Virus-induced immunopathology

Controlling viral inflammatory lesions by rebalancing immune response patterns

In this review, we discuss a variety of immune modulating approaches that could be used to counteract tissue-damaging viral immunoinflammatory lesions which typify many chronic viral infections. We make the point that in several viral infections the lesions can be largely the result of one or more aspects of the host response mediating the cell and tissue damage rather than the virus itself being directly responsible. However, within the reactive inflammatory lesions along with the pro-inflammatory participants there are also other aspects of the host response that may be acting to constrain the activity of the damaging components and are contributing to resolution. This scenario should provide the prospect of rebalancing the contributions of different host responses and hence diminish or even fully control the virus-induced lesions. We identify several aspects of the host reactions that influence the pattern of immune responsiveness and describe approaches that have been used successfully, mainly in model systems, to modulate the activity of damaging participants and which has led to lesion control. We emphasize examples where such therapies are, or could be, translated for practical use in the clinic to control inflammatory lesions caused by viral infections.

Antibody and complement levels in patients with hypersplenism associated with cirrhotic portal hypertension and therapeutic principles

BACKGROUND

Hypersplenism associated with cirrhotic portal hypertension is a common condition often resulting from hepatitis B-related cirrhosis. However, the levels of immunoglobulin (Ig) and complement in patients with hypersplenism associated with cirrhotic portal hypertension remain unclear. This study was undertaken to determine the levels of Ig and complement in these patients, the relationship between these levels and Child-Pugh class and their clinical significance.

AIM

To investigate the antibody (Ig) and complement levels in patients with hypersplenism associated with cirrhotic portal hypertension and their clinical significance.

METHODS

Clinical data of 119 patients with hypersplenism associated with cirrhotic portal hypertension were statistically analyzed and compared with those of 128 control patients.

RESULTS

IgA and IgG levels in patients with hypersplenism were significantly higher than controls (P < 0.001). There was no significant difference in IgM between the two groups (P = 0.109). C3 and C4 levels in patients with hypersplenism were significantly lower than controls (P < 0.001). As liver function decreased, IgA and IgG levels increased (P < 0.001), and C3 and C4 levels decreased (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Patients with hypersplenism associated with cirrhotic portal hypertension have significantly higher antibody (IgA and IgG) levels and significantly lower complement (C3 and C4) levels, which are both related to liver damage. Clinically, the administration of anti-hepatitis virus agents and protection of liver function should be strengthened.

Common Inflammatory Mechanisms in COVID-19 and Parkinson's Diseases: The Role of Microbiome, Pharmabiotics and Postbiotics in Their Prevention

In the last decade, metagenomic studies have shown the key role of the gut microbiome in maintaining immune and neuroendocrine systems. Malfunction of the gut microbiome can induce inflammatory processes, oxidative stress, and cytokine storm. Dysfunction of the gut microbiome can be caused by short-term (virus infection and other infectious diseases) or long-term (environment, nutrition, and stress) factors. Here, we reviewed the inflammation and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases and coronavirus infection (COVID-19). Here, we reviewed the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) involved in the processes of formation of oxidative stress and inflammation in viral and neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, the coronavirus uses ACE2 receptors of the RAAS to penetrate human cells. The coronavirus infection can be the trigger for neurodegenerative diseases by dysfunction of the RAAS. Pharmabiotics, postbiotics, and next-generation probiotics, are considered as a means to prevent oxidative stress, inflammatory processes, neurodegenerative and viral diseases through gut microbiome regulation.

The CD8+ T Cell Noncytotoxic Antiviral Responses

The CD8+ T cell noncytotoxic antiviral response (CNAR) was discovered during studies of asymptomatic HIV-infected subjects more than 30 years ago. In contrast to CD8+ T cell cytotoxic lymphocyte (CTL) activity, CNAR suppresses HIV replication without target cell killing. This activity has characteristics of innate immunity: it acts on all retroviruses and thus is neither epitope specific nor HLA restricted. The HIV-associated CNAR does not affect other virus families. It is mediated, at least in part, by a CD8+ T cell antiviral factor (CAF) that blocks HIV transcription. A variety of assays used to measure CNAR/CAF and the effects on other retrovirus infections are described. Notably, CD8+ T cell noncytotoxic antiviral responses have now been observed with other virus families but are mediated by different cytokines. Characterizing the protein structure of CAF has been challenging despite many biologic, immunologic, and molecular studies. It represents a low-abundance protein that may be identified by future next-generation sequencing approaches. Since CNAR/CAF is a natural noncytotoxic activity, it could provide promising strategies for HIV/AIDS therapy, cure, and prevention.

