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Farrugia BL, Melrose J. The Glycosaminoglycan Side Chains and Modular Core Proteins of Heparan Sulphate Proteoglycans and the Varied Ways They Provide Tissue Protection by Regulating Physiological Processes and Cellular Behaviour. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14101. [PMID: 37762403 PMCID: PMC10531531 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241814101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
This review examines the roles of HS-proteoglycans (HS-PGs) in general, and, in particular, perlecan and syndecan as representative examples and their interactive ligands, which regulate physiological processes and cellular behavior in health and disease. HS-PGs are essential for the functional properties of tissues both in development and in the extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling that occurs in response to trauma or disease. HS-PGs interact with a biodiverse range of chemokines, chemokine receptors, protease inhibitors, and growth factors in immune regulation, inflammation, ECM stabilization, and tissue protection. Some cell regulatory proteoglycan receptors are dually modified hybrid HS/CS proteoglycans (betaglycan, CD47). Neurexins provide synaptic stabilization, plasticity, and specificity of interaction, promoting neurotransduction, neurogenesis, and differentiation. Ternary complexes of glypican-1 and Robbo-Slit neuroregulatory proteins direct axonogenesis and neural network formation. Specific neurexin-neuroligin complexes stabilize synaptic interactions and neural activity. Disruption in these interactions leads to neurological deficits in disorders of functional cognitive decline. Interactions with HS-PGs also promote or inhibit tumor development. Thus, HS-PGs have complex and diverse regulatory roles in the physiological processes that regulate cellular behavior and the functional properties of normal and pathological tissues. Specialized HS-PGs, such as the neurexins, pikachurin, and Eyes-shut, provide synaptic stabilization and specificity of neural transduction and also stabilize the axenome primary cilium of phototoreceptors and ribbon synapse interactions with bipolar neurons of retinal neural networks, which are essential in ocular vision. Pikachurin and Eyes-Shut interactions with an α-dystroglycan stabilize the photoreceptor synapse. Novel regulatory roles for HS-PGs controlling cell behavior and tissue function are expected to continue to be uncovered in this fascinating class of proteoglycan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke L. Farrugia
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia;
| | - James Melrose
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
- Raymond Purves Laboratory of Bone and Joint Research, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Northern Sydney Local Health District, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, NSW 2065, Australia
- Sydney Medical School (Northern), University of Sydney at Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, NSW 2065, Australia
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2
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Hogwood J, Mulloy B, Lever R, Gray E, Page CP. Pharmacology of Heparin and Related Drugs: An Update. Pharmacol Rev 2023; 75:328-379. [PMID: 36792365 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.122.000684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Heparin has been used extensively as an antithrombotic and anticoagulant for close to 100 years. This anticoagulant activity is attributed mainly to the pentasaccharide sequence, which potentiates the inhibitory action of antithrombin, a major inhibitor of the coagulation cascade. More recently it has been elucidated that heparin exhibits anti-inflammatory effect via interference of the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps and this may also contribute to heparin's antithrombotic activity. This illustrates that heparin interacts with a broad range of biomolecules, exerting both anticoagulant and nonanticoagulant actions. Since our previous review, there has been an increased interest in these nonanticoagulant effects of heparin, with the beneficial role in patients infected with SARS2-coronavirus a highly topical example. This article provides an update on our previous review with more recent developments and observations made for these novel uses of heparin and an overview of the development status of heparin-based drugs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This state-of-the-art review covers recent developments in the use of heparin and heparin-like materials as anticoagulant, now including immunothrombosis observations, and as nonanticoagulant including a role in the treatment of SARS-coronavirus and inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Hogwood
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, United Kingdom (B.M., E.G., C.P.P.); National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom (J.H., E.G.) and School of Pharmacy, University College London, London, United Kingdom (R.L.)
| | - Barbara Mulloy
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, United Kingdom (B.M., E.G., C.P.P.); National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom (J.H., E.G.) and School of Pharmacy, University College London, London, United Kingdom (R.L.)
| | - Rebeca Lever
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, United Kingdom (B.M., E.G., C.P.P.); National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom (J.H., E.G.) and School of Pharmacy, University College London, London, United Kingdom (R.L.)
| | - Elaine Gray
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, United Kingdom (B.M., E.G., C.P.P.); National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom (J.H., E.G.) and School of Pharmacy, University College London, London, United Kingdom (R.L.)
| | - Clive P Page
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, United Kingdom (B.M., E.G., C.P.P.); National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom (J.H., E.G.) and School of Pharmacy, University College London, London, United Kingdom (R.L.)
