Influence of sterilization processes on poly(epsilon-caprolactone) nanospheres

Recent Advances in Nanodrug Delivery Systems Production, Efficacy, Safety, and Toxicity

In the last three decades, the development of nanoparticles or nano-formulations as drug delivery systems has emerged as a promising tool to overcome the limitations of conventional delivery, potentially to improve the stability and solubility of active molecules, promote their transport across the biological membranes, and prolong circulation times to increase efficacy of a therapy. Despite several nano-formulations having applications in drug delivery, some issues concerning their safety and toxicity are still debated. This chapter describes the recent available information regarding safety, toxicity, and efficacy of nano-formulations for drug delivery. Several key factors can influence the behavior of nanoparticles in a biological environment, and their evaluation is crucial to design non-toxic and effective nano-formulations. Among them, we have focused our attention on materials and methods for their preparation (including the innovative microfluidic technique), mechanisms of interactions with biological systems, purification of nanoparticles, manufacture impurities, and nano-stability. This chapter places emphasis on the utilization of in silico, in vitro, and in vivo models for the assessment and prediction of toxicity associated with these nano-formulations. Furthermore, the chapter includes specific examples of in vitro and in vivo studies conducted on nanoparticles, illustrating their application in this field.

Polyester nanoparticles delivering chemotherapeutics: Learning from the past and looking to the future to enhance their clinical impact in tumor therapy

Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), specifically those comprised of biodegradable and biocompatible polyesters, have been heralded as a game-changing drug delivery platform. In fact, poly(α-hydroxy acids) such as polylactide (PLA), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), and poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) have been heavily researched in the past three decades as the material basis of polymeric NPs for drug delivery applications. As materials, these polymers have found success in resorbable sutures, biodegradable implants, and even monolithic, biodegradable platforms for sustained release of therapeutics (e.g., proteins and small molecules) and diagnostics. Few fields have gained more attention in drug delivery through polymeric NPs than cancer therapy. However, the clinical translational of polymeric nanomedicines for treating solid tumors has not been congruent with the fervor or funding in this particular field of research. Here, we attempt to provide a comprehensive snapshot of polyester NPs in the context of chemotherapeutic delivery. This includes a preliminary exploration of the polymeric nanomedicine in the cancer research space. We examine the various processes for producing polyester NPs, including methods for surface-functionalization, and related challenges. After a detailed overview of the multiple factors involved with the delivery of NPs to solid tumors, the crosstalk between particle design and interactions with biological systems is discussed. Finally, we report state-of-the-art approaches toward effective delivery of NPs to tumors, aiming at identifying new research areas and re-evaluating the reasons why some research avenues have underdelivered. We hope our effort will contribute to a better understanding of the gap to fill and delineate the future research work needed to bring polyester-based NPs closer to clinical application. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Gamma radiation effect on the chemical, mechanical and thermal properties of PCL/MCM-48-PVA nanocomposite films

In this work, poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) was employed to produce a Mesoporous Composition of Matter-48 Modified (MCM-48-M or MCM-48-PVA). After surface modification, MCM-48-M was used to produce nanocomposite (NC) films with polycaprolactone (PCL) as a matrix at room temperature. PCL and MCM-48 nanoparticles (NPs) were chosen due to their great biocompatibility and low toxicity. However, MCM-48-M is more compatible with PCL than MCM-48. NC films were sterilized by gamma radiation with a dose of 25 kGy and characterized by experimental techniques to investigate their chemical, mechanical (tensile) and thermal properties. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electronic microscopy (TEM) results indicated that MCM-48-M exhibited a random distribution in the PCL matrix. The PCL chemical structure was preserved in NC films as described by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy as well as the tensile and thermal properties of NC films. FT-IR and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) results showed surface modification. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) showed that crystalline symmetries were preserved and the crystallinity of NC films had small variations in all samples before and after irradiation, respectively. But, our results did not indicate major changes showing that this method is successful for the sterilization of PCL/MCM-48-PVA NC films.

Stability characterization for pharmaceutical liposome product development with focus on regulatory considerations: An update

Liposomes have several advantages, such as the ability to be employed as a carrier/vehicle for a variety of drug molecules and at the same time they are safe and biodegradable. In the recent times, compared to other delivery systems, liposomes have been one of the most well-established and commercializing drug products of new drug delivery methods for majority of therapeutic applications. On the other hand, it has several limitations, particularly in terms of stability, which impedes product development and performance. In this review, we reviewed all the potential instabilities (physical, chemical, and biological) that a formulation development scientist confronts throughout the development of liposomal formulations as along with the ways to overcome these challenges. We have also discussed the effect of microbiological contamination on liposomal formulations with a focus on the use of sterilization methods used to improve the stability. Finally, we have reviewed quality control techniques and regulatory considerations recommended by the agencies (USFDA and MHLW) for liposome drug product development.