Protective and pathological roles of virus-specific and bystander CD8+ T cells in herpetic stromal keratitis

Herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK), resulting from corneal HSV-1 infection, represents a T cell-mediated immunopathologic lesion. In T cell transgenic mice on a SCID or RAG knockout background, the T cells mediating lesions are unreactive to viral Ags. In these bystander models, animals develop ocular lesions but are unable to control infection. Transfer of HSV-immune cells into a CD8(+) T cell bystander model resulted in clearance of virus from eyes, animals survived, and lesions developed to greater severity. However, the adoptively transferred CD8(+) T cells were not evident in lesions, although they were readily detectable in the lymphoid tissues as well as in the peripheral and CNS. Our results indicate that viral-induced tissue damage can be caused by bystander cells, but these fail to control infection. Immune CD8(+) T cells trigger clearance of virus from the eye, but this appears to result by the T cells acting at sites distal to the cornea. A case is made that CD8(+) T cell control is expressed in the trigeminal ganglion, serving to curtail a source of virus to the cornea.

Herpesvirus infection of ICAM-1-deficient mice

PURPOSE

To determine the effect of ICAM-1 deficiency on viral infection of the cornea.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Wild-type and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1)-deficient mice were infected with the RE strain of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). Corneal swabs and trigeminal ganglia were obtained and analyzed for infectious virus. Corneas and trigeminal ganglia were evaluated for signs of inflammation by immunohistochemical staining and for interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma)-producing cells by enzyme-linked immunospot assay (ELISPOT). Serum anti-HSV-1 antibody titers were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

Viral titers in corneal swabs from the wild-type and ICAM-1-deficient mice were not significantly different during the 21-day study. Infectious virus was present in the trigeminal ganglia of wild-type and ICAM-1-deficient mice through day 6 after infection. Serum anti-HSV-1 antibody titers were significantly higher in wild-type mice 6 days after infection, compared with ICAM-1-deficient mice; by day 8 and thereafter, however, antibody titers were not significantly different. Production of interferon gamma was greater in trigeminal ganglion cells from wild-type mice stimulated with interleukin 12 and interleukin 18 on days 4, 6, and 8 after infection compared with cells from ICAM-1-deficient mice. Histopathologic analysis of corneal and ganglion sections from wild-type and ICAM-1-deficient mice showed no significant differences in the time-course of appearance or the intensity of the inflammatory infiltrate. Immunohistochemical staining for CD3(+) T-lymphocytes and CD11b(+) neutrophils and macrophages demonstrated equivalent numbers of these cells in the corneas and trigeminal ganglia of wild-type and ICAM-1-deficient mice.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of these experiments indicate that ICAM-1 deficiency has only a modest effect on viral infection of the cornea and the development of an acquired immune response.

Influence of increased age on the development of herpes stromal keratitis

Herpes stromal keratitis (HSK) is the leading infectious cause of blindness in the United States and is a consequence of events following HSV-1 infection of the eye. The pathology of the disease is currently thought to be caused by a destructive, CD4(+) T helper 1 (Th1) type inflammatory immune response within the cornea rather than a cytopathic response elicited by the virus. A large percentage of people can become infected with HSV-1 as children whereas some studies have concluded that many others do not become infected with HSV-1 until much later in life. In this paper we investigate the role of increasing age on ocular HSV-1 infection. Following an ocular infection of mice with HSV-1 we observed greater pathology in the cornea during both early and late time-points in adult mice when compared to young animals. No significant differences in viral titers were observed in either the eyes or trigeminal ganglia from infected mice, regardless of age, suggesting that increased viral load may not be responsible for the ocular pathology in the adult mice. We hypothesize that age-related changes in the immune response may predispose adult animals to HSK disease.