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3
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Liao YE, Liu J, Arnold K. Heparan sulfates and heparan sulfate binding proteins in sepsis. Front Mol Biosci 2023; 10:1146685. [PMID: 36865384 PMCID: PMC9971734 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2023.1146685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfates (HSs) are the main components in the glycocalyx which covers endothelial cells and modulates vascular homeostasis through interactions with multiple Heparan sulfate binding proteins (HSBPs). During sepsis, heparanase increases and induces HS shedding. The process causes glycocalyx degradation, exacerbating inflammation and coagulation in sepsis. The circulating heparan sulfate fragments may serve as a host defense system by neutralizing dysregulated Heparan sulfate binding proteins or pro-inflammatory molecules in certain circumstances. Understanding heparan sulfates and heparan sulfate binding proteins in health and sepsis is critical to decipher the dysregulated host response in sepsis and advance drug development. In this review, we will overview the current understanding of HS in glycocalyx under septic condition and the dysfunctional heparan sulfate binding proteins as potential drug targets, particularly, high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) and histones. Moreover, several drug candidates based on heparan sulfates or related to heparan sulfates, such as heparanase inhibitors or heparin-binding protein (HBP), will be discussed regarding their recent advances. By applying chemical or chemoenzymatic approaches, the structure-function relationship between heparan sulfates and heparan sulfate binding proteins is recently revealed with structurally defined heparan sulfates. Such homogenous heparan sulfates may further facilitate the investigation of the role of heparan sulfates in sepsis and the development of carbohydrate-based therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-En Liao
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Jian Liu
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
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Kouta A, Hoppensteadt D, Bontekoe E, Jeske W, Duff R, Cera L, Fareed J. Studies on Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor Antigen Release by Bovine, Ovine and Porcine Heparins Following Intravenous Administration to Non-Human Primates. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2021; 26:1076029620951851. [PMID: 33034200 PMCID: PMC7549172 DOI: 10.1177/1076029620951851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Unfractionated heparin (UFH) is a sulfated glycosaminoglycan that
consists of repeating disaccharides, containing iduronic acid (or
glucuronic acid) and glucosamine, exhibiting variable degrees of
sulfation. UFHs release tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI) which
inhibits the extrinsic pathway of coagulation by inactivating factor
Xa and the factor VIIa/TF complex. Most heparins used clinically are
derived from porcine intestinal mucosa however, heparins can also be
derived from tissues of bovine and ovine origin. Currently there are
some concerns about the shortage of the porcine heparins as they are
widely used in the manufacturing of the low molecular weight heparins
(LMWHs). Moreover, due to cultural and religious reasons in some
countries, alternative sources of heparins are needed. Bovine mucosal
heparins (BMH) are currently being developed for re-introduction to
the US market for both medical and surgical indications. Compared to
porcine mucosal heparin (PMH), BMH exhibits a somewhat weaker
anti-coagulant activity. In this study, we determined the TFPI antigen
level following administration of various dosages of UFHs from
different origins. These studies demonstrated that IV administration
of equigravemetric dosages of PMH and ovine mucosal heparin (OMH) to
non-human primates resulted in comparable TFPI antigen release from
endothelial cells. In addition, the levels of TFPI were significantly
higher than TFPI antigen levels observed after BMH administration.