Growth-Promoting Gold Nanoparticles Decrease Stress Responses in Arabidopsis Seedlings

The global economic success of man-made nanoscale materials has led to a higher production rate and diversification of emission sources in the environment. For these reasons, novel nanosafety approaches to assess the environmental impact of engineered nanomaterials are required. While studying the potential toxicity of metal nanoparticles (NPs), we realized that gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have a growth-promoting rather than a stress-inducing effect. In this study we established stable short- and long-term exposition systems for testing plant responses to NPs. Exposure of plants to moderate concentrations of AuNPs resulted in enhanced growth of the plants with longer primary roots, more and longer lateral roots and increased rosette diameter, and reduced oxidative stress responses elicited by the immune-stimulatory PAMP flg22. Our data did not reveal any detrimental effects of AuNPs on plants but clearly showed positive effects on growth, presumably by their protective influence on oxidative stress responses. Differential transcriptomics and proteomics analyses revealed that oxidative stress responses are downregulated whereas growth-promoting genes/proteins are upregulated. These omics datasets after AuNP exposure can now be exploited to study the underlying molecular mechanisms of AuNP-induced growth-promotion.

Topical ocular delivery of vancomycin loaded cationic lipid nanocarriers as a promising and non-invasive alternative approach to intravitreal injection for enhanced bacterial endophthalmitis management

Vancomycin (VCM) is a drug of choice for treating infections caused by Staphylococcus species, reported being the most causative agent of bacterial endophthalmitis. However, the ocular bioavailability of topically applied VCM is low due to its high molecular weight and hydrophilicity. The current study sought to explore whether the nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) fabricated via cold homogenization technique could improve ocular penetration and prolong the ophthalmic residence of VCM. A 2³ full factorial design was adopted to evaluate the influence of different process and formulation variables on VCM-loaded NLC formulae. The optimized formula with the particle size of 96.4 ± 0.71 nm and narrow size distribution showed spherical morphology obtained by AFM and represented sustained drug release up to 67% in 48 h fitted to the Korsmeyer-Peppas model with probably non-Fickian diffusion kinetic. FTIR studies visualized the drug-carrier interactions in great detail. High encapsulation of VCM (74.8 ± 4.3% w/w) in NLC has been established in DSC and PXRD analysis. The optimal positively charged (+ 29.7 ± 0.47 mV) colloidal dispersion was also stable for 12 weeks at both 4 °C and 25 °C. According to in vivo studies, incorporation of VCM in NLC resulted in a nearly 3-fold increase in the intravitreal concentration of VCM after eye-drop instillation over control groups. Besides, microbiological evaluation admitted its therapeutic effect within five days is comparable to intravitreal injection of VCM. Further, the optimized formula was found to be nonirritant and safe for ophthalmic administration in RBC hemolytic assay. Also, fluorescent tracking of NLCs on rabbit's cornea showed an increase in corneal penetration of nanoparticles. Thus, it is possible to infer that the evolved NLCs are promising drug delivery systems with superior attainments for enhanced Vancomycin ophthalmic delivery to the eye's posterior segment and improved bacterial endophthalmitis management.

Technological challenges in the preclinical development of an HIV nanovaccine candidate

Despite a very active research in the field of nanomedicine, only a few nano-based drug delivery systems have reached the market. The "death valley" between research and commercialization has been partially attributed to the limited characterization and reproducibility of the nanoformulations. Our group has previously reported the potential of a peptide-based nanovaccine candidate for the prevention of SIV infection in macaques. This vaccine candidate is composed of chitosan/dextran sulfate nanoparticles containing twelve SIV peptide antigens. The aim of this work was to rigorously characterize one of these nanoformulations containing a specific peptide, following a quality-by-design approach. The evaluation of the different quality attributes was performed by several complementary techniques, such as dynamic light scattering, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and electron microscopy for particle size characterization. The inter-batch reproducibility was validated by three independent laboratories. Finally, the long-term stability and scalability of the manufacturing technique were assessed. Overall, these data, together with the in vivo efficacy results obtained in macaques, underline the promise this new vaccine holds with regard to its translation to clinical trials. Graphical abstract.

Insights into Terminal Sterilization Processes of Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications

Nanoparticles possess a huge potential to be employed in numerous biomedical purposes; their applications may include drug delivery systems, gene therapy, and tissue engineering. However, the in vivo use in biomedical applications requires that nanoparticles exhibit sterility. Thus, diverse sterilization techniques have been developed to remove or destroy microbial contamination. The main sterilization methods include sterile filtration, autoclaving, ionizing radiation, and nonionizing radiation. Nonetheless, the sterilization processes can alter the stability, zeta potential, average particle size, and polydispersity index of diverse types of nanoparticles, depending on their composition. Thus, these methods may produce unwanted effects on the nanoparticles' characteristics, affecting their safety and efficacy. Moreover, each sterilization method possesses advantages and drawbacks; thus, the suitable method's choice depends on diverse factors such as the formulation's characteristics, batch volume, available methods, and desired application. In this article, we describe the current sterilization methods of nanoparticles. Moreover, we discuss the advantages and drawbacks of these methods, pointing out the changes in nanoparticles' biological and physicochemical characteristics after sterilization. Our main objective was to offer a comprehensive overview of terminal sterilization processes of nanoparticles for biomedical applications.

