 141:164-70. [PMID: 25998495 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2015.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Revised: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 05/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The function of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) can be non-invasively assessed in experimental and genetic models of glaucoma by means of variants of the ERG technique that emphasize the activity of inner retina neurons. The best understood technique is the Pattern Electroretinogram (PERG) in response to contrast-reversing gratings or checkerboards, which selectively depends on the presence of functional RGCs. In glaucoma models, the PERG can be altered before histological loss of RGCs; PERG alterations may be either reversed with moderate IOP lowering or exacerbated with moderate IOP elevation. Under particular luminance-stimulus conditions, the Flash-ERG displays components that may reflect electrical activity originating in the proximal retina and be altered in some experimental glaucoma models (positive Scotopic Threshold response, pSTR; negative Scotopic Threshold Response, nSTR; Photopic Negative Response, PhNR; Oscillatory Potentials, OPs; multifocal ERG, mfERG). It is not yet known which of these components is most sensitive to glaucomatous damage. Electrophysiological assessment of RGC function appears to be a necessary outcome measure in experimental glaucoma models, which complements structural assessment and may even predict it. Neuroprotective strategies could be tested based on enhancement of baseline electrophysiological function that results in improved RGC survival. The use of electrophysiology in glaucoma models may be facilitated by specifically designed instruments that allow high throughput, robust assessment of electrophysiological function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vittorio Porciatti
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, McKnight Vision Research Center, 1638 NW 10th Ave., Miami, FL 33136, United States.
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17
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Yamaue Y, Hosaka YZ, Uehara M. Spatial relationships among the cellular tapetum, visual streak and rod density in dogs. J Vet Med Sci 2014; 77:175-9. [PMID: 25728250 PMCID: PMC4363019 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.14-0447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The dog visual system is well suited to dim light conditions due to rod-dominated retina and the reflective tapetum. The topographical distributions of rods and thickness of the tapetum of the dog were quantified in retinal whole mounts stained with thionine, and spatial relationships among the tapetum, rod density and visual streak of high ganglion cell density were elucidated. The relationship between the retina and tapetum was analyzed in parasagittal sections stained with thionine or hematoxylin-eosin. The tapetum was thick in its center, and the thickest part consisted of 9 to 12 tapetal cell layers. Rod density ranged from 200,000 to 540,000/mm2. Maximum rod density was found in the area dorsal to the visual streak, and the density in that area was significantly higher than the rod density in the visual streak and accorded spatially with the thickest part of the tapetum. The horizontal visual streak was found over the horizontal line through the optic disc
in the temporal half and extended slightly into the nasal half. The central area of the highest density of ganglion cells was approximately located midway between the nasal and temporal ends of the visual streak. The visual streak was located within the tapetal area, but ventrally to the thick part of the tapetum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Yamaue
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
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18
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Kretschmer F, Kretschmer V, Kunze VP, Kretzberg J. OMR-arena: automated measurement and stimulation system to determine mouse visual thresholds based on optomotor responses. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78058. [PMID: 24260105 PMCID: PMC3829813 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 09/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Measurement of the optomotor response is a common way to determine thresholds of the visual system in animals. Particularly in mice, it is frequently used to characterize the visual performance of different genetically modified strains or to test the effect of various drugs on visual performance. Several methods have been developed to facilitate the presentation of stimuli using computer screens or projectors. Common methods are either based on the measurement of eye movement during optokinetic reflex behavior or rely on the measurement of head and/or body-movements during optomotor responses. Eye-movements can easily and objectively be quantified, but their measurement requires invasive fixation of the animals. Head movements can be observed in freely moving animals, but until now depended on the judgment of a human observer who reported the counted tracking movements of the animal during an experiment. In this study we present a novel measurement and stimulation system based on open source building plans and software. This system presents appropriate 360 stimuli while simultaneously video-tracking the animal's head-movements without fixation. The on-line determined head gaze is used to adjust the stimulus to the head position, as well as to automatically calculate visual acuity. Exemplary, we show that automatically measured visual response curves of mice match the results obtained by a human observer very well. The spatial acuity thresholds yielded by the automatic analysis are also consistent with the human observer approach and with published results. Hence, OMR-arena provides an affordable, convenient and objective way to measure mouse visual performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friedrich Kretschmer
- Retinal Circuit Development & Genetics Unit, Neurobiology Neurodegeneration & Repair Laboratory, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Vincent P. Kunze
- Computational Neuroscience, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Jutta Kretzberg
- Computational Neuroscience, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- Research Center Neurosensory Science, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
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19
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Cholinesterase inhibitor, donepezil, improves visual contrast detectability in freely behaving rats. Behav Brain Res 2013; 256:362-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2013] [Revised: 07/16/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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20
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Changes in retinal morphology, electroretinogram and visual behavior after transient global ischemia in adult rats. PLoS One 2013; 8:e65555. [PMID: 23776500 PMCID: PMC3679137 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2013] [Accepted: 04/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The retina is a light-sensitive tissue of the central nervous system that is vulnerable to ischemia. The pathological mechanism underlying retinal ischemic injury is not fully understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate structural and functional changes of different types of rat retinal neurons and visual behavior following transient global ischemia. Retinal ischemia was induced using a 4-vessel occlusion model. Compared with the normal group, the number of βIII-tubulin positive retinal ganglion cells and calretinin positive amacrine cells were reduced from 6 h to 48 h following ischemia. The number of recoverin positive cone bipolar cells transiently decreased at 6 h and 12 h after ischemia. However, the fluorescence intensity of rhodopsin positive rod cells and fluorescent peanut agglutinin positive cone cells did not change after reperfusion. An electroretinogram recording showed that the a-wave, b-wave, oscillatory potentials and the photopic negative response were completely lost during ischemia. The amplitudes of the a- and b-waves were partially recovered at 1 h after ischemia, and returned to the control level at 48 h after reperfusion. However, the amplitudes of oscillatory potentials and the photopic negative response were still reduced at 48 h following reperfusion. Visual behavior detection showed there was no significant change in the time spent in the dark chamber between the control and 48 h group, but the distance moved, mean velocity in the black and white chambers and intercompartmental crosses were reduced at 48 h after ischemia. These results indicate that transient global ischemia induces dysfunction of retinal ganglion cells and amacrine cells at molecular and ERG levels. However, transient global ischemia in a 17 minute duration does not appear to affect photoreceptors.