Potency adjusted dosing resulted in comparable TFPI release profiles
for all 3 heparins. Therefore, such dosing may provide uniform levels
of anticoagulation for the parenteral indications for UFHs. These
observations warrant further clinical validation in specific
indications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Kouta
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Debra Hoppensteadt
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Emily Bontekoe
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Walter Jeske
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Richard Duff
- Comparative Medicine Facility, Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Lee Cera
- Comparative Medicine Facility, Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Jawed Fareed
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL, USA
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Nguyen KG, Gillam FB, Hopkins JJ, Jayanthi S, Gundampati RK, Su G, Bear J, Pilkington GR, Jalah R, Felber BK, Liu J, Thallapuranam SK, Zaharoff DA. Molecular mechanisms of heparin-induced modulation of human interleukin 12 bioactivity. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:4412-4424. [PMID: 30670588 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.006193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Human interleukin-12 (hIL-12) is a heparin-binding cytokine whose activity was previously shown to be enhanced by heparin and other sulfated glycosaminoglycans. The current study investigated the mechanisms by which heparin increases hIL-12 activity. Using multiple human cell types, including natural killer cells, an IL-12 indicator cell line, and primary peripheral blood mononuclear and T cells, along with bioactivity, flow cytometry, and isothermal titration calorimetry assays, we found that heparin-dependent modulation of hIL-12 function correlates with several of heparin's biophysical characteristics, including chain length, sulfation level, and concentration. Specifically, only heparin molecules longer than eight saccharide units enhanced hIL-12 activity. Furthermore, heparin molecules with three sulfate groups per disaccharide unit outperformed heparin molecules with one or two sulfate groups per disaccharide unit in terms of enhanced hIL-12 binding and activity. Heparin also significantly reduced the EC50 value of hIL-12 by up to 11.8-fold, depending on the responding cell type. Cytokine-profiling analyses revealed that heparin affected the level, but not the type, of cytokines produced by lymphocytes in response to hIL-12. Interestingly, although murine IL-12 also binds heparin, heparin did not enhance its activity. Using the gathered data, we propose a model of hIL-12 stabilization in which heparin serves as a co-receptor enhancing the interaction between heterodimeric hIL-12 and its receptor subunits. The results of this study provide a foundation for further investigation of heparin's interactions with IL-12 family cytokines and for the use of heparin as an immunomodulatory agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khue G Nguyen
- From the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599.,the Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695
| | - Francis B Gillam
- the Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695
| | - Jared J Hopkins
- the Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695
| | - Srinivas Jayanthi
- the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701
| | - Ravi Kumar Gundampati
- the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701
| | - Guowei Su
- the Division of Chemical Biology and Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, and
| | - Jenifer Bear
- the Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, NCI-Frederick, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702
| | - Guy R Pilkington
- the Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, NCI-Frederick, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702
| | - Rashmi Jalah
- the Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, NCI-Frederick, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702
| | - Barbara K Felber
- the Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, NCI-Frederick, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702
| | - Jian Liu
- the Division of Chemical Biology and Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, and
| | | | - David A Zaharoff
- From the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, .,the Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695
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Hogwood J, Naggi A, Torri G, Page C, Rigsby P, Mulloy B, Gray E. The effect of increasing the sulfation level of chondroitin sulfate on anticoagulant specific activity and activation of the kinin system. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0193482. [PMID: 29494632 PMCID: PMC5832253 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Oversulfated chondroitin sulfate (OSCS) was identified as a contaminant in certain heparin preparations as the cause of adverse reactions in patients. OSCS was found to possess both plasma anticoagulant activity and the ability to activate prekallikrein to kallikrein. Differentially sulfated chondroitin sulfates were prepared by synthetic modification of chondroitin sulfate and were compared to the activity of OSCS purified from contaminated heparin. Whilst chondroitin sulfate was found to have minimal anticoagulant activity, increasing sulfation levels produced an anticoagulant response which we directly show for the first time is mediated through heparin cofactor II. However, the tetra-sulfated preparations did not possess any higher anticoagulant activity than several tri-sulfated variants, and also had lower heparin cofactor II mediated activity. Activation of prekallikrein was concentration dependent for all samples, and broadly increased with the degree of sulfation, though the di-sulfated preparation was able to form more kallikrein than some of the tri-sulfated preparations. The ability of the samples to activate the kinin system, as measured by bradykinin, was observed to be through kallikrein generation. These results show that whilst an increase in sulfation of chondroitin sulfate did cause an increase in anticoagulant activity and activation of the kinin system, there may be subtler structural interactions other than sulfation at play given the different responses observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Hogwood
