Linking lysosomal biomarker and population responses in a field population of Aporrectodea caliginosa (Oligochaeta) exposed to the fungicide copper oxychloride

Single and combined effects of metal-based fungicides on Eisenia andrei in different scenarios of climatic change

This study evaluated the ecotoxicity of metal-based fungicides under the current scenarios of global climatic change (20 °C and 25 °C) and moisture content (30% and 50%) in single and binary mixtures of copper oxychloride (CuOx) [200, 500 and 1000 mg/kg] and mancozeb (MnZn) [44, 850 and 1250 mg/kg]. Endpoints assessed included mortality, changes in biomass, avoidance behaviour, and reproduction utilising standardised protocols (ISO and OECD). The changes in biomass and mortality tests lasted 28 days, followed by a 28-day reproduction test and a two-day avoidance test. In all temperature-moisture combinations, the mortality rate in the exposure groups exceeded 10% only in the CuOx1000 and CuOx1000 + MnZn1250 mg/kg groups. However, at 20 °C and 30% moisture, the mortality rate exceeded 10% only in the CuOx500 + MnZn850 mg/kg treatment. Relative growth rates in the CuOx and MnZn treatment groups decreased with increasing concentrations. In CuOx MnZn and the binary mixture treatments at 20 °C 30% and 25 °C 50% conditions, avoidance response behaviour was greater than 80% throughout the exposure, except in CuOx200 mg/kg, MnZn44 mg/kg and CuOx200 + MnZn44 mg/kg. The reproduction of exposed earthworms in all treatment groups was concentration-dependent and influenced by varying temperatures and soil moisture conditions. No juveniles or cocoons were produced in the CuOx1000 mg/kg treatment at 25 °C 30%, indicating that copper oxychloride may be more toxic than mancozeb, especially in drought conditions. This study found that different temperatures and soil moisture levels altered the ecotoxicity of CuOx and MnZn. It can be concluded that climate change is likely to significantly impact the outcomes of metals to earthworms and their ecological activities.

Toxicity and accumulation of lead and cadmium in the land snail, Archachatina papyracea, in a tropical Alfisol from Southwestern Nigeria

Snails are an important link in the transfer of contaminants, especially metals in the food chain. Yet, few studies have examined the toxicity and accumulation of metals in snails in the tropics. This study assessed the toxicity and accumulation of two non-essential metals (cadmium and lead) to the tropical snail Archachatina papyracea. Specimens of the snail A. papyracea were exposed in a loamy soil collected from Ile-Ife, Nigeria and spiked with varying concentrations of Cd and Pb over 28 days. Survival and weight change of snails were monitored weekly, while tissue accumulation was assessed at the end of the 28-day period. Survival was a more sensitive endpoint than the weight change of snails. The Cd median lethal concentration (LC50) value was 93 ± 4.4 mg/kg, while the median effect concentration (EC50) for snail weight change was 131 ± 41 mg/kg. For Pb, LC50 value was 1121 ± 457 mg/kg, while the EC50 value for weight change was higher at 4541 ± 1180 mg/kg. Therefore, Cd was a factor of about 10 to 30 × more toxic than Pb, consistent with findings on the relative toxicity of Cd and Pb to other soil organisms, including earthworms, springtails, and mites. Although not included initially as an endpoint, egg production in the snails decreased with increasing Cd and Pb concentrations in the substrate. Metal analysis of the foot and visceral mass of surviving snails showed progressive accumulation of Cd and Pb as concentration increased, showing the tendency to use body residue of A. papyracea as an indicator of metal pollution. It further suggests the role of this snail species in above-ground metal transfer in the food chain and highlights the potential danger for human consumption.