Cubogel as potential platform for glaucoma management

The aim of this work is to survey the potential of cubogel as an ocular dosage form to boost the corneal permeability of Dorzolamide Hydrochloride DZ; an antiglaucomal drug. DZ-loaded cubosomal dispersions were prepared according to Box-Behnken design, where the effect of independent variables; Monoolein MO concentration (2.5, 5 and 7.5%w/w), Pluronic^® F127 concentration (0.25, 0.5 and 0.75%w/w) and magnetic stirrer speed of (400, 800 and 1200 rpm) was studied on PS (nm), Zp (−mV) and Q 2 h (%) respectively. The prepared formulae were characterized via drug content DC (%), particle size PS (nm), polydispersity index PDI, zeta potential Zp (−mV), in-vitro drug release (Q 2 h%) and finally TEM. The optimized formulation composed of: 6.13% w/w of MO, 0.75% w/w of F127 and prepared at 1200 rpm stirring speed was chosen based on the criteria of minimum PS (nm), maximum Zp (−mV) and minimum Q 2 h (%). Results revealed that the optimum formula showed PS of 153.3 ± 8.4 n, Zp of 32 ± 3 −mV and 37.78 ± 1.3% released after 2 h. Carbopol 934 (1% w/v) as gelling agent was used to prepare the optimum cubogel, which was further evaluated by DSC, ex-vivo permeation and stability studies at 4 °C for three months. Moreover, in vivo studies of the optimized cubogel include; draize test, histological examination, confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and intraocular pressure (IOP) measurement. Results revealed that the optimized cubogel was considerably safe, stable and competent to corneal delivery as assured by draize and histological examination. CLSM showed a deeper penetration of more than 2.5-fold. A higher bioavailability (288.24 mg. h/ml) was attained from cubogel compared to the market product Trusopt^® eye drops (115.40 mg. h/ml) following IOP measurement. Therefore, DZ-loaded cubogel could be considered as promising delivery system to boost the transcorneal permeation hence corneal bioavailability of DZ as antiglaucomal drug.

Sterilization process of polyester based anticancer-drug delivery systems

Recently, growing interest in biodegradable polyesters as drug carriers in the development of innovative anticancer drug delivery systems (DDSs) has been observed. These compounds are thermally unstable, and are therefore, particularly demanding due to the limited number of available sterilization techniques. Furthermore, the DDSs sterilization process is often limited to aseptic filtration. Ensuring aseptic production is very demanding and costly, and it is therefore necessary to work on the application of new sterilization methods. In view of this, this review presents the current state of knowledge regarding the radiation sterilization process of some anticancer drugs as well biodegradable polyester carriers (such as polylactide, polyglycolide, poly(ε-caprolactone), poly(trimethylene carbonate) and co- or terpolymers of lactide, glycolide, ε-caprolactone and trimethylene carbonate). The structural changes in anticancer DDSs under the influence of ionizing radiation and the potential degradation mechanisms of both, polyester carriers and cytostatics during the sterilization process of ionizing radiation as well as their effects on the microstructure and properties of DDSs have been discussed in this paper.

Polymeric Nanocapsules as Nanotechnological Alternative for Drug Delivery System: Current Status, Challenges and Opportunities

Polymer-based nanocapsules have been widely studied as a potential drug delivery system in recent years. Nanocapsules-as one of kind nanoparticle-provide a unique nanostructure, consisting of a liquid/solid core with a polymeric shell. This is of increasing interest in drug delivery applications. In this review, nanocapsules delivery systems studied in last decade are reviewed, along with nanocapsule formulation, characterizations of physical/chemical/biologic properties and applications. Furthermore, the challenges and opportunities of nanocapsules applications are also proposed.

Effect of UV and Gamma Irradiation Sterilization Processes in the Properties of Different Polymeric Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications

The sterilization processes of nanoparticles (NP) by autoclaving and filtration are two of the most utilized methods in the pharmaceutical industry but are not always a viable option. For this reason, the search for alternative options such as UV and gamma radiation is of interest. In this work, we evaluated both types of sterilization on two types of NP in solid state widely employed in the literature for biomedical applications, poly-(ε-caprolactone) and poly(D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) acid NP stabilized with polyvinyl alcohol. Physicochemical properties and cell viability were studied pre- and post-sterilization. The efficiency of irradiation sterilization was performed by a test of sterility using 1 × 10⁸ CFU/mL of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans. Microbiological monitoring revealed that both methods were sufficient for sterilization. After the UV irradiation sterilization (100 µJ/cm²), no substantial changes were observed in the physicochemical properties of the NP or in the interaction or morphology of human glial cells, though 5 and 10 kGy of gamma irradiation showed slight changes of NP size as well as a decrease in cell viability (from 100 µg/mL of NP). At 5 kGy of radiation doses, the presence of trehalose as cryoprotectant reduces the cell damage with high concentrations of NP, but this did not occur at 10 kGy. Therefore, these methods could be highly effective and low-processing-time options for sterilizing NP for medical purposes. However, we suggest validating each NP system because these generally are of different polymer-composition systems.

Evaluation of X-ray tomography contrast agents: A review of production, protocols, and biological applications

X-ray computed tomography is a strong tool that finds many applications both in medical applications and in the investigation of biological and nonbiological samples. In the clinics, X-ray tomography is widely used for diagnostic purposes whose three-dimensional imaging in high resolution helps physicians to obtain detailed image of investigated regions. Researchers in biological sciences and engineering use X-ray tomography because it is a nondestructive method to assess the structure of their samples. In both medical and biological applications, visualization of soft tissues and structures requires special treatment, in which special contrast agents are used. In this detailed report, molecule-based and nanoparticle-based contrast agents used in biological applications to enhance the image quality were compiled and reported. Special contrast agent applications and protocols to enhance the contrast for the biological applications and works to develop nanoparticle contrast agents to enhance the contrast for targeted drug delivery and general imaging applications were also assessed and listed.