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21
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Mechanistic modeling of vertebrate spatial contrast sensitivity and acuity at low luminance. Vis Neurosci 2012; 29:169-81. [DOI: 10.1017/s0952523812000120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe validity of the Barten theoretical model for describing the vertebrate spatial contrast sensitivity function (CSF) and acuity at scotopic light levels has been examined. Although this model (which has its basis in signal modulation transfer theory) can successfully describe vertebrate CSF, and its relation to underlying visual neurophysiology at photopic light levels, significant discrepancies between theory and experimental data have been found at scotopic levels. It is shown that in order to describe scotopic CSF, the theory must be modified to account for important mechanistic changes, which occur as cone vision switches to rod vision. These changes are divided into photon management factors [changes in optical performance (for a dilated pupil), quantum efficiency, receptor sampling] and neural factors (changes in spatial integration area, neural noise, and lateral inhibition in the retina). Predictions of both scotopic CSF and acuity obtained from the modified theory were found to be in good agreement with experimental values obtained from the human, macaque, cat, and owl monkey. The last two species have rod densities particularly suited for scotopic conditions.
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22
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Histed MH, Carvalho LA, Maunsell JHR. Psychophysical measurement of contrast sensitivity in the behaving mouse. J Neurophysiol 2011; 107:758-65. [PMID: 22049334 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00609.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand how activity in mammalian neural circuits controls behavior, the mouse is a promising model system due to the convergence of genetic, optical, and physiological methods. The ability to control and quantify behavior precisely is also essential for these studies. We developed an operant visual detection paradigm to make visual psychophysical measurements: head-fixed mice make responses by pressing a lever. We designed this task to permit neurophysiological studies of behavior in cerebral cortex, where activity is variable from trial to trial and neurons encode many types of information simultaneously. To study neural responses in the face of this complexity, we trained mice to do a task where they perform hundreds of trials daily and perceptual thresholds can be measured. We used this task to measure both visual acuity and the minimum detectable contrast in behaving mice. We found that the mouse contrast response function is similar in shape to other species. They can detect low-contrast stimuli, with a peak contrast threshold of 2%, equivalent to ∼15° eccentric in human vision. Mouse acuity is modest, with an upper limit near 0.5 cycles/°, consistent with prior data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark H Histed
- Dept. of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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23
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Geng Y, Schery LA, Sharma R, Dubra A, Ahmad K, Libby RT, Williams DR. Optical properties of the mouse eye. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2011; 2:717-38. [PMID: 21483598 PMCID: PMC3072116 DOI: 10.1364/boe.2.000717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Revised: 02/23/2011] [Accepted: 02/24/2011] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor (SHWS) spots upon which ocular aberration measurements depend have poor quality in mice due to light reflected from multiple retinal layers. We have designed and implemented a SHWS that can favor light from a specific retinal layer and measured monochromatic aberrations in 20 eyes from 10 anesthetized C57BL/6J mice. Using this instrument, we show that mice are myopic, not hyperopic as is frequently reported. We have also measured longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA) of the mouse eye and found that it follows predictions of the water-filled schematic mouse eye. Results indicate that the optical quality of the mouse eye assessed by measurement of its aberrations is remarkably good, better for retinal imaging than the human eye. The dilated mouse eye has a much larger numerical aperture (NA) than that of the dilated human eye (0.5 NA vs. 0.2 NA), but it has a similar amount of root mean square (RMS) higher order aberrations compared to the dilated human eye. These measurements predict that adaptive optics based on this method of wavefront sensing will provide improvements in retinal image quality and potentially two times higher lateral resolution than that in the human eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Geng
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester,
NY, 14627, USA
- The Institute of Optics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY,
14620, USA
| | - Lee Anne Schery
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester,
NY, 14627, USA
| | - Robin Sharma
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester,
NY, 14627, USA
- The Institute of Optics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY,
14620, USA
| | - Alfredo Dubra
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester,
NY, 14627, USA
- Flaum Eye Institute, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY,
14642, USA
| | - Kamran Ahmad
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester,
NY, 14627, USA
| | - Richard T. Libby
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester,
NY, 14627, USA
- Flaum Eye Institute, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY,
14642, USA
| | - David R. Williams
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester,
NY, 14627, USA
- The Institute of Optics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY,
14620, USA
- Flaum Eye Institute, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY,
14642, USA
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24
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Characterization of the 3D angular vestibulo-ocular reflex in C57BL6 mice. Exp Brain Res 2010; 210:489-501. [PMID: 21190017 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-010-2521-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2010] [Accepted: 12/07/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
We characterized the three-dimensional angular vestibulo-ocular reflex (3D aVOR) of adult C57BL6 mice during static tilt testing, sinusoidal, and high-acceleration rotations and compared it with that of another lateral-eyed mammal with afoveate retinae (chinchilla) and two primate species with forward eye orientation and retinal foveae (human and squirrel monkey). Noting that visual acuity in mice is poor compared to chinchillas and even worse compared to primates, we hypothesized that the mouse 3D aVOR would be relatively low in gain (eye-velocity/head-velocity) compared to other species and would fall off for combinations of head rotation velocity and frequency for which peak-to-peak position changes fall below the minimum visual angle resolvable by mice. We also predicted that as in chinchilla, the mouse 3D aVOR would be more isotropic (eye/head velocity gain independent of head rotation axis) and better aligned with the axis of head rotation than the 3D aVOR of primates. In 12 adult C57BL6 mice, binocular 3D eye movements were measured in darkness during whole-body static tilts, 20-100°/s whole-body sinusoidal rotations (0.02-10 Hz) and acceleration steps of 3,000°/s² to a 150°/s plateau (dominant spectral content 8-12 Hz). Our results show that the mouse has a robust static tilt counter-roll response gain of ~0.35 (eye-position Δ/head-position Δ) and mid-frequency aVOR gain (~0.6-0.8), but relatively low aVOR gain for high-frequency sinusoidal head rotations and for steps of head rotation acceleration (~0.5). Due to comparatively poor static visual acuity in the mouse, a perfectly compensatory 3D aVOR would confer relatively little benefit during high-frequency, low-amplitude movements. Therefore, our data suggest that the adaptive drive for maintaining a compensatory 3D aVOR depends on the static visual acuity in different species. Like chinchillas, mice have a much more nearly isotropic 3D aVOR than do the primates for which comparable data are available. Relatively greater isotropy in lateral-eyed species without retinal foveae (e.g., mice and chinchillas in the present study) compared to forward-eyed species with retinal foveae (e.g., squirrel monkeys and humans) suggests that the parallel resting optic axes and/or radially symmetric retinal foveae of primates underlie their characteristically low 3D aVOR gain for roll head rotations.