Heavy Metal Threats to Plants and Soil Life in Southern Africa: Present Knowledge and Consequences for Ecological Risk Assessment

In recent times there has been remarkable development in the field of soil ecotoxicology and risk assessment (RA) models. It is, however, debatable if these RA models are robust representatives for worldwide relevance. In order to investigate this, the current overview aims to address heavy metal threats to soil life in southern Africa by investigating present knowledge and consequences for RA using research in southern Africa as a case. To this end, the focus is on southern African soils, soil life and living conditions. To critically discuss these issues, we report on extensive research conducted in the southern African context and looked how comparable these findings are to RA models employed in the western world. This is done by providing an inventory of selected studies focused on the ecotoxicity of metals towards soil life. It is concluded that there is a dearth of information on southern African soil life, most of which are laboratory-based studies carried out by a handful of researchers. Future research incorporating the available information into a soil ecosystem assessment procedure is paramount. It is recommended that a starting point to tackle this might be the development of holistic sight-specific guidelines for ecological risk assessment at larger spatial scales (km²) which takes into cognizance landscapes, vegetation and faunal characteristics.

Biomarker responses in the earthworm, Dichogaster curgensis exposed to fly ash polluted soils

Earthworms are globally accepted as a model organism in terrestrial ecotoxicology for assessment of environmental pollution. This study evaluated and compared effects of fly ash polluted soils collected from two geographically different thermal power plants on biomarker responses in the earthworm, Dichogaster curgensis. To evaluate relationship between distance sampling and biomarker responses in the earthworm D. curgensis, soil samples at 0.5, 1 and 3km from thermal plant were analyzed for physico-chemical properties and metal concentrations. Biochemical alterations, lysosomal membrane stability, genotoxic effects, and histological changes were examined on 1, 7, and 14 d of exposure to fly ash contaminated soils collected from different thermal power plants. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were significantly increased, while glutathione reductase (GR) activity was found to be decreased in treated animals. Catalase (CAT) and glutathione-S- transferase (GST) activities were found to be increased initially up to 7d exposure and further decreased on 14d exposure. D. curgensis exposed to fly ash contaminated soils showed significant lysosomal membrane destabilization and DNA damage. Extensive histopathological changes were observed in the tissues of the body wall and intestinal tract of the exposed D. curgensis along with accumulation of heavy metals. These results demonstrate that soil pollution around thermal power plants has adverse biological effects of on the indicator organism D. curgensis and no correlation was found between distance and extent of biological biochemical responses.

Establishment of toxicity thresholds in subpopulations of coelomocytes (amoebocytes vs. eleocytes) of Eisenia fetida exposed in vitro to a variety of metals: implications for biomarker measurements

Coelomocytes comprise the immune system of earthworms and due to their sensitivity responding to a wide range of pollutants have been widely used as target cells in soil ecotoxicology. Recently, in vitro assays with primary cultures of coelomocytes based in the neutral red uptake (NRU) assay have been developed as promising tools for toxicity assessment chemical in a reproducible and cost-effective manner. However, NRU showed a bimodal dose-response curve previously described after in vivo and in vitro exposure of earthworm coelomocytes to pollutants. This response could be related with alterations in the relative proportion of coelomocyte subpopulations, amoebocytes and eleocytes. Thus, the aims of the present work were, first, to establish the toxicity thresholds that could be governed by different cell-specific sensitivities of coelomocytes subpopulations against a series of metals (Cu, Cd, Pb, Ni), and second to understand the implication that coelomocyte population dynamics (eleocytes vs. amoebocytes) after exposure to pollutants can have on the viability of coelomocytes (measured by NRU assay) as biomarker of general stress in soil health assessment. Complementarily flow cytometric analyses were applied to obtain correlative information about single cells (amoebocytes and eleocytes) in terms of size and complexity, changes in their relative proportion and mortality rates. The results indicated a clear difference in sensitivity of eleocytes and amoebocytes against metal exposure, being eleocytes more sensitive. The bimodal dose-response curve of NRU after in vitro exposure of primary cultures of coelomocytes to metals revealed an initial mortality of eleocytes (decreased NRU), followed by an increased complexity of amoebocytes (enhanced phagocytosis) and massive mortality of eleocytes (increased NRU), to give raise to a massive mortality of amoebocytes (decrease NRU). A synergistic effect on NRU was exerted by the exposure to high Cu concentrations and acidic pH (elicited by the metal itself), whereas the effects on NRU produced after exposure to Cd, Ni and Pb were due solely to the presence of metals, being the acidification of culture medium meaningless.