Quantification of feline herpesvirus 1 DNA in ocular fluid samples of clinically diseased cats by real-time TaqMan PCR

A fluorogenic PCR was established for the quantification of feline herpesvirus 1 (FeHV-1) DNA in ocular fluid samples of clinically diseased cats. The new assay was specific for FeHV-1 and sensitive. The 100% detection rate ranged from 0.6 to 6 50% tissue culture infective doses per sample. When spiked samples with known quantities of virus were used, infectious virus titers and quantification of viral DNA by PCR correlated to each other in a linear fashion (R(2) = 0.9858) over a range of 4 orders of magnitude. Within this range, it was possible to calculate the FeHV-1 DNA content from a given infectious dose, and vice versa. The new diagnostic procedure was applied to ocular fluid samples from cats experimentally infected with FeHV-1 and specific FeHV-1-free cats. A good correlation between virus titer and quantitative PCR was observed, although only early in infection. In a second stage, the titer of infectious virus collapsed, while the PCR signal remained high. A constantly decreasing PCR signal accompanied by negative virus isolation was characteristic for a final stage of the infection. Finally, clinical samples from 20 cats that were suspected to suffer from FeHV-1 infection were analyzed. By comparing virus titers and quantitative PCR signals, it was possible to determine the current stage of the ongoing infection. Based on these findings, comparison of the results of consecutive samples allows the tracking of the course of the infection. Therefore, the new method combines the advantages of the two previously established conventional methods, qualitative PCR and virus isolation and titration.

Increased severity of herpes simplex virus type 1-induced keratitis in Hox A5 transgenic mice

PURPOSE

Herpes simplex virus type 1 is a major cause of stromal keratitis and blindness in humans. Understanding of the role of host genes in the pathogenesis of herpes stromal keratitis is limited. We used a transgenic mouse model to examine the effect of a host gene, Hox A5 (which binds to the TAATGARAT sequence in the promoter regions of HSV-1 immediate early genes and increases HSV-1 replication), on the pathogenesis of HSV-1 induced stromal keratitis.

METHODS

Corneas of wildtype and Hox A5 transgenic mice were infected with HSV-1 strain F following corneal scarification. Clinical severity of keratitis was evaluated using slit-lamp biomicroscopy. Histologic severity of keratitis was determined by light microscopic evaluation and by computerized morphometry. Ocular viral replication was measured via plaque assay.

RESULTS

Clinical lesions of stromal keratitis were more severe at 17 and 23 days post infection in Hox A5 transgenic mice than in wildtype mice. Histological evaluation and morphometric analysis confirmed that keratitis lesions were more severe in the transgenic mice. HSV-1 replication was approximately100-fold greater in the corneas of transgenic mice than in wildtype mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that a host gene (Hox A5) can increase ocular replication of HSV-1 and alter the pathogenesis of herpetic stromal keratitis.

Herpes simplex virus-induced keratitis: evaluation of the role of molecular mimicry in lesion pathogenesis

Viruses are suspected but usually unproven triggering factors in autoimmunity. One favored mechanism to explain the role of viruses in the genesis of autoimmunity is molecular mimicry. An immunoinflammatory blinding lesion called herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK) that follows ocular infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV) is suggested to result from a CD4(+) T-cell response to a UL6 peptide of HSV that cross-reacts with a corneal autopeptide shared with the immunoglobulin G2a(b) (IgG2a(b)) isotype. The present report reevaluates the molecular mimicry hypothesis to explain HSK pathogenesis. Our results failed to reveal cross-reactivity between the UL6 and IgG2a(b) peptides or between peptide reactive T cells and HSV antigens. More importantly, animals infected with HSV failed to develop responses that reacted with either peptide, and infection with a recombinant vaccinia UL6 vector failed to cause HSK, in spite of generating UL6 reactivity. Other lines of evidence also failed to support the molecular mimicry hypothesis, such as the failure to affect HSK severity upon tolerization of susceptible BALB/c and B-cell-deficient mice with IgG2a(b) or UL6 peptides. An additional study system revealed that HSK could be induced in mouse strains, such as the OT2 x RAG1(-/-) mice (T cell receptor transgenic recognizing OVA(323-339)) that were unable to produce CD4(+) T-cell responses to any detectable HSV antigens. Our results cast doubt on the molecular mimicry hypothesis as an explanation for the pathogenesis of HSK and indicate that if autoimmunity is involved its likely proceeds via a bystander activation mechanism.