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25
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Dark light, rod saturation, and the absolute and incremental sensitivity of mouse cone vision. J Neurosci 2010; 30:12495-507. [PMID: 20844144 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2186-10.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual thresholds of mice for the detection of small, brief targets were measured with a novel behavioral methodology in the dark and in the presence of adapting lights spanning ∼8 log(10) units of intensity. To help dissect the contributions of rod and cone pathways, both wild-type mice and mice lacking rod (Gnat1(-/-)) or cone (Gnat2(cpfl3)) function were studied. Overall, the visual sensitivity of mice was found to be remarkably similar to that of the human peripheral retina. Rod absolute threshold corresponded to 12-15 isomerized pigment molecules (R*) in image fields of 800 to 3000 rods. Rod "dark light" (intrinsic retinal noise in darkness) corresponded to that estimated previously from single-cell recordings, 0.012 R* s(-1) rod(-1), indicating that spontaneous thermal isomerizations are responsible. Psychophysical rod saturation was measured for the first time in a nonhuman species and found to be very similar to that of the human rod monochromat. Cone threshold corresponded to ∼5 R* cone(-1) in an image field of 280 cones. Cone dark light was equivalent to ∼5000 R* s(-1) cone(-1), consistent with primate single-cell data but 100-fold higher than predicted by recent measurements of the rate of thermal isomerization of mouse cone opsins, indicating that nonopsin sources of noise determine cone threshold. The new, fully automated behavioral method is based on the ability of mice to learn to interrupt spontaneous wheel running on the presentation of a visual cue and provides an efficient and highly reliable means of examining visual function in naturally behaving normal and mutant mice.
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26
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Heimel JA, Saiepour MH, Chakravarthy S, Hermans JM, Levelt CN. Contrast gain control and cortical TrkB signaling shape visual acuity. Nat Neurosci 2010; 13:642-8. [PMID: 20400960 DOI: 10.1038/nn.2534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2009] [Accepted: 03/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
During development and aging and in amblyopia, visual acuity is far below the limitations set by the retina. Expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the visual cortex is reduced in these situations. We asked whether neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor, type 2 (TrkB) regulates cortical visual acuity in adult mice. We found that genetically interfering with TrkB/BDNF signaling in pyramidal cells in the mature visual cortex reduced synaptic strength and resulted in a loss of neural responses to high spatial-frequency stimuli. Responses to low spatial-frequency stimuli were unaffected. This selective loss was not accompanied by a change in receptive field sizes or plasticity, but apparent contrast was reduced. Our results indicate that a dependence on spatial frequency in the Heeger normalization model explains this selective effect of contrast reduction on high-resolution vision and suggest that it involves contrast gain control operating in the visual cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Alexander Heimel
- Molecular Visual Plasticity Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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27
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AP2gamma regulates basal progenitor fate in a region- and layer-specific manner in the developing cortex. Nat Neurosci 2009; 12:1229-37. [PMID: 19749747 DOI: 10.1038/nn.2399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2009] [Accepted: 07/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
An important feature of the cerebral cortex is its layered organization, which is modulated in an area-specific manner. We found that the transcription factor AP2gamma regulates laminar fate in a region-specific manner. Deletion of AP2gamma (also known as Tcfap2c) during development resulted in a specific reduction of upper layer neurons in the occipital cortex, leading to impaired function and enhanced plasticity of the adult visual cortex. AP2gamma functions in apical progenitors, and its absence resulted in mis-specification of basal progenitors in the occipital cortex at the time at which upper layer neurons were generated. AP2gamma directly regulated the basal progenitor fate determinants Math3 (also known as Neurod4) and Tbr2, and its overexpression promoted the generation of layer II/III neurons in a time- and region-specific manner. Thus, AP2gamma acts as a regulator of basal progenitor fate, linking regional and laminar specification in the mouse developing cerebral cortex.