- National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Blanche Lane, Herts, United Kingdom
- Sacker Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King’s College London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - A. Naggi
- Institute for Chemical and Biochemical Research ‘‘G. Ronzoni”, Milan, Italy
| | - G. Torri
- Institute for Chemical and Biochemical Research ‘‘G. Ronzoni”, Milan, Italy
| | - C. Page
- Sacker Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King’s College London, United Kingdom
| | - P. Rigsby
- National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Blanche Lane, Herts, United Kingdom
| | - B. Mulloy
- Sacker Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King’s College London, United Kingdom
| | - E. Gray
- National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Blanche Lane, Herts, United Kingdom
- Sacker Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King’s College London, United Kingdom
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7
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Yang J, Chi L. Characterization of structural motifs for interactions between glycosaminoglycans and proteins. Carbohydr Res 2017; 452:54-63. [PMID: 29065343 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2017.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are a family of linear and anionic polysaccharides that play essential roles in many biological and physiological processes. Interactions between GAGs and proteins regulate function in many proteins and are related to many human diseases and disorders. The structural motifs and mechanisms for interactions between GAGs and proteins are not fully understood. Specific bindings, including minor but unique sequences sporadically distributed along the GAG chains or variably sulfated domains interspersed by undersulfated regions, may be specifically recognized by defined domains of a variety of proteins. Understanding the molecular basis of these interactions will provide a template for developing novel glycotherapeutic agents. The present article reviews recent methodologies and progress on the characterization of structural motifs in both GAGs and proteins involved in GAG-protein interactions. The analytical approaches are categorized into three groups: affinity-based methods; molecular docking, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography; and mass spectrometry (MS) techniques. The advantages and limitations of each category of methods are discussed and are based on examples of using these techniques to investigate binding between GAGs and proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyuan Yang
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Lianli Chi
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China.
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8
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Wood JP, Baumann Kreuziger LM, Desai UR, Mast AE. Blocking inhibition of prothrombinase by tissue factor pathway inhibitor alpha: a procoagulant property of heparins. Br J Haematol 2016; 175:123-32. [PMID: 27301751 PMCID: PMC5035186 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.14182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Unfractionated heparin (UFH) has procoagulant activity in antithrombin/heparin cofactor II (HCII)-depleted plasma. UFH prevents tissue factor pathway inhibitor alpha (TFPIα) from inhibiting the procoagulant enzyme complex, prothrombinase, providing a possible mechanism for its procoagulant activity. The procoagulant potential of UFH and various low molecular weight heparins (LMWHs) were characterized for TFPIα dependence, using thrombin generation assays performed with antithrombin/HCII-depleted plasma. UFH, the LMWHs enoxaparin and dalteparin, and the low anticoagulant LMWH 2-O, 3-O desulphated heparin (ODSH) all promoted thrombin generation, but fondaparinux did not, and this activity was blocked by a TFPIα antibody. UFH, enoxaparin, and dalteparin were anticoagulant in reactions containing 1-2% normal plasma. In prothrombinase activity assays, UFH, enoxaparin, dalteparin and ODSH blocked prothrombinase inhibition by TFPIα, while again fondaparinux did not. In both the plasma and purified assays, LMWHs displayed greater procoagulant potential than UFH, even when normalized to saccharide concentration. These biochemical data reveal that UFH and LMWHs, but not fondaparinux, block prothrombinase inhibition by TFPIα, thereby producing their paradoxical procoagulant activity observed in the absence of antithrombin/HCII. The findings may help to understand the complex pathophysiology and treatment of patients that are simultaneously bleeding and clotting, such as those with disseminated intravascular coagulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy P Wood
- Blood Research Institute, BloodCenter of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Lisa M Baumann Kreuziger
- Blood Research Institute, BloodCenter of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
- Department of Medicine, Hematology and Oncology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Umesh R Desai
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology, Drug Discovery and Development, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Alan E Mast
- Blood Research Institute, BloodCenter of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA.