Environmental modulation of autoimmune arthritis involves the spontaneous microbial induction of T cell responses to regulatory determinants within heat shock protein 65

Both genetic and environmental factors are believed to be involved in the induction of autoimmune diseases. Adjuvant arthritis (AA) is inducible in susceptible rat strains by injection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and arthritic rats raise T cell responses to the 65-kDa mycobacterial heat-shock protein (Bhsp65). We observed that Fischer 344 (F344) rats raised in a barrier facility (BF-F344) are susceptible to AA, whereas F344 rats maintained in a conventional facility (CV-F344) show significantly reduced incidence and severity of AA, despite responding well to the arthritogenic determinant within Bhsp65. The acquisition of protection from AA can be circumvented if rats are maintained on neomycin/acidified water. Strikingly, naive unimmunized CV-F344 rats but not BF-F344 rats raised T cell responses to Bhsp65 C-terminal determinants (BCTD) (we have previously shown that BCTD are involved in regulation of acute AA in the Lewis rat); however, T cells of naive CV-F344 and BF-F344 gave a comparable level of proliferative response to a mitogen, but no response at all to an irrelevant Ag. Furthermore, adoptive transfer into naive BF-F344 rats of splenic cells of naive CV-F344 rats (restimulated with BCTD in vitro) before induction of AA resulted in a considerably reduced severity of AA. These results suggest that spontaneous (inadvertent) priming of BCTD-reactive T cells, owing to determinant mimicry between Bhsp65 and its homologues in microbial agents in the conventional environment, is involved in modulating the severity of AA in CV-F344 rats. These results have important implications in broadening understanding of the host-microbe interaction in human autoimmune diseases.

Pathogenesis of herpes simplex virus type 1-induced corneal inflammation in perforin-deficient mice

Herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK) is an inflammatory disease of the cornea that often results in blindness. It is mediated by a host immune response which is triggered by herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection. Immune effector mechanisms are hypothesized to be important in disease development. We investigated, in a mouse model, whether perforin-dependent cytotoxicity is an important effector mechanism in the production of HSK. Wild-type (C57BL/6) and perforin-deficient (PKO) mice were infected intracorneally with HSV-1 strain F. Clinical disease and histologic lesions of the cornea at 23 days postinfection (p.i.) were significantly less severe in HSV-1-infected PKO mice than in infected wild-type mice. mRNA for the chemokine macrophage inflammatory protein 1alpha (MIP-1alpha) was detected by reverse transcription-PCR in the corneas of infected wild-type mice but not in the corneas of infected PKO mice at 23 days p.i. Adoptive transfer of wild-type HSV-1 immune T-cell-enriched splenocytes into HSV-1-infected PKO mice restored the disease phenotype which was seen in infected wild-type mice. In contrast, mice carrying a null-function mutation in the Fas ligand, which is involved in an alternative cytotoxic mechanism, developed clinical disease and histologic lesions which were comparable to those in wild-type mice. Viral clearance from the eyes of PKO mice was not impaired. There was no significant difference between the infectious viral titers isolated from the eyes of PKO and wild-type mice. Our findings show that perforin is important in the pathogenesis of HSK.

The Self-Directed T Cell Repertoire Against Mouse Lysozyme Reflects the Influence of the Hierarchy of Its Own Determinants and Can Be Engaged by a Foreign Lysozyme

The T cell repertoire is shaped by the processes of positive and negative selection. We have previously shown that mice are tolerant to a native self-Ag, mouse lysozyme (ML), but they respond vigorously when challenged with different ML peptides (“cryptic” self-determinants). In this study, we have addressed the issue of the physiological significance of both the hierarchy (dominance/crypticity) of self-determinants within ML and the anti-cryptic, self (ML)-directed T cell repertoire. Our results demonstrate that there are several ML peptides that bind well to MHC but are totally nonimmunogenic when tested for proliferative T cell response and cytokine secretion: a subset of these peptides presumably represent the originally dominant self-determinants of ML, which have rendered the T cells tolerant during thymic selection. Other ML peptides, which bind well to MHC and are immunogenic, correspond to the cryptic determinants of ML: T cells against cryptic ML determinants escape tolerance induction. Thus, the mature T cell repertoire against ML bears the direct imprint of the hierarchy of self (ML)-determinants. Interestingly, hen egg white lysozyme could prime T cells in vivo that were cross-reactive with certain cryptic ML determinants, and vice versa, without requiring any coimmunization with the foreign lysozyme and ML peptide(s). Moreover, repeated, deliberate priming and expansion of T cells by hen egg white lysozyme immunization concomitantly enhanced T cell response to such cross-reactive ML determinants. This reciprocal self-foreign determinant cross-reactivity may play a previously unrecognized, but crucial, role in the expansion and diversification of self-reactive clones in the autoimmune response.