Corneal targeted Sertaconazole nitrate loaded cubosomes: Preparation, statistical optimization, in vitro characterization, ex vivo permeation and in vivo studies

Sertaconazole nitrate (STZ) is a poorly soluble antifungal drug commonly used for treating fungal skin infections. Introducing it as a new treatment option for the management of fungal keratitis, requires the development of a delivery system capable of targeting the infected cornea with an adequate STZ concentration. Hence, Sertaconazole nitrate loaded cubosomes (STZ-CUBs) were prepared, characterized and optimized based on a 3³ central composite face-centred design. Optimized formulation (CUB-opt) showed maximum desirability (0.905), with solubilization efficiency (SE%) of 94.50 ± 0.51%, particle size (PS) of 216.55 ± 2.33 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.229 ± 0.11 and zeta potential (ZP) of 34.00 ± 6.93 mV. Under the transmission electron microscope, it showed discrete cubic shaped structures. Moreover, it exhibited a promising mucoadhesive behavior, terminal sterilization stability, and storage stability. Ex vivo corneal permeation study revealed its ability to enhance the steady state flux (J_ss) and the permeability coefficient (K_P) of STZ, compared to STZ-suspension. Finally, CUB-opt formulation was found to be safe on the corneal tissues in the in vivo corneal tolerance study, and demonstrated a superior corneal penetration power in the in vivo corneal uptake study.

Recommendations for In Vitro and In Vivo Testing of Magnetic Nanoparticle Hyperthermia Combined with Radiation Therapy

Magnetic nanoparticle (MNP)-mediated hyperthermia (MH) coupled with radiation therapy (RT) is a novel approach that has the potential to overcome various practical difficulties encountered in cancer treatment. In this work, we present recommendations for the in vitro and in vivo testing and application of the two treatment techniques. These recommendations were developed by the members of Working Group 3 of COST Action TD 1402: Multifunctional Nanoparticles for Magnetic Hyperthermia and Indirect Radiation Therapy ("Radiomag"). The purpose of the recommendations is not to provide definitive answers and directions but, rather, to outline those tests and considerations that a researcher must address in order to perform in vitro and in vivo studies. The recommendations are divided into 5 parts: (a) in vitro evaluation of MNPs; (b) in vitro evaluation of MNP-cell interactions; (c) in vivo evaluation of the MNPs; (d) MH combined with RT; and (e) pharmacokinetic studies of MNPs. Synthesis and characterization of the MNPs, as well as RT protocols, are beyond the scope of this work.

Nanoformulations for Drug Delivery: Safety, Toxicity, and Efficacy

This chapter presents an outline of the recent available information regarding safety, toxicity, and efficacy of nano drug delivery systems. Of particular importance is the evaluation of several key factors to design nontoxic and effective nanoformulations. Among them, we focus on nanostructure materials and synthesis methods, mechanisms of interactions with biological systems, treatment of nanoparticles, manufacture impurities, and nanostability. Emphasis is given to in silico, in vitro, and in vivo models used to assess and predict the toxicity of these new formulations. Additionally, some examples of in vitro and in vivo studies of specific nanoderivatives are also presented in this chapter.

Production of Isotonic, Sterile, and Kinetically Stable Lipid-Core Nanocapsules for Injectable Administration

Lipid-core nanocapsules (LNC) were designed and prepared as a colloidal system for drug targeting to improve the stability of drugs and allow their controlled release. For parenteral administration, it is necessary to ensure formulation sterility. However, sterilization of nanotechnological devices using an appropriate technique that keeps the supramolecular structure intact remains a challenge. This work aimed to evaluate the effect of autoclaving on the physicochemical characteristics of LNC. Formulations were prepared by the self-assembling method, followed by isotonization and sterilization at varying times and temperatures. The isotonicity was confirmed by determining the freezing temperature, which was -0.51°C. The formulation was broadly characterized, and the diameter of the particles was determined utilizing complementary methods. To evaluate the chemical stability of poly(ε-caprolactone), its molecular weight was determined by size exclusion chromatography. The physicochemical characteristics (average diameter, viscosity, and physical stability) of the formulation were similar before and after adding glycerol and conducting the sterilization at the highest temperature (134°C) and the shorter exposure time (10 min). After autoclaving, the sterility test was performed and showed no detectable microbial growth. Multiple light scattering demonstrated that the formulations were kinetically stable, and the mean diameter was constant for 6 months, corroborating this result. The polymer was chemically stable in the sterilized formulation. Isotonic and sterile LNC aqueous suspensions were produced using glycerol and autoclaving. Briefly, the results open an opportunity to produce an isotonic and sterile LNC aqueous dispersion applicable as nanomedicine for intravenous administration in clinical trials.