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28
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Gaillard F, Bonfield S, Gilmour GS, Kuny S, Mema SC, Martin BT, Smale L, Crowder N, Stell WK, Sauvé Y. Retinal anatomy and visual performance in a diurnal cone-rich laboratory rodent, the Nile grass rat (Arvicanthis niloticus). J Comp Neurol 2008; 510:525-38. [PMID: 18680202 DOI: 10.1002/cne.21798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Unlike laboratory rats and mice, muridae of the Arvicanthis family (A. ansorgei and A. niloticus) are adapted to functioning best in daylight. To date, they have been used as experimental models mainly in studies of circadian rhythms. However, recent work aimed at optimizing photoreceptor-directed gene delivery vectors (Khani et al. [2007] Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 48:3954-3961) suggests their potential usefulness for studying retinal pathologies and therapies. In the present study we analyzed the retinal anatomy and visual performance of the Nile grass rat (A. niloticus) using immunohistofluorescence and the optokinetic response (OKR). We found that approximately 35-40% of photoreceptors are cones; that many neural features of the inner retina are similar to those in other diurnal mammals; and that spatial acuity, measured by the OKR, is more than two times that of the usual laboratory rodents. These observations are consistent with the known diurnal habits of this animal, and further support its pertinence as a complementary model for studies of structure, function, and pathology in cone-rich mammalian retinae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Gaillard
- Institut de Physiologie et Biologie Cellulaires, Université de Poitiers, UMR 6187 CNRS, Poitiers, France
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29
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Fan X, Lei B, Zhang K, Yao G. Optical intrinsic signal mapping of rod- and cone-mediated visual cortex responses in mice. Vision Res 2008; 48:1441-8. [PMID: 18495199 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2008.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2007] [Revised: 04/09/2008] [Accepted: 04/10/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
We used optical imaging of intrinsic signals to study visual cortex responses in three mouse strains: wild-type (C57BL/6J), a strain with only rod function (cpfl1), and a strain with only cone function (rho(-/-)). A stationary flicker light stimulus with intensity ranging from 10(8.6) to 10(15.5) photons/cm2/s was used. We found that the intrinsic signal patterns exhibited stimulus intensity-dependent changes. At a given stimulus intensity, the patterns of intrinsic signals were clearly different in the three strains. These results suggest that the lack of normal functions of certain photoreceptors induces significant reorganization in the visual neural systems in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofei Fan
- Department of Biological Engineering, University of Missouri-Columbia, 1406 E Rollins Street, 249 Ag Eng Building, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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30
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Retinal ganglion cell density of the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis): Calculating visual resolution. Vis Neurosci 2008; 25:215-20. [DOI: 10.1017/s0952523808080498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
AbstractA single right retina from a black rhinoceros was whole mounted, stained and analyzed to determine the visual resolution of the rhinoceros, an animal with reputedly poor eyesight. A range of small (15-μm diameter) to large (100-μm diameter) ganglion cell types was seen across the retina. We observed two regions of high density of retinal ganglion cells at either end of a long, but thin, horizontal streak. The temporal specialization, which receives light from the anterior visual field, exhibited a ganglion cell density of approximately 2000/mm2, while the nasal specialization exhibited a density of approximately 1500/mm2. The retina exhibited a ganglion cell density bias toward the upper half, especially so, the upper temporal quadrant, indicating that the rhinoceros would be processing visual information from the visual field below the anterior horizon for the most part. Our calculations indicate that the rhinoceros has a visual resolution of 6 cycles/degree. While this resolution is one-tenth that of humans (60 cycles/deg) and less than that of the domestic cat (9 cycles/deg), it is comparable to that of the rabbit (6 cycles/deg), and exceeds that seen in a variety of other mammals including seals, dolphins, microbats, and rats. Thus, the reputation of the rhinoceros as a myopic, weakly visual animal is not supported by our observations of the retina. We calculate that the black rhinoceros could readily distinguish a 30 cm wide human at a distance of around 200 m given the appropriate visual background.
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Lagali PS, Balya D, Awatramani GB, Münch TA, Kim DS, Busskamp V, Cepko CL, Roska B. Light-activated channels targeted to ON bipolar cells restore visual function in retinal degeneration. Nat Neurosci 2008; 11:667-75. [PMID: 18432197 DOI: 10.1038/nn.2117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 383] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2008] [Accepted: 04/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Genetically encoded optical neuromodulators create an opportunity for circuit-specific intervention in neurological diseases. One of the diseases most amenable to this approach is retinal degeneration, where the loss of photoreceptors leads to complete blindness. To restore photosensitivity, we genetically targeted a light-activated cation channel, channelrhodopsin-2, to second-order neurons, ON bipolar cells, of degenerated retinas in vivo in the Pde6b(rd1) (also known as rd1) mouse model. In the absence of 'classical' photoreceptors, we found that ON bipolar cells that were engineered to be photosensitive induced light-evoked spiking activity in ganglion cells. The rescue of light sensitivity was selective to the ON circuits that would naturally respond to increases in brightness. Despite degeneration of the outer retina, our intervention restored transient responses and center-surround organization of ganglion cells. The resulting signals were relayed to the visual cortex and were sufficient for the animals to successfully perform optomotor behavioral tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela S Lagali
- Neural Circuit Laboratories, Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Maulbeerstrasse 66, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
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Péant C, Dosso A, Eder-Colli L, Chiodini F. Functional study in NSE-Hu-Bcl-2 transgenic mice: a model for retinal diseases starting in Müller cells. Doc Ophthalmol 2007; 115:203-9. [PMID: 17680287 DOI: 10.1007/s10633-007-9077-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2007] [Accepted: 07/23/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In NSE-Hu-Bcl-2 transgenic mice, line 71, retina undergoes early postnatal degeneration linked to the prior death of Müller cells. The purpose of this study was to complete the characterization of this retinal dysfunction by using electroretinographic (ERG) recordings in both scotopic and photopic conditions. Here, we showed that both rod and cone systems were profoundly affected in NSE-Hu-Bcl-2 transgenic mice as soon as 15 postnatal days in accordance with histological study performed previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Péant
- Department of Basic Neuroscience, Medical School, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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33
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Jarvis JR, Wathes CM. On the calculation of optical performance factors from vertebrate spatial contrast sensitivity. Vision Res 2007; 47:2259-71. [PMID: 17588633 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2007.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2006] [Revised: 04/24/2007] [Accepted: 04/24/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A novel technique for calculating the visual optical modulation transfer function (OMTF) is described. The technique involves application of the Rovamo-Barten model of spatial vision to measured contrast sensitivity data. [For details of the basic model see; Rovamo, J., Mustonen, J., & Nasanen, R. (1994). Modelling contrast sensitivity as a function of retinal illuminance and grating area. Vision Research, 34, 1301-1314 and Barten, P. J. G. (1999). Contrast sensitivity of the human eye and its effects on image quality. Washington: SPIE Optical Engineering Press.] In order to obtain OMTF, the model was simplified for use in the high spatial frequency range and also modified to include a transfer function term relating to attenuation by the retinal receptor sampling process. Calculations of OMTF were initially obtained from published contrast sensitivity for the human, cat, rat and chicken. The results were found to correlate well with OMTF values directly obtained through a double-pass optical measuring technique applied to all four species. It was assumed, following this initial test, that the modified Rovamo-Barten model could be used to extract OMTF from vertebrate contrast sensitivity data in general. Using published behavioural contrast sensitivity, further OMTF values were calculated from the model for the pigeon, goldfish, owl monkey, and tree shrew. The results obtained were used to provide a direct inter-species comparison of optical performance for a matched stimulus luminance. This study also confirms that, in many cases, vertebrate optical and receptor sampling processes are well matched in their attenuation properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Jarvis
- The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Herts AL9 7TA, UK.