Mucosal immunization with DNA vaccines

DNA vaccines can induce potent humoral and cellular immune responses in numerous animal models. Most DNA vaccines have been administered parenterally; however, more effective protection against mucosal pathogens could be achieved with mucosal immunization. This review concentrates on the use of DNA vaccines for the induction of mucosal immunity.

Immune modulation by IL-10 gene transfer via viral vector and plasmid DNA: implication for gene therapy

In the present report, we have evaluated and compared the modulatory effect of the cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 expressed via viral vector or plasmid DNA on viral antigen-induced cutaneous inflammatory lesions. Our data demonstrate the superior potency of both recombinant vaccinia virus and herpes simplex virus IL-10 expression vectors after single intramuscular administration, but the effects were only short term and only functioned in animals lacking immunity to the viral vectors used for modulation. In contrast, modulatory effects achieved by plasmid DNA expressing IL-10 were delayed in onset and milder in effect but were far more persistent than those achieved by viral vectors. Moreover, plasmid DNA expressing IL-10 provided effective modulation when given repeatedly to animals. Our data also showed that IL-10 gene delivery resulted in a systemic and durable modulatory effect while the effect caused by a single IL-10 protein treatment was transient and confined to the injected site. Our results imply that the viral vector system is superior for obtaining short-term effects, whereas the plasmid DNA approach represents a better strategy to achieve gene therapy to modulate chronic inflammatory lesions.

Resistance to herpetic stromal keratitis in immunized B-cell-deficient mice

This study evaluates the role of antibody as an indicator of immunity to ocular challenge with herpes simplex virus (HSV). Two genotypes of mice, BALB/c or BALB/c with mu-chain knockout (muK/O; which lack functional B cells), were immunized systemically either with nonvirulent infectious virus or with a eukaryotic expression plasmid encoding glycoprotein B (gB). Whereas naive muK/O mice were 10- to 100-fold more susceptible to HSV infection than BALB/c mice, following immunization both groups showed similar levels of resistance to ocular challenge. Thus both HSV-immunized groups cleared virus within 3 days and showed no signs of ocular lesions. gB DNA-immunized mice cleared virus less rapidly (5 days), and the incidence of lesions was 10 and 25% in BALB/c and muK/O mice, respectively. Since muK/O mice failed to produce detectable anti-HSV antibody, the mechanism of rapid viral removal was assumed to have a T cell basis. However, T cells would likely not mediate any protection directly since such cells were absent in infected corneas during clearance. A likely mechanism of immunity could involve innate defenses, perhaps enhanced by the action of cytokines released from antigen-reactive CD4+ cells in vascularized tissue adjacent to the cornea. Thus an abrupt inflammatory response consisting principally of neutrophils occurred in the corneal stroma in immune mice, and this subsided when virus disappeared. These data reveal that even though the deficiency in generating antibody renders mice more susceptible to HSV infection, once primed, resistance to disease expression is mediated solely by the cellular components and their products.

Pseudorabies virus-induced leukocyte trafficking into the rat central nervous system

When the swine alphaherpesvirus pseudorabies virus (PRV) infects the rat retina, it replicates in retinal ganglion cells and invades the central nervous system (CNS) via anterograde transynaptic spread through axons in the optic nerve. Virus can also spread to the CNS via retrograde transport through the oculomotor nucleus that innervates extraocular muscles of the eye. Since retrograde infection of the CNS precedes anterograde transynaptic infection, the temporal sequence of infection of the CNS depends on the route of invasion. Thus, motor neurons are infected first (retrograde infection), followed by CNS neurons innervated by the optic nerve (anterograde transynaptic infection). This temporal separation in the appearance of virus in separate groups of neurons enabled us to compare the immune responses to different stages of CNS infection in the same animal. The data revealed focal trafficking of peripheral immune cells into areas of the CNS infected by retrograde or anterograde transport after PRV Becker was injected into the vitreous body of the eye. Cells expressing the leukocyte common antigen, CD45(+), entered the area of infection from local capillaries prior to any overt expression of neuropathology, and quantitative analysis demonstrated that the number of cells increased in proportion to the number of infected neurons within a given region. Recruitment of cells of monocyte/macrophage lineage began prior to the appearance of CD8(+) cytotoxic lymphocytes, which were, in turn, followed by CD4(+) lymphocytes. These data demonstrate that PRV replication in CNS neurons stimulates the focal infiltration of specific classes of CD45(+) cells in a time-dependent, temporally organized fashion that is correlated directly with the number of infected neurons and the time that a given region has been infected.