Stealth, biocompatible monoolein-based lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticles for enhanced aloe-emodin delivery to breast cancer cells: in vitro and in vivo studies

Recently, research has progressively highlighted on clues from conventional use of herbal medicines to introduce new anticancer drugs. Aloe-emodin (AE) is a herbal drug with promising anticancer activity. Nevertheless, its clinical utility is handicapped by its low solubility. For the first time, this study aims to the fabrication of surface-functionalized polyethylene glycol liquid crystalline nanoparticles (PEG-LCNPs) of AE to enhance its water solubility and enable its anticancer use. Developed AE-PEG-LCNPs were optimized via particle size and zeta potential measurements. Phase behavior, solid state characteristics, hemocompatibility, and serum stability of LCNPs were assessed. Sterile formulations were developed using various sterilization technologies. Furthermore, the potential of the formulations was investigated using cell culture, pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and toxicity studies. AE-PEG-LCNPs showed particle size of 190 nm and zeta potential of −49.9, and PEGylation approach reduced the monoolein hemolytic tendency to 3% and increased the serum stability of the nanoparticles. Sterilization of liquid and lyophilized AE-PEG-LCNPs via autoclaving and γ-radiations, respectively, insignificantly affected the physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles. Half maximal inhibitory concentration of AE-PEG-LCNPs was 3.6-fold lower than free AE after 48 hours and their cellular uptake was threefold higher than free AE after 24-hour incubation. AE-PEG-LCNPs presented 5.4-fold increase in t_1/2 compared with free AE. Biodistribution and toxicity studies showed reduced AE-PEG-LCNP uptake by reticuloendothelial system organs and good safety profile. PEGylated LCNPs could serve as a promising nanocarrier for efficient delivery of AE to cancerous cells.

Endotoxin contamination: a key element in the interpretation of nanosafety studies

The study of toxicity and potential risks of engineered nanoparticles is of particular importance in nanomedicine. Endotoxin, a common contaminant of bacterial origin, has biological effects that can mask the true biological effects of nanoparticles, if its presence is overlooked. In this review, we report the features of nanoparticle contamination by endotoxin, and the different biological effects of endotoxin-contaminated nanoparticles. We will describe different methods for endotoxin detection applied to nanoparticles, and discuss their pros and cons. Eventually, we describe various methods for eliminating endotoxin contamination in nanoparticles. Although there is no universal technique for efficiently removing endotoxin from nanoparticles, specific solutions can be found case by case, which can allow us to perform nanosafety studies in biologically relevant conditions.

Preparation and in vitro-in vivo evaluation of ofloxacin loaded ophthalmic nano structured lipid carriers modified with chitosan oligosaccharide lactate for the treatment of bacterial keratitis

The objective of this study was to explore the potential of the nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) modified with chitosan oligosaccharide lactate (COL) for topical ocular application. Ofloxacin (OFX) loaded NLCs were prepared by microemulsion or high shear homogenization methods. For combination of NLCs Compritol HD5 ATO was used as solid lipid, oleic acid as liquid lipid, Tween 80 as surfactant, ethanol as co-surfactant. The optimum NLCs was modified with 0.75% COL. The properties of NLCs in the absence or presence of OFX (0.3%) were characterized as zeta potential, particle size, viscosity and pH, TEM, drug loading, encapsulation efficiency and anti-microbial properties. Ex-vivo penetration/permeation studies were performed with rabbit cornea in Franz-diffusion cells. The penetration rate of OFX from NM-COL4OFX and NH-COL4OFX were significantly higher than commercial solution. Based on the selected formulations, in vivo tests were carried out by eye-drop instillation of NLCs in rabbit. The addition of COL improved the preocular residence time, controlled the drug release and enhanced the corneal bioavailability. In conclusion, OFX COL modified NLCs prepared by high shear homogenization method could be offered as a promising strategy for ocular drug delivery.

Radiation sterilization of new drug delivery systems

Radiation sterilization has now become a commonly used method for sterilization of several active ingredients in drugs or drug delivery systems containing these substances. In this context, many applications have been performed on the human products that are required to be sterile, as well as on pharmaceutical products prepared to be developed. The new drug delivery systems designed to deliver the medication to the target tissue or organ, such as microspheres, nanospheres, microemulsion, and liposomal systems, have been sterilized by gamma (γ) and beta (β) rays, and more recently, by e-beam sterilization. In this review, the sterilization of new drug delivery systems was discussed other than conventional drug delivery systems by γ irradiation.

Challenges facing sterilization and depyrogenation of nanoparticles: effects on structural stability and biomedical applications

This review outlines and compares techniques that are currently available for the sterilization of nanoparticles and addresses the topic of endotoxin contamination. Several techniques are available for the removal of microbial contamination from nanoparticles developed for use in nanomedicine applications. These techniques include filtration, autoclaving and irradiation, as well as formaldehyde, ethylene oxide and gas plasma treatments. Of these sterilization methodologies, filtration may potentially remove microbial contamination without altering the physicochemical properties of the carrier nanoparticles, nor affecting their toxicity and functionality. However, no single process may be applied to all nanoparticle preparations and, therefore, it is recommended that each nanoparticle-drug system be validated on a case-by-case basis. From the clinical editor: This comprehensive review covers the currently available methods for removal of microbial contaminations from nanoparticles for nanomedicine applications. The review highlights the pros and cons of each available method. Authors conclude that there is no single best method and recommend a customized approach for each nanoparticle system.