Optimization of NRU assay in primary cultures of Eisenia fetida for metal toxicity assessment

Coelomocytes, immunocompetent cells of lumbricids, have received special attention for ecotoxicological studies due to their sensibility to pollutants. Their in vitro responses are commonly quantified after in vivo exposure to real or spiked soils. Alternatively, quantifications of in vitro responses after in vitro exposure are being studied. Within this framework, the present study aimed at optimizing the neutral red uptake (NRU) assay in primary culture of Eisenia fetida coelomocytes for its application in soil toxicity testing. Optimized assay conditions were: earthworm depuration for 24 h before retrieving coelomocytes by electric extrusion; 2 × 10(5) seeded cells/well (200 µl) for the NRU assay and incubation for 1 h with neutral red dye. Supplementation of the culture medium with serum was not compatible with the NRU assay, but coelomocytes could be maintained with high viability for 3 days in a serum-free medium without replenishment. Thus, primary cultures were used for 24 h in vitro toxicity testing after exposure to different concentrations of Cd, Cu, Ni and Pb (ranging from 0.1 to 100 μg/ml). Primary cultures were sensitive to metals, the viability declining in a dose-dependent manner. The toxicity rank was, from high to low, Pb > Ni > Cd > Cu. Therefore, it can be concluded that the NRU assay in coelomocytes in primary cultures provides a sensitive and prompt response after in vitro exposure to metals.

The influence of calcium and pH on the uptake and toxicity of copper in Folsomia candida exposed to simplified soil solutions

The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of Ca and pH on the uptake and effects of Cu in Folsomia candida (Collembola). Assuming that soil pore water is the main route of exposure, F. candida were exposed for seven days to Cu in simplified soil solutions at different Ca concentrations and different pH levels. A hormetic-type effect was seen for the effect of Cu on F. candida survival. Toxicity of Cu was slightly decreased and Cu uptake increased at the highest Ca concentrations. Cu toxicity and uptake were not significantly affected by pH. Conditional binding constants for Cu(2+), Ca(2+) and H(+), calculated with a Langmuir isotherm, were used to relate Cu toxicity to the fraction of occupied binding sites (BL). The estimated 50% effect level (fCu-BL50) was 0.14 when all data were combined. To verify the Langmuir parameters, binding constants calculated based on internal Cu concentrations were used to estimate predicted effects and compared with the measured values. A good correlation between predicted and measured survival indicated that the principles of a biotic ligand model may be applicable to explain Cu toxicity to F. candida in simplified soil solutions.

Is metal pollution a threat to the continued survival of the starfish in False Bay, South Africa?

Urbanisation and industrial development in the catchment area of False Bay in South Africa are increasing and concern was raised about the effect of environmental pollutants on intertidal fauna such as starfish. The aim of the present study was to obtain initial descriptive baseline data over several seasons during 2000–2001 of metal concentrations in water, sediment and body samples of the chosen cushion starfish Parvulastra exigua (Lamarck, 1816) that occurs widely in the intertidal zone of False Bay. Concentrations of cadmium, copper, lead, nickel and zinc were measured in samples of the cushion starfish, water and sediment at five localities along the coast of False Bay. The samples were chemically analysed for metals by atomic spectrophotometry. The highest individually measured concentrations of cadmium (Cd) in starfish and sediment were found in the northern coastal region between Strand and Muizenberg where most industrial activity and human settlement occur. Large variation in concentrations of all metals occurred between localities and seasons. The mean concentrations of Cd and Pb in water and sediment were in a few instances slightly higher than the recommended levels or target values of the South African marine water and sediment quality norms but still lower than those in various developed countries. Indications are that the bay was at the time of this study still less contaminated by metals in comparison with the coastal waters of various other countries. The accumulation of nonessential metals such as cadmium and lead in both sediment and bodies of starfish was nevertheless such that it can be assumed that environmental concentrations in some parts of the bay could over time build up to levels that are detrimental to the species as well as their predators. This study provided evidence that the cushion starfish in False Bay is exposed to several metals of which some are potentially hazardous since they tend to gradually accumulate in animal bodies. Risk assessment, however, requires additional information about the causal relationship between exposure and biological effects at the cellular, organismic and population levels before informed decisions can be made whether the threat to starfish is such that intervention is required.