The role of neutralizing antibody and T-helper subtypes in protection and pathogenesis of vaccinated mice following ocular HSV-1 challenge

In order to determine the possible correlation of specific immune responses with protection against mortality and ocular disease following ocular herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) challenge, BALB/c mice were vaccinated with different doses and regimens of baculovirus-expressed gD. Neutralizing antibody, virus titres in the eyes, corneal scarring, and survival were measured. In addition, infiltration into the cornea of CD4+ T cells and cells containing the lymphokines interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-4, IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) were monitored on days 3, 7, 10, 14 and 21 post-challenge by immunocytochemistry. The vaccination regimens used induced varying degrees of immune responses and protection upon ocular challenge with HSV-1. Our results suggest that neutralizing antibody was the most important immune response in protecting mice against lethal ocular challenge and corneal scarring. TNF-alpha and IL-2 were not crucial in terms of survival and corneal scarring, since gD1 (one vaccination with 1 microg of gD) and gD0.1 (one vaccination with 0.1 microg of gD), both of which provided high levels of protection, showed no TNF-alpha or IL-2 expression. However, TNF-alpha and IL-2 were crucial in terms of virus clearance from the eyes, since gD3 (three vaccinations with 1 microg of gD), which had less virus in their eyes, had high numbers of TNF-alpha and IL-2 infiltrates. Finally, mock-vaccinated mice were not protected from death and corneal disease following HSV-1 challenge. Eyes of mock-vaccinated mice had little or no TNF-alpha or IL-2 responses and the strongest IL-4 and IL-6 responses.

Virus-Induced Immunoinflammatory Lesions in the Absence of Viral Antigen Recognition

Herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK) is a CD4+ T cell-controlled immunopathologic lesion in the eye that results from infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV). Target Ags involved in HSK remain undefined. In this study, we determined if HSK could be induced in animals genetically incapable of generating HSV Ag-specific CD4+ T cells. Mice bearing transgenic TCR specific to OVA peptide 323–339 (DO11.10) were crossed to SCID mice whose offspring (Tg-SCID) possessed CD4+ T cells, &gt;98% of which expressed the OVA peptide-specific TCR. HSV infection of Tg-SCID mice was lethal, and mice failed to generate detectable T cell responses even after repeated immunization with a mutant avirulent virus (AN-1). Immunization with AN-1 virus followed by ocular challenge with HSV resulted in ocular inflammation before encephalitis, in contrast to the protection conferred in the control BALB/c and DO11.10 mice. These results indicate that clinical HSK may not require viral Ag recognition by CD4+ T cells and that T cells of irrelevant specificity can be recruited, activated, and driven into effector function in the HSV-infected cornea. This is suggested to represent a bystander activation effect resulting from the presence of proinflammatory mediators resulting from HSV replication.

Herpes simplex virus replication-induced expression of chemokines and proinflammatory cytokines in the eye: implications in herpetic stromal keratitis

On infection of the cornea with herpes simplex virus (HSV), an immunopathologic response termed herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK) ensues. This response is mediated primarily by CD4+ T cells and only occurs if mice are infected with replication-competent virus, although replication-defective mutants induce cellular immune responses following infection. To determine the consequences of HSV replication in the cornea, which is crucial for HSK manifestation, corneas infected with productive virus and replication-defective mutants were analyzed for chemokines and proinflammatory cytokine mRNA expression by RT-PCR at various times. While productive infection resulted in rapid upregulation and sustained expression of such chemokines as N51/KC, macrophage inflammatory protein-1beta (MIP-1beta), MIP-2, and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) and such cytokines as interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, IL-12, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), expression of such inflammatory mediators was minimal and transient after unproductive infection. Expression of MIP-1alpha and lymphotactin along with a biphasic expression of IL-6 and MIP-2 were seen only with productive infection. Initial PMN recruitment into the cornea was approximately 50-fold greater with productive infection than with unproductive infection. These data suggest that a replication-induced proinflammatory milieu in the cornea is crucial for the subsequent progression of HSK possibly because of enhancement of the expression of corneal agonists that drive HSK manifestation.