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34
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Abstract
Mouse models of optic nerve disease such as glaucoma, optic neuritis, ischemic optic neuropathy, and mitochondrial optic neuropathy are being developed at increasing rate to investigate specific pathophysiological mechanisms and the effect of neuroprotective treatments. The use of these models may be greatly enhanced by the availability of non-invasive methods able to monitor retinal ganglion cell (RGC) function longitudinally such as the Pattern Electroretinogram (PERG). While the use of the PERG as a tool to probe inner retina function in mammals is known since 25 years, relatively less information is available for the mouse. Here, the PERG technique and the main applications in the mouse are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vittorio Porciatti
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
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35
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Thomas BB, Samant DM, Seiler MJ, Aramant RB, Sheikholeslami S, Zhang K, Chen Z, Sadda SR. Behavioral evaluation of visual function of rats using a visual discrimination apparatus. J Neurosci Methods 2007; 162:84-90. [PMID: 17289151 PMCID: PMC3074943 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2006.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2006] [Revised: 12/13/2006] [Accepted: 12/14/2006] [Indexed: 09/30/2022]
Abstract
A visual discrimination apparatus was developed to evaluate the visual sensitivity of normal pigmented rats (n=13) and S334ter-line-3 retinal degenerate (RD) rats (n=15). The apparatus is a modified Y maze consisting of two chambers leading to the rats' home cage. Rats were trained to find a one-way exit door leading into their home cage, based on distinguishing between two different visual alternatives (either a dark background or black and white stripes at varying luminance levels) which were randomly displayed on the back of each chamber. Within 2 weeks of training, all rats were able to distinguish between these two visual patterns. The discrimination threshold of normal pigmented rats was a luminance level of -5.37+/-0.05 log cd/m(2); whereas the threshold level of 100-day-old RD rats was -1.14+/-0.09 log cd/m(2) with considerable variability in performance. When tested at a later age (about 150 days), the threshold level of RD rats was significantly increased (-0.82+/-0.09 log cd/m(2), p<0.03, paired t-test). This apparatus could be useful to train rats at a very early age to distinguish between two different visual stimuli and may be effective for visual functional evaluations following therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biju B Thomas
- Department of Ophthalmology, Doheny Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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36
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Heimel JA, Hartman RJ, Hermans JM, Levelt CN. Screening mouse vision with intrinsic signal optical imaging. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 25:795-804. [PMID: 17328775 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05333.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The introduction of forward genetic screens in the mouse asks for techniques that make rapid screening of visual function possible. Transcranial imaging of intrinsic signal is suitable for this purpose and could detect the effects of retinal degeneration, and the increased predominance of the contralateral eye in albino animals. We quantified visual response properties of the cortex by introducing a normalization method to reduce the impact of biological noise. In addition, the presentation of a 'reset'-stimulus shortly after the probing stimulus at a different visual location could reduce the interstimulus time necessary for the decay of the response. Applying these novel methods, we found that acuity of C57Bl/6J mice rises from 0.35 cycles per degree (cpd) at postnatal day 25 to 0.56 cpd in adults. Temporal resolution was lower in adults than in juvenile animals. There was no patchy organization of spatial or temporal frequency preference at the intrinsic signal resolution. Monocular deprivation, a model for amblyopia and critical period plasticity, led to a loss in acuity and a shift towards the nondeprived eye in juvenile animals. Short deprivation did not lead to increased acuity of the nondeprived eye. In adults, a small ocular dominance shift was detectable with urethane anaesthesia. This was not observed when the combination of the opiate fentanyl, fluanisone with a benzodiazepine was used, adding evidence to the hypothesis that enhancing GABA(A)-receptor function masks an adult shift. Together, these novel applications confirm that noninvasive screening of many functional properties of the visual cortex is possible.