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA.
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9
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Mulloy B, Hogwood J, Gray E, Lever R, Page CP. Pharmacology of Heparin and Related Drugs. Pharmacol Rev 2016; 68:76-141. [PMID: 26672027 DOI: 10.1124/pr.115.011247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparin has been recognized as a valuable anticoagulant and antithrombotic for several decades and is still widely used in clinical practice for a variety of indications. The anticoagulant activity of heparin is mainly attributable to the action of a specific pentasaccharide sequence that acts in concert with antithrombin, a plasma coagulation factor inhibitor. This observation has led to the development of synthetic heparin mimetics for clinical use. However, it is increasingly recognized that heparin has many other pharmacological properties, including but not limited to antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antimetastatic actions. Many of these activities are independent of its anticoagulant activity, although the mechanisms of these other activities are currently less well defined. Nonetheless, heparin is being exploited for clinical uses beyond anticoagulation and developed for a wide range of clinical disorders. This article provides a "state of the art" review of our current understanding of the pharmacology of heparin and related drugs and an overview of the status of development of such drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Mulloy
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, United Kingdom (B.M., C.P.P.); National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom (J.H., E.G.); and University College London School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom (R.L.)
| | - John Hogwood
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, United Kingdom (B.M., C.P.P.); National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom (J.H., E.G.); and University College London School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom (R.L.)
| | - Elaine Gray
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, United Kingdom (B.M., C.P.P.); National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom (J.H., E.G.); and University College London School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom (R.L.)
| | - Rebecca Lever
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, United Kingdom (B.M., C.P.P.); National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom (J.H., E.G.); and University College London School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom (R.L.)
| | - Clive P Page
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, United Kingdom (B.M., C.P.P.); National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom (J.H., E.G.); and University College London School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom (R.L.)
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10
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Nguyen TH, Greinacher A, Delcea M. Quantitative description of thermodynamic and kinetic properties of the platelet factor 4/heparin bonds. NANOSCALE 2015; 7:10130-9. [PMID: 25981976 DOI: 10.1039/c5nr02132d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Heparin is the most important antithrombotic drug in hospitals. It binds to the endogenous tetrameric protein platelet factor 4 (PF4) forming PF4/heparin complexes which may cause a severe immune-mediated adverse drug reaction, so-called heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). Although new heparin drugs have been synthesized to reduce such a risk, detailed bond dynamics of the PF4/heparin complexes have not been clearly understood. In this study, single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) is utilized to characterize the interaction of PF4 with heparins of defined length (5-, 6-, 8-, 12-, and 16-mers). Analysis of the force-distance curves shows that PF4/heparin binding strength rises with increasing heparin length. In addition, two binding pathways in the PF4/short heparins (≤8-mers) and three binding pathways in the PF4/long heparins (≥8-mers) are identified. We provide a model for the PF4/heparin complexes in which short heparins bind to one PF4 tetramer, while long heparins bind to two PF4 tetramers. We propose that the interaction between long heparins and PF4s is not only due to charge differences as generally assumed, but also due to hydrophobic interaction between two PF4s which are brought close to each other by long heparin. This complicated interaction induces PF4/heparin complexes more stable than other ligand-receptor interactions. Our results also reveal that the boundary between antigenic and non-antigenic heparins is between 8- and 12-mers. These observations are particularly important to understand processes in which PF4-heparin interactions are involved and to develop new heparin-derived drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thi-Huong Nguyen
- Nanostructure Group, ZIK HIKE - Center for Innovation Competence, Humoral Immune Reactions in Cardiovascular Diseases, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, 17489 Greifswald, Germany.