Sterilization of Silver Nanoparticles Using Standard Gamma Irradiation Procedure Affects Particle Integrity and Biocompatibility

Silver nanoparticles are commonly used in a variety of commercial and medical products. Here we investigate the effects of standard sterilization methods, including heat/steam (autoclave) and gamma-irradiation on the structural integrity and biocompatibility of citrate-stabilized silver nanoparticles with nominal sizes of 20, 40, 60 and 80 nm. Particle size, shape and in vitro biocompatibility were studied pre- and post-sterilization. Sterilization by gamma irradiation at dose levels commonly used in medical device industry (15, 25 and 50 kGy) resulted in dramatic changes in particle size and morphology, as monitored by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Exposing the particles to a chemical producer of hydroxyl radicals (N-hydroxy-2-pyridinethione) allowed us to duplicate the sterilization-based changes in size and morphology, implying a free radical mechanism of action. Compared to untreated controls, we also observed a three- to five-fold increase in tendency of sterilized silver nanoparticles to cause platelet aggregation, a sensitive in vitro indicator of thrombogenicity.

Nano-microparticles as immune adjuvants: correlating particle sizes and the resultant immune responses

The development of novel immune adjuvants is emerging as a significant area of vaccine delivery based on the continued necessity to amplify immune responses to a wide array of new antigens that are poorly immunogenic. This article specifically focuses on the application of nanoparticles and microparticles as vaccine adjuvants. Many investigators are in agreement that the size of the particles is crucial to their adjuvant activities. However, reports on correlating the size of particle-based adjuvants and the resultant immune responses have been conflicting, with investigators on both sides of the fence with impressive data in support of the effectiveness of particles with small sizes (submicron) over those with larger sizes (micron) and vice versa, while other investigators reported data that showed submicron- and micron-sized particles are effective to the same degree as immune adjuvants. We have generated a list of biological, immunological and, more importantly, vaccine formulation parameters that may have contributed to the inconsistency from different studies and made recommendations on future studies attempting to correlate the size of particulate adjuvants and the immune responses induced. The information gathered could lead to strategies to optimize the performance of nano-microparticles as immune adjuvants.

Effects of sterilisation by high-energy radiation on biomedical poly-(epsilon-caprolactone)/hydroxyapatite composites

The effects of a high energy sterilization treatment on poly-epsilon-caprolactone/carbonated hydroxyapatite composites have been investigated. Poly-epsilon-caprolactone is a biodegradable polymer used as long-term bioresorbable scaffold for bone tissue engineering and carbonated hydroxyapatite is a bioactive material able to promote bone growth. The composites were gamma-irradiated in air or under nitrogen atmosphere with doses ranging from 10 to 50 kGy (i.e. to a value higher than that recommended for sterilization). The effects of the irradiation treatment were evaluated by vibrational spectroscopy (IR and Raman spectroscopies) coupled to thermal analysis (Differential Scanning Calorimetry and Thermogravimetry) and Electron Paramagnetic Resonance spectroscopy. Irradiation with the doses required for sterilization induced acceptable structural changes and damaging effects: only a very slight fragmentation of the polymeric chains and some defects in the inorganic component were observed. Moreover, the radiation sensitivity of the composites proved almost the same under the two different atmospheres.

Methods for the preparation and manufacture of polymeric nanoparticles

This review summarizes the different methods of preparation of polymer nanoparticles including nanospheres and nanocapsules. The first part summarizes the basic principle of each method of nanoparticle preparation. It presents the most recent innovations and progresses obtained over the last decade and which were not included in previous reviews on the subject. Strategies for the obtaining of nanoparticles with controlled in vivo fate are described in the second part of the review. A paragraph summarizing scaling up of nanoparticle production and presenting corresponding pilot set-up is considered in the third part of the review. Treatments of nanoparticles, applied after the synthesis, are described in the next part including purification, sterilization, lyophilization and concentration. Finally, methods to obtain labelled nanoparticles for in vitro and in vivo investigations are described in the last part of this review.

Effect of sterilisation by gamma irradiation on the ability of polycaprolactone (PCL) to act as a scaffold material

This paper investigates the effect of sterilisation by gamma irradiation (dose 2.5Mrad) on the following properties of polycaprolactone (PCL): (1) degradation rate (catalysed by lipase), (2) mechanical properties, (3) the ability of cells to attach and subsequently grow on its surface. Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) was used to determine the effects of gamma irradiation of weight average (M(w)) and number average (M(n)) molecular weights. Gamma irradiation significantly decreased the rate of degradation, although the rates depended on the initial mass of polymer; it also affected the appearance of the degraded specimens when they were examined by scanning electron microscopy. Irradiation also significantly increased the mechanical yield stress but not the failure stress of PCL. It caused a significant increase in M(w) and decrease in M(n) that could be attributed to chain scission and cross-linking. Chondrocyte attachment and growth on PCL was not significantly affected by gamma irradiation.

A Practical Approach to the use of Nanoparticles for Vaccine Delivery

The objective of this work was to obtain a nanoparticle formulation that could be sterile filtered, lyophilized, and resuspended to the initial size with excipients appropriate for use as a vaccine formulation. Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG) polymers were used to create nanoparticles ranging in size from 110 to 230 nm. Protein antigens were adsorbed to the particles; the protein-nanoparticles were then lyophilized with the excipients. Vaccine compatible excipient combinations of sugars alone, surfactants alone, and sugars and surfactants were tested to find conditions where initial particle size was recovered. Sterile filtration of smaller nanoparticles led to minimal PLG losses and allowed the particle preparation to be a nonaseptic process. We found that the smaller nanoparticles of size approximately 120 nm required higher surfactant concentration to resuspend postlyophilization than slightly larger ( approximately 220 nm) particles. To resuspend 120 nm nanoparticles formulations of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) with sucrose/mannitol or dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (DSS) with trehalose/mannitol were sufficient. The protein-nanoparticles resuspension with the same excipients was dependent on the protein and protein loading level. The nanoparticle formulations in vivo were either similar or had enhanced immunogenicity compared to aluminum hydroxide formulations. A lyophilized nanoparticle formulation with adsorbed protein antigen and minimal excipients is an effective vaccine delivery system.