Effect of fly ash on biochemical responses and DNA damage in earthworm, Dichogaster curgensis

Fly ash is receiving alarming attention due to its hazardous nature, widespread usage, and the manner of disposal; leading to environmental deterioration. We carried out bio-monitoring and risk assessment of fly ash in earthworms as a model system. Dichogaster curgensis were allowed to grow in presence or absence of fly ash (0-40%, w/w) for 1, 7, and 14 d. The biochemical markers viz. catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and malondialdehyde (MDA) level were measured. The comet and neutral red retention assays were performed on earthworm coelomocytes to assess genetic damages and lysosomal membrane stability. The results revealed increased activities of SOD, GPx, GST, and MDA level in a dose-response manner while GR activity was decreased with increasing concentrations of fly ash. No obvious trend was observed in the CAT activity and fly ash concentration. Lysosomal membrane destabilization was noted in the earthworms exposed to 5% and more fly ash concentration in a dose and time dependent manner. The comet assay demonstrated that the fly ash induced DNA damage and DNA-protein crosslinks in earthworm coelomocytes.

Acute and sublethal effects of sequential exposure to the pesticide azinphos-methyl on juvenile earthworms (Eisenia andrei)

The use of organophosphate pesticides is an integral part of commercial farming activities and these substances have been implicated as a major source of environmental contamination and may impact on a range of non-target fauna. The extent to which soil dwelling non-target organisms are affected by exposure to the organophosphate azinphos-methyl was investigated through monitoring selected biomarker responses and life cycle effects under laboratory conditions in the earthworm Eisenia andrei. Standard acute toxicity tests were conducted followed by a sequential exposure regime experiment, in order to assess the effects of multiple pesticide applications on biomarker (cholinesterase activity and neutral red retention time), life-cycle (growth and reproduction) and behaviour (avoidance and burrowing activity) responses. The present study indicates that the time between exposure events was a more important variable than concentration and that a longer interval between exposures may mitigate the effects of pesticide exposure provided that the exposure concentration is low. Additionally, it was shown that E. andrei was unable to avoid the presence of azinphos-methyl in soil, even at concentrations as high as 50% of the LC(50) value, indicating that the presence of azinphos-methyl in the soil pose a realistic threat to earthworms and other soil dwelling organisms. The ChE inhibition test showed a high percentage inhibition of the enzyme in all exposure groups that survived and NRR times of exposed organisms were lower than that of the controls. The present study yielded important results that contribute to the understanding of biological impacts of pesticide pollution on the environment. Extrapolating these results can aid in optimising pesticide application regimes to mitigate the environmental effects thereof and thus ensuring sustained soil biodiversity in agricultural areas.

Coelomocyte biomarkers in the earthworm Eisenia fetida exposed to 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT)

Contamination by 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) is a global environmental problem at sites of former explosive production, handling, or storage, and could have deleterious consequences for human and ecological health. We investigated its sublethal effects to Eisenia fetida, using two nonspecific biomarkers. In coelomocytes of earthworms exposed 24, 48, or 72 h, we evaluated DNA damage (comet assay) and neutral red retention time (NRRT), using the filter paper contact test. Both percentage of damage (D%) and calculated damage index showed significant DNA damage at almost all concentrations, at all time points assayed. Along exposure time, two different patterns were observed. At the lower TNT concentrations (0.25-0.5 μg/cm2) an increased DNA migration at 48 h, with a decrease close to initial levels after 72 h exposure, was observed. This decrease could be attributed to activation of the DNA repair system. At higher concentrations (1.0-2.0 μg/cm2), the high DNA damage observed remained constant during the 72 h exposure, suggesting that the rate of DNA repair was not enough to compensate such damage. Analysis of NRRT results showed a significant interaction between time and treatment. After 48 h, a significant decrease was observed at 4.0 μg/cm2. After 72 h, NRRT presented a concentration-dependent decrease, significantly different with respect to control at 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 μg/cm2. The two assayed methods, performed on the same sample, showed clear responses to sublethal TNT exposure in E. fetida, providing sensitive unspecific biomarkers of cell