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11
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Mousa SA, Bozarth J, Barrett JS. Pharmacodynamic Properties of the Low Molecular Weight Heparin, Tinzaparin: Effect of Molecular Weight Distribution on Plasma Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor in Healthy Human Subjects. J Clin Pharmacol 2013. [DOI: 10.1177/0091270003254793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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12
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Abstract
The molecular basis for the anticoagulant action of heparin lies in its ability to bind to and enhance the inhibitory activity of the plasma protein antithrombin against several serine proteases of the coagulation system, most importantly factors IIa (thrombin), Xa and IXa. Two major mechanisms underlie heparin's potentiation of antithrombin. The conformational changes induced by heparin binding cause both expulsion of the reactive loop and exposure of exosites of the surface of antithrombin, which bind directly to the enzyme target; and a template mechanism exists in which both inhibitor and enzyme bind to the same heparin molecule. The relative importance of these two modes of action varies between enzymes. In addition, heparin can act through other serine protease inhibitors such as heparin co-factor II, protein C inhibitor and tissue factor plasminogen inhibitor. The antithrombotic action of heparin in vivo, though dominated by anticoagulant mechanisms, is more complex, and interactions with other plasma proteins and cells play significant roles in the living vasculature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine Gray
- National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potter's Bar, Hertfordshire, UK.
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Pedron S, Kasko AM, Peinado C, Anseth KS. Effect of heparin oligomer chain length on the activation of valvular interstitial cells. Biomacromolecules 2010; 11:1692-5. [PMID: 20446725 DOI: 10.1021/bm100211k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Pedron
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, ECCH 111, UCB 424, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0424, USA
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Ma Q, Tobu M, Schultz C, Jeske W, Hoppensteadt D, Walenga J, Cornelli U, Lee J, Linhardt R, Hanin I, Fareed J. Molecular weight dependent tissue factor pathway inhibitor release by heparin and heparin oligosaccharides. Thromb Res 2006; 119:653-61. [PMID: 16824584 PMCID: PMC4142645 DOI: 10.1016/j.thromres.2006.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2005] [Revised: 05/01/2006] [Accepted: 05/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Heparin and low molecular weight heparins exert their vascular effects by mobilizing tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI) from the vascular endothelium into the blood circulation. We compared the influence of molecular weight on the TFPI release by heparin and its fractions in a non-human primate model. Primates were treated with unfractionated heparin, a low molecular weight heparin (gammaparin), or a heparin-derived oligosaccharide mixture (C3). Endothelial TFPI release was determined using both immunologic and functional assays. After intravenous administration, all agents significantly increased TFPI levels (p<0.05) in a dose dependent manner. The increase produced by unfractionated heparin and gammaparin was greater than that by C3 at an equal dosage (p<0.05). With subcutaneous injection, all agents produced less TFPI release. Repeated administration of heparin-derived oligosaccharides gradually increased TFPI release. A 1.89 fold increase in TFPI levels was observed 4 days after C3 treatment (2.5 mg/kg). Our findings indicated that TFPI release is dependent on the molecular weight of heparin and its derivatives. Heparin oligosaccharides exert their vascular effects through increased TFPI release after long-term repeated administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Ma
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States
- Corresponding authors. Ma is to be contacted at Department of Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, United States. Tel.: +1 716 645 2828x243. Fareed, Department of Pathology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States. Tel.: +1 708 216 3262. (Q. Ma), (J. Fareed)
| | - Mahmut Tobu
- Department of Pathology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States
| | - Christopher Schultz
- Department of Pathology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States
| | - Walter Jeske
- Department of Pathology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States
| | - Debra Hoppensteadt
- Department of Pathology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States
| | - Jeanine Walenga
- Department of Pathology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States
| | - Umberto Cornelli
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States
| | - John Lee
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States
- Department of Pathology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States
| | - Robert Linhardt
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, United States
| | - Israel Hanin
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States
| | - Jawed Fareed
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States
- Department of Pathology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States