Poly(epsilon-caprolactone) biomaterial sterilized by E-beam irradiation

The effects of ionizing radiation (electron beam) on poly(epsilon-caprolactone) (PCL) were studied by analyzing changes in viscosity-average and weight-average molecular weight and radius of gyration, and by performing sol-gel analysis and swelling tests. Samples were irradiated under various conditions: solid and molten PCL in the presence or absence of air. The overall efficiency of crosslinking is higher for samples irradiated in the molten state than in the solid state, and is reduced in the presence of oxygen. Based on three kinds of experiments (molecular weight dependence on the dose in the pre-gelation region, sol-gel analysis, and swelling study), radiation-chemical yields of intermolecular crosslinking and scission were determined and are discussed in terms of the mechanism of radiation-induced reactions in PCL. Properties of the gels formed by high-dose irradiation and mechanical properties of irradiated PCL were analyzed. Irradiation causes an increase in the compression modulus of PCL. This process occurs at the pre-gelation stage and continues in the gel-containing system. We have demonstrated, for the first time, that irradiation of solid PCL is accompanied by a pronounced post-effect, which manifests itself by changes in the average molecular weight. EPR data indicate that this effect, at least in part, is caused by the presence of long-lived radicals trapped in the crystalline regions. Irradiation with the sterilizing dose does not cause a statistically significant change in the biocompatibility of PCL after subsequent storage for 79 d, as determined by preliminary osteoblast vitality tests.

Sterile, injectable cyclodextrin nanoparticles: effects of gamma irradiation and autoclaving

Sterility is required as stated by compendial requirements and registration authorities worldwide for an injectable drug carrier system. In this study, injectable nanospheres and nanocapsules prepared from amphiphilic beta-cyclodextrin, beta-CDC6, were assessed for their in vitro properties such as particle size distribution, zeta potential, nanoparticle yield (%), drug entrapment efficiency and in vitro drug release profiles. Different sterilization techniques such as gamma irradiation and autoclaving were evaluated for their feasibility regarding the maintenance of the above mentioned nanoparticle properties after sterilization. It was found that amount these techniques, sterilization with gamma irradiation seemed to be the most appropriate technique with no effect on particle size, drug loading and drug release properties. Gamma irradiation causes some chemical changes on beta-CDC6 observed as changes in zeta potential but this does not lead to any significant changes for nanoparticle properties. Autoclaving caused massive aggregation for the nanoparticles followed by precipitation, which led to the conclusion that excessive heat disrupted nanoparticle integrity. Sterile filtration was not feasible since nanoparticle sizes were larger than the filter pore size and the yield after sterilization was very low. Thus, it can be concluded that blank and drug loaded beta-CDC6 nanospheres and nanocapsules are capable of being sterilized by gamma irradiation.

The effect of freeze-drying with different cryoprotectants and gamma-irradiation sterilization on the characteristics of ciprofloxacin HCl-loaded poly(D,L-lactide-glycolide) nanoparticles

In the present study, the influence of freeze-drying with several cryoprotective agents and gamma (gamma)-irradiation sterilization on the physicochemical characteristics of ciprofloxacin HCl-loaded poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles was evaluated. Nanoparticles were prepared by W/O/W emulsification solvent evaporation followed by high-pressure homogenization. They were freeze-dried in the presence of 5.0% (w/v) mannitol, trehalose or glucose, with 5.0% (w/v) or 15.0% (w/v) dextran as cryoprotectants. The nanoparticles were irradiated at a dose of 25 kGy using a 60Co source. The following physicochemical properties of the formulations were investigated: the ratio of particle size before (initial) and after freeze-drying, the ease of reconstitution of the nanoparticle suspensions and the drug-release profiles of irradiated and non-irradiated nanoparticles. The antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa was measured. The freeze-drying process induced a significant increase in particle size when no cryoprotectant was employed. Similar results were observed when cryoprotectants were added to the formulation. Only when mannitol was used was no significant size increase measured. Moreover, for formulations with dextran, reconstitution after freeze-drying was difficult by manual agitation and particle size could not be determined because of aggregation. After gamma-sterilization no significant difference in mean particle size was observed, but reconstitution was more difficult and drug release was influenced negatively. Ciprofloxacin HCl incorporated in the nanoparticles was still effective against the micro-organism selected after freeze-drying and gamma-sterilization.

Cyclosporine A delivery to the eye: a pharmaceutical challenge

Systemic administration of cyclosporine A (CsA) is commonly used in the treatment of local ophthalmic conditions involving cytokines, such as corneal graft rejection, autoimmune uveitis and dry eye syndrome. Local administration is expected to avoid the various side effects associated with systemic delivery. However, the currently available systems using oils to deliver CsA topically are poorly tolerated and provide a low bioavailability. These difficulties may be overcome through formulations aimed at improving CsA water solubility (e.g. cyclodextrins), or those designed to facilitate tissue drug penetration using penetration enhancers. The use of colloidal carriers (micelles, emulsions, liposomes and nanoparticles) as well as the approach using hydrosoluble prodrugs of CsA have shown promising results. Solid devices such as shields and particles of collagen have been investigated to enhance retention time on the eye surface. Some of these topical formulations have shown efficacy in the treatment of extraocular diseases but were inefficient at reaching intraocular targets. Microspheres, implants and liposomes have been developed to be directly administered subconjunctivally or intravitreally in order to enhance CsA concentration in the vitreous. Although progress has been made, there is still room for improvement in CsA ocular application, as none of these formulations is ideal.