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37
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Umino Y, Frio B, Abbasi M, Barlow R. A two-alternative, forced choice method for assessing mouse vision. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2007; 572:169-72. [PMID: 17249571 DOI: 10.1007/0-387-32442-9_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yumiko Umino
- Center for Vision Research, Department of Ophthalmology, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
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38
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Deipolyi AR, Fang S, Palop JJ, Yu GQ, Wang X, Mucke L. Altered navigational strategy use and visuospatial deficits in hAPP transgenic mice. Neurobiol Aging 2006; 29:253-66. [PMID: 17126954 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2006] [Revised: 09/13/2006] [Accepted: 10/04/2006] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Navigation deficits are prominent in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients and transgenic mice expressing familial AD-mutant hAPP and A beta peptides. To determine the impact of strategy use on these deficits, we assessed hAPP and nontransgenic mice in a cross maze that can be solved by allocentric (world-based) or egocentric (self-based) strategies. Most nontransgenic mice used allocentric strategies, whereas half of hAPP mice were egocentric. At 3 months, all mice learned the cross maze rapidly; at 6 months, only allocentric hAPP mice were impaired. At 3 and 6 months, hAPP mice had reduced hippocampal Fos expression, which correlated with cross maze learning in older mice. Striatal pCREB expression was unaltered in hAPP mice, suggesting striatal sparing. We conclude that egocentric strategy use may be an earlier indicator of hAPP/A beta-induced hippocampal impairment than spatial learning deficits. Persistent use of allocentric strategies when egocentric strategies are available is maladaptive when there is hippocampal damage. Interventions promoting flexibility in selecting learning strategies might help circumvent otherwise debilitating navigational deficits caused by AD-related hippocampal dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy R Deipolyi
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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39
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Wong AA, Brown RE. Visual detection, pattern discrimination and visual acuity in 14 strains of mice. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2006; 5:389-403. [PMID: 16879633 DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-183x.2005.00173.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Based on the procedure of Prusky et al. (2000, Vision Research, 40, 2201-2209), we used a computer-based, two-alternative swim task to evaluate visual detection, pattern discrimination and visual acuity in 14 strains of mice from priority groups A and B of the JAX phenome project (129S1/SvImJ, A/J, AKR/J, BALB/cByJ, BALB/cJ, C3H/HeJ, C57BL/6J, CAST/Ei, DBA/2J, FVB/NJ, MOLF/Ei, SJL/J, SM/J and SPRET/Ei). Each mouse was tested for eight trials/day for 8 days on each of the three tests. There was a significant strain difference in visual ability in all three tests. Mice with reported normal vision (129S1/SvImJ, C57BL/6J and DBA/2J) and one albino strain (AKR/J) performed very well in these tasks. The other albino strains (A/J, BALB/cByJ and BALB/cJ) took longer to learn the tasks than mice with normal vision and did not reach the criterion of 70% correct. Mice with retinal degeneration (C3H/HeJ, FVB/NJ, MOLF/Ei and SJL/J) performed only at chance levels as did the three strains with unknown visual abilities (CAST/Ei, SM/J and SPRET/Ei). Because many behavioral tasks for rodents rely on visual cues, we suggest that the visual abilities of mice should be evaluated before they are tested in commonly used visuo-spatial learning and memory tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Wong
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Institute, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
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40
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Wong AA, Brown RE. Age-related changes in visual acuity, learning and memory in C57BL/6J and DBA/2J mice. Neurobiol Aging 2006; 28:1577-93. [PMID: 17010477 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.07.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2006] [Revised: 06/23/2006] [Accepted: 07/01/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The DBA/2J mouse is a model of age-related pigmentary glaucoma in humans. Visual detection, pattern discrimination and visual acuity were evaluated in DBA/2J, C57BL/6J, B6.mpc1d (a C57 congenic strain) and D2.mpc1b (a D2 congenic strain) mice at 6, 12, 18 and 24 months of age. Mice were also tested in the Morris Water Maze and olfactory discrimination learning task. At 6 months, DBA/2J and D2.mpc1b mice outperformed C57BL/6J and B6.mpc1d mice in the visual detection task and there were no strain differences in performance on the water maze. At 12, 18 and 24 months, C57BL/6J and B6.mpc1d mice outperformed DBA/2J and D2.mpc1b mice in the vision tasks and in the water maze. Strains did not differ in the olfactory learning task. Therefore, loss of visual function occurs between 6 and 12 months of age in DBA/2J mice. Strain differences in visual task performance accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in measures of learning and memory in the water maze at 12, 18 and 24 months of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimée A Wong
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Institute, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4J1
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41
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Abstract
The programmed cell death (PCD) of developing cells is considered an essential adaptive process that evolved to serve diverse roles. We review the putative adaptive functions of PCD in the animal kingdom with a major focus on PCD in the developing nervous system. Considerable evidence is consistent with the role of PCD in events ranging from neurulation and synaptogenesis to the elimination of adult-generated CNS cells. The remarkable recent progress in our understanding of the genetic regulation of PCD has made it possible to perturb (inhibit) PCD and determine the possible repercussions for nervous system development and function. Although still in their infancy, these studies have so far revealed few striking behavioral or functional phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert R Buss
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157, USA.