- Corresponding authors. Ma is to be contacted at Department of Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, United States. Tel.: +1 716 645 2828x243. Fareed, Department of Pathology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, United States. Tel.: +1 708 216 3262. (Q. Ma), (J. Fareed)
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15
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Nagayasu T, Miyata S, Hayashi N, Takano R, Kariya Y, Kamei K. Heparin structures in FGF-2-dependent morphological transformation of astrocytes. J Biomed Mater Res A 2005; 74:374-80. [PMID: 15973728 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.30338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) participates in the morphological transformation of astrocytes (stellation) during the formation of glial scars in injured brains. In the current study, we used quantitative morphometric analysis to investigate the structural requirements for heparin's enhancement of FGF-2-induced stellation of cultured cortical astrocytes. Native heparin significantly promoted FGF-2-dependent astrocytic stellation, whereas heparin hexasaccharide inhibited FGF-2-dependent stellation. Furthermore, 2-O-, 6-O-, and N-desulfated heparins were unable to promote FGF-2-dependent stellation. The stellation induced by FGF-2 or by a combination of FGF-2 and native heparin was inhibited by SU5402, an FGF receptor inhibitor. These results demonstrate that the length and sulfated position of heparin are important for its enhancement of FGF-2-dependent astrocyte stellation. In addition, our findings show that heparin oligosaccharides are useful for regulating the FGF-2-dependent astrocytic transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshie Nagayasu
- Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Matsugasaki, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
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Rich RL, Myszka DG. A survey of the year 2002 commercial optical biosensor literature. J Mol Recognit 2004; 16:351-82. [PMID: 14732928 DOI: 10.1002/jmr.649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
We have compiled 819 articles published in the year 2002 that involved commercial optical biosensor technology. The literature demonstrates that the technology's application continues to increase as biosensors are contributing to diverse scientific fields and are used to examine interactions ranging in size from small molecules to whole cells. Also, the variety of available commercial biosensor platforms is increasing and the expertise of users is improving. In this review, we use the literature to focus on the basic types of biosensor experiments, including kinetics, equilibrium analysis, solution competition, active concentration determination and screening. In addition, using examples of particularly well-performed analyses, we illustrate the high information content available in the primary response data and emphasize the impact of including figures in publications to support the results of biosensor analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L Rich
- Center for Biomolecular Interaction Analysis, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
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Hayashi N, Miyata S, Kariya Y, Takano R, Hara S, Kamei K. Attenuation of glial scar formation in the injured rat brain by heparin oligosaccharides. Neurosci Res 2004; 49:19-27. [PMID: 15099700 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2004.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2003] [Accepted: 01/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Injury to the central nervous system causes glial reactions, which eventually lead to the formation of a glial scar and inhibit axonal regeneration. The present study aimed to reduce the extent of glial scar formation in injured cerebral cortex using heparin hexasaccharide (6-mer) and octasaccharide (8-mer). A single injection of 20 microl of heparin 6-mer or heparin 8-mer (10mg/ml), native heparin (10mg/ml), or saline vehicle was given into the wound cavity just after cryo-injury in the cerebral cortex. In saline-injected control rats, strong chondroitin sulfate-A (CS-A) immunoreactivity using 2H6 antibody was observed around the injured site. Double labeling using an antibody against glial fibrillary acidic protein, a glial marker, further demonstrated that CS-A immunoreactivity was mainly expressed on the reactive astrocytes at the glial scar, indicating that CS-A immunohistochemistry is useful for evaluating glial scar formation. Quantitative morphometrical analysis revealed that the area of CS-A immunoreactivity was significantly decreased by 53% in heparin-6-mer-injected animals and 44% in heparin-8-mer-injected ones 6 days after the injury, but native heparin had no effect on CS-A-immunoreactive areas. Both heparin oligosaccharides also attenuated the intensity of CS-A immunoreactivity in the reactive astrocytes and caused astrocytic cellular processes to be less branched. These results demonstrate that a single injection of heparin oligosaccharides attenuates glial scar formation, indicating that heparin oligosaccharides may be applicable to many fibrotic diseases and restore functional integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriko Hayashi
- Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Matsugasaki, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
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