In vitro cytotoxicity testing of AB-polymer networks based on oligo(?-caprolactone) segments after different sterilization techniques

Recently developed versatile biodegradable polymeric biomaterial offer new therapeutic options in numerous medical fields. Biocompatibility is a crucial requirement for the biomedical application of biomaterials, including the sterilization of these materials with the use of accepted protocols. Ethylene-oxide (EO) and low-temperature plasma (LTP) sterilization are frequently used low-temperature sterilization technologies for heat-sensitive materials. The agarose diffusion assay is a recommended cell-screening test to assess the cytotoxicity of biomaterials in vitro. The sensitivity of the agarose assay can be increased by using a modified computer-based image-analysis system. The influence of EO and LTP sterilization on the cytotoxicity of a versatile polymer system of shape-memory polymer networks based on oligo (epsilon-caprolactone) dimethacrylate and n-butyl acrylate was investigated. Statistically significant differences in the rate of cell lysis after EO and LTP sterilization of the polymer samples were detected by using this modified quantification system. The influence of the different sterilization techniques on the cytotoxicity of the polymeric material, as well as the clinical relevance of the described differences, are discussed.

The stenlying effect of high hydrostatic pressure on thermally and hydrolytically labile nanosized carriers

PURPOSE

To investigate whether high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) treatment allows the sterilization of thermosensitive polymer nanoparticle suspensions without jeopardizing their physicochemical integrity.

METHODS

Application of HHP was explored on a wide variety of thermosensitive poly(cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles, varying by their type (nanospheres or nanocapsules), by their preparation method (nanoprecipitation or emulsion/solvent evaporation), as well as by their surface characteristics. Physicochemical characterization before and after pressurization included turbidimetry, size measurement, zeta potential, scanning electron microscopy and infrared analysis. A sterility test also conducted according to pharmacopoeial requirements on an importantly contaminated nanoparticle suspension.

RESULTS

Poly(cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles appeared to be extremely baroresistant. Continuous or oscillatory HHP treatment up to 500 MPa during 30 min induced generally neither physical, nor chemical damage. However, precautions should be taken when surface modifiers are adsorbed onto nanoparticles, as a layer destabilization may occur. Finally, this process allowed the successful inactivation of vegetative bacteria, yeast, and fungi.

CONCLUSIONS

This work proposes HHP as a new method for polymer drug carriers sterilization, taking into account that further exploration in this area is needed to propose novel protocols for spores inactivation.

Biodegradable micelles/polymersomes from fumaric/sebacic acids and poly(ethylene glycol)

Linear unsaturated oligo-anhydrides containing terminal acylchloride groups have been synthesized by polycondensation of fumaric or sebacic acid with either fumaryl chloride or sebacoyl chloride. Reaction of these oligo-anhydrides with poly(ethylene glycol) produce di- and tri-block copolymers. The oligo-anhydrides and block copolymers have been characterized by gel permeation chromatography (GPC), NMR and FT-IR spectroscopies. The tri-block copolymers composed of two PEG end blocks and an oligo-anhydride center block have been used in encapsulation of calcein (encapsulation efficiency up to 40%). Encapsulation and release profile of calcein (as a model hydrophilic drug) from the di-block copolymers (micelles) and tri-block copolymer vesicles (polymersomes) as well as their in-vitro hydrolytic degradation (pH=7.4 degrees C, 37 degrees C) are reported.

Vancomycin encapsulation in biodegradable poly(epsilon-caprolactone) microparticles for bone implantation. Influence of the formulation process on size, drug loading, in vitro release and cytocompatibility

Vancomycin encapsulation in biodegradable poly(epsilon-caprolactone) microparticles (200 microm mean diameter) was most efficient with a simple emulsion technique that dispersed 122.5 mg/g of polymer. Scanning electron micrographs showed smooth or pitted particles. Dissolution studies were correlated with microparticle morphology, indicating higher release with pitted particles when vancomycin was encapsulated in a dissolved state. The cytocompatibility of these poly(epsilon-caprolactone) microparticles was demonstrated by a direct contact cytotoxic assay. This material can be considered as an efficient drug delivery system for bone implantation.

Stability and in vitro drug release of flurbiprofen-loaded poly-epsilon-caprolactone nanospheres

The effects of temperature and two different initial pH (2.67 and 7.00) on poly-epsilon-caprolactone (P epsilon CL) nanospheres loaded with flurbiprofen (FB) (aqueous suspensions) were studied to investigate their influence on the stability and physicochemical characteristics of these drug delivery systems. The drug release behavior was also studied. Release of the associated FB occurred very fast on high dilution in a buffered medium. The stability of the polymeric system depends on the temperature and the initial pH value; it is more degradable with the particles stored at 40 degrees C with an initial pH value of 2.67.