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42
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de la Cera EG, Rodríguez G, Llorente L, Schaeffel F, Marcos S. Optical aberrations in the mouse eye. Vision Res 2006; 46:2546-53. [PMID: 16516259 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2006.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2005] [Revised: 01/10/2006] [Accepted: 01/13/2006] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The mouse eye is a widely used model for retinal disease and has potential to become a model for myopia. Studies of retinal disease will benefit from imaging the fundus in vivo. Experimental models of myopia often rely on manipulation of the visual experience. In both cases, knowledge of the optical quality of the eye, and in particular, the retinal image quality degradation imposed by the ocular aberrations is essential. In this study, we measured the ocular aberrations in the wild type mouse. METHODS Twelve eyes from six four-week old black C57BL/6 wild type mice were studied. Measurements were done on awake animals, one being also measured under anesthesia for comparative purposes. Ocular aberrations were measured using a custom-built Hartmann-Shack system (using 680-nm illumination). Wave aberrations are reported up to fourth order Zernike polynomials. Spherical equivalent and astigmatism were obtained from the 2nd order Zernike terms. Modulation Transfer Functions (MTF) were estimated for the best focus, and through-focus, to estimate depth-of-focus. All reported data were for 1.5-mm pupils. RESULTS Hartmann-Shack refractions were consistently hyperopic (10.12+/-1.41 D, mean and standard deviation) and astigmatism was present in many of the eyes (3.64+/-3.70 D, on average). Spherical aberration was positive in all eyes (0.15+/-0.07 microm) and coma terms RMS were significantly high compared to other Zernike terms (0.10+/-0.03 microm). MTFs estimated from wave aberrations show a modulation of 0.4 at 2c/deg, for best focus (and 0.15 without cancelling the measured defocus). For that spatial frequency, depth-of-focus estimated from through-focus modulation data using the Rayleigh criterion was 6D. Aberrations in the eye of one anesthetized mouse were higher than in the same eye of the awake animal. CONCLUSIONS Hyperopic refractions in the mouse eye are consistent with previous retinoscopic data. The optics of the mouse eye is far from being diffraction-limited at 1.5-mm pupil, with significant amounts of spherical aberration and coma. However, estimates of MTFs from wave aberrations are higher than previously reported using a double-pass technique, resulting in smaller depth-of-field predictions. Despite the large degradation imposed by the aberrations these are lower than the amount of aberrations typically corrected by available correction techniques (i.e., adaptive optics). On the other hand, aberrations do not seem to be the limiting factor in the mouse spatial resolution. While the mouse optics are much more degraded than in other experimental models of myopia, its tolerance to large amounts of defocus does not seem to be determined entirely by the ocular aberrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena García de la Cera
- Instituto de Optica Daza de Valdés, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, Spain
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43
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Lavado A, Jeffery G, Tovar V, de la Villa P, Montoliu L. Ectopic expression of tyrosine hydroxylase in the pigmented epithelium rescues the retinal abnormalities and visual function common in albinos in the absence of melanin. J Neurochem 2006; 96:1201-11. [PMID: 16445854 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.03657.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Albino mammals have profound retinal abnormalities, including photoreceptor deficits and misrouted hemispheric pathways into the brain, demonstrating that melanin or its precursors are required for normal retinal development. Tyrosinase, the primary enzyme in melanin synthesis commonly mutated in albinism, oxidizes l-tyrosine to l-dopaquinone using l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) as an intermediate product. L-DOPA is known to signal cell cycle exit during retinal development and plays an important role in the regulation of retinal development. Here, we have mimicked L-DOPA production by ectopically expressing tyrosine hydroxylase in mouse albino retinal pigment epithelium cells. Tyrosine hydroxylase can only oxidize l-tyrosine to L-DOPA without further progression towards melanin. The resulting transgenic animals remain phenotypically albino, but their visual abnormalities are corrected, with normal photoreceptor numbers and hemispheric pathways and improved visual function, assessed by an increase of spatial acuity. Our results demonstrate definitively that only early melanin precursors, L-DOPA or its metabolic derivatives, are vital in the appropriate development of mammalian retinae. They further highlight the value of substituting independent but biochemically related enzymes to overcome developmental abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso Lavado
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Campus de Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
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44
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Ridder WH, Nusinowitz S. The visual evoked potential in the mouse--origins and response characteristics. Vision Res 2005; 46:902-13. [PMID: 16242750 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2005.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2005] [Revised: 09/05/2005] [Accepted: 09/07/2005] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The visual evoked potential (VEP) in the mouse is characterized and compared to responses obtained with the electroretinogram (ERG). The results indicate that: 1, the VEP originates in the visual cortex; 2, the rod and cone pathways contribute separately to the VEP; 3, temporal tuning functions for rod and cone ERGs are low pass and band pass, respectively; VEP tuning functions are both band pass; and 4, VEP acuity is 0.62+/-0.156 cycles/degree. The differences in the spatial and temporal tuning functions obtained from the retina and visual cortex provides a tool to investigate signal processing through the visual system.
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Affiliation(s)
- W H Ridder
- Southern California College of Optometry, Fullerton, CA, USA
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45
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Thomas BB, Aramant RB, Sadda SR, Seiler MJ. Light response differences in the superior colliculus of albino and pigmented rats. Neurosci Lett 2005; 385:143-7. [PMID: 15950381 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2005.05.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2005] [Revised: 05/12/2005] [Accepted: 05/14/2005] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Multi-unit visual responses to light intensities ranging from -6.46 to 0.81 logcd/m2 were recorded from the surface of the superior colliculus of dark-adapted normal pigmented and normal albino rats. Light sensitivity was significantly higher in albinos. The response onset latency was inversely proportional to the stimulus intensity. The progression of the stimulus intensity versus response onset latency curve showed a considerable difference between pigmented and albino rats. At low light levels, longer response onset latencies were recorded in pigmented rats than in albinos. This can be attributed to the transmission of rod-driven responses. The differences observed in the light response characteristics of albino rats may be indicative of their visual abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biju B Thomas
- Department of Ophthalmology, Doheny Retina Institute, Doheny Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, DVRC 402, 1355 San Pablo St., Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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46