Immune induction and modulation by topical ocular administration of plasmid DNA encoding antigens and cytokines

In this article, the authors investigated if administration of eukaryotic expression plasmid DNA delivered to the ocular surface provided a means of inducing and modulating the immune response to herpes simplex virus (HSV). Topical application of gB DNA led to the development of HSV specific systemic humoral and cellular immunity. In addition, mucosal antibody was induced at both proximal and distal locations. Topically gB DNA immunized animals were protected against lethal challenge via either the systemic or the vaginal mucosal routes. Ocular pre-exposure to DNA encoding the cytokines interleukin (IL)-4 or IL-10, but not IL-2 or interferon-gamma, modulated the severity of the immunoinflammatory response to subsequent corneal infection with HSV. The present results indicate that the ocular surface provides a readily accessible site for DNA immunization and is suitable for both immune induction and modulation of the nature of the immune response that is induced.

Molecular mimicry by herpes simplex virus-type 1: autoimmune disease after viral infection

Viral infection is sometimes associated with the initiation or exacerbation of autoimmune disease, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. One proposed mechanism is that viral determinants that mimic host antigens trigger self-reactive T cell clones to destroy host tissue. An epitope expressed by a coat protein of herpes simplex virus-type 1 (HSV-1) KOS strain has now been shown to be recognized by autoreactive T cells that target corneal antigens in a murine model of autoimmune herpes stromal keratitis. Mutant HSV-1 viruses that lacked this epitope did not induce autoimmune disease. Thus, expression of molecular mimics can influence the development of autoimmune disease after viral infection.

Immunopathogenesis of herpetic ocular disease

Herpes viruses are among the most prevalent of human virus infections. Productive replication of herpes simplex virus (HSV) is usually confined to mucocutaneous sites by the rapid deployment of innate and adaptive immune responses. Infection invariably results in establishment of latency and in some cases results in periodic reactivation of the virus. This article focuses primarily on ocular herpes with emphasis on the pathogenesis of stromal keratitis. Herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK) is an immunopathologic disease, which indeed is one of the leading causes of blindness in the Western world. The mechanisms by which HSV infection in human beings results in HSK is not well understood but studies using the mouse model has clearly indicated the role of T-cell-mediated immune response as the cause for ocular damage. We, in this article, attempt to provide an interpretive synthesis on different aspects of HSK pathogenesis, reviewing what is currently known and speculating on mysterious issues, such as, whether HSK represents a virus-induced autoimmune disease. We also discuss aspects of remission of the disease.

Control of herpetic stromal keratitis using CTLA4Ig fusion protein

Herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK) is an immunoinflammatory lesion in the cornea of the eye set off by infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV). The disease appears to be orchestrated by CD4+ T cells of the Th1 phenotype but the identity of target antigens involved in HSK remains unknown. In this proposal, we investigated if the inhibition of T cell activation with the fusion protein CTLA4Ig would abrogate the disease process when administered systemically. BALB/c mice infected with HSV-1 (RE strain) by corneal scarification were injected intraperitoneally on a single occasion with CTLA4Ig or L6 control (IgG Fc) given on day 2, day 5, or day 8 postinfection. Lesions in CTLA4Ig-treated mice showed markedly reduced severity judged by both slit lamp biomicroscopy and histopathology if treated on day 2 or day 5. Treated animals also expressed minimal HSV-specific splenic T cell and humoral antibody responses. Judged by the profile of T cell and IgG subset responses, inhibition by CTLA4Ig appeared more directly on the HSV-specific Th1 response, correlating with the known role of such cells in HSK. Delay of treatment until the time of disease onset (day 8) had marginal or negligible effects. The results indicate that blockade of coreceptor interaction between T cells and antigen-presenting cells during the induction phase of immune response significantly impairs onset and severity of herpetic stromal keratitis.