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Schmucker C, Schaeffel F. Contrast sensitivity of wildtype mice wearing diffusers or spectacle lenses, and the effect of atropine. Vision Res 2005; 46:678-87. [PMID: 15993919 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2005.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2005] [Revised: 04/22/2005] [Accepted: 04/27/2005] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To find out how spatial vision in mice is affected by wearing of spectacle lenses or diffusers, and by atropine eye drops. This information is necessary to determine which treatments could effectively induce refractive errors in young mice. METHODS Whole-body optomotor responses were recorded by automated video analysis in freely ranging mice in a large rotating drum that was covered inside with vertical square-wave gratings with spatial frequencies of 0.03, 0.10 and 0.30 cyc/deg, both at "dim light" (0.10 cd/m(2)), and under photopic conditions (30 cd/m(2)). Contrast thresholds were determined by varying the contrasts of the gratings. Mice wore either no lenses, or binocular plano lenses, or lenses with powers ranging from +25 D to -25 D, or diffusers. In another experiment, contrast thresholds were determined 30 min after binocular installation of one drop of 1% atropine solution which is known to suppress myopia development in other animal models. RESULTS The range of spatial frequencies, at which the mice still responded to stripes with less than the maximal grating contrast, was rather small. At 0.03 cyc/deg, the mice responded to stripes with low contrast down to 24%. At 0.10 cyc/deg, the minimal contrast was 45%, but at 0.30 cyc/deg, only the maximum contrast elicited a significant response. In dim light, spatial vision was severely impaired and only the lowest spatial frequencies, presented at the highest contrast (91%), were detected. The whole-body optomotor response was largest with spectacle lens powers of plano diopters and +7D lenses. The magnitude of the response decreased symmetrically with increasing lens powers for both signs, providing information on the behavioral depth of field (a second-order fit through the data placed the extreme limits of a response at around +25 D and -25 D lens powers). Finally, atropine improved contrast sensitivity, at least at the lowest spatial frequency tested, a result that was previously obtained also in the chicken and could help to explain the inhibitory effect of atropine on myopia. CONCLUSIONS The study shows that mice have sufficient spatial vision to respond to treatment with powerful spectacle lenses or diffusers. Accordingly, these devices should be effective in inducing refractive errors in this animal model, although primarily under photopic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Schmucker
- Section of Neurobiology of the Eye, University Eye Hospital, Tuebingen, Germany
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47
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Abdeljalil J, Hamid M, Abdel-Mouttalib O, Stéphane R, Raymond R, Johan A, José S, Pierre C, Serge P. The optomotor response: A robust first-line visual screening method for mice. Vision Res 2005; 45:1439-46. [PMID: 15743613 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2004.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2004] [Revised: 12/01/2004] [Accepted: 12/06/2004] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In both scotopic and photopic conditions, the rotation of a grating was found to elicit head movements in mice. The highest spatial frequency eliciting this optomotor response provided an estimate of visual acuity. In male C57BL/6J mice, visual acuity increased from 0.26cpd in scotopic conditions to 0.52cpd in photopic conditions whereas it was 0.52 cpd in both sets of conditions in 129/SvPas mice. No optomotor response was detected in albino CD1 mice and rd1 retinal degeneration mice although light sensitivity in CD1 mice was attested by photophobia and normal electroretinograms. This rapid and cheap method could provide a powerful test of visual performance in genetically modified and pharmacologically treated mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jellali Abdeljalil
- Institut Clinique de la souris, Genopole de Strasbourg B.P. 10 142, 67404 Illkirch Cedex, France.
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48
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Abstract
The consequences of eliminating the process of programmed cell death during the development of the nervous system is examined by reviewing studies in the genetic model organisms Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, Danio rerio and Mus musculus, where mutations of cell death genes have eliminated or reduced programmed cell death in the nervous system. In many cases, genetic elimination of cell death leads to embryonic mortality or gross anatomical malformations; however, there are cases where animals develop normally but with excess neurons and glia in the nervous system. Undead cells either differentiate and function as working neurons, in some instances being of smaller size, or fail to differentiate and lack normal connections with their targets. Changes in motor control and sensory processing are generally not observed, except for during the most complex of behaviors. Examination of organisms where death genes have been genetically eliminated reveals that programmed cell death may play an important role in sculpting gross brain structure during early development of the neural tube. In contrast, the consequences of preventing neuronal cell death at later developmental stages (e.g. during vertebrate synapse formation) are just beginning to be understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert R Buss
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy and the Neuroscience Program, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157-1010, USA
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Péquignot MO, Provost AC, Sallé S, Taupin P, Sainton KM, Marchant D, Martinou JC, Ameisen JC, Jais JP, Abitbol M. Major role of BAX in apoptosis during retinal development and in establishment of a functional postnatal retina. Dev Dyn 2004; 228:231-8. [PMID: 14517994 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.10376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptosis plays a major role in the development of the central nervous system. Previous studies of apoptosis induction during retinal development are difficult to interpret, however, because they explored different mouse strains, different developmental periods, and used different assays. Here, we first established a comprehensive sequential pattern of cell death during the whole development of the C57BL/6J mouse retina, from E10.5 to postnatal day (P) 21 by using the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) -mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate (dUTP)-biotinylated nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay. We confirmed the existence of three previously described apoptotic peaks and identified another, later peak at P15, in both the outer nuclear layer, in which the photoreceptors differentiate, and the ganglion cell layer. Comparison of wild-type C57BL/6 mice, gld mice, defective in the death ligand fasL, and bax-/- mice, defective in the pro-apoptotic BAX protein, revealed a minor role for FAS ligand but a crucial role for BAX in both apoptosis and normal retinal development. The lack of BAX resulted in thicker than normal inner neuroblastic and ganglion cell layers in adults, with larger numbers of cells and an impaired electroretinogram response related to a decreased number of responsive cells. Our findings indicate that cell death during normal retinal development is important for the modeling of a functional vision organ and showed that the pro-apoptotic BAX protein plays a crucial role in this process.
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Grubb MS, Thompson ID. Quantitative characterization of visual response properties in the mouse dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. J Neurophysiol 2003; 90:3594-607. [PMID: 12944530 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00699.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a quantitative analysis of the visual response properties of single neurons in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) of wild-type C57Bl/6J mice. Extracellular recordings were made from single dLGN cells in mice under halothane and nitrous oxide anesthesia. After mapping the receptive fields (RFs) of these cells using reverse correlation of responses to flashed square stimuli, we used sinusoidal gratings to describe their linearity of spatial summation, spatial frequency tuning, temporal frequency tuning, and contrast response characteristics. All cells in our sample had RFs dominated by a single, roughly circular "center" mechanism that responded to either increases (ON-center) or decreases (OFF-center) in stimulus luminance, and almost all cells passed a modified null test for linearity of spatial summation. A difference of Gaussians model was used to relate spatial frequency tuning to the spatial properties of cells' RFs, revealing that mouse dLGN cells have large RFs (center diameter approximately 11 degrees) and correspondingly poor spatial resolution (approximately 0.2c/degree). Temporally, most cells in the mouse dLGN respond best to stimuli of approximately 4 Hz. We looked for evidence of parallel processing in the mouse dLGN and found it only in a functional difference between ON- and OFF-center cells: ON-center cells were more sensitive to stimulus contrast than their OFF-center neighbors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S Grubb
- University Laboratory of Physiology, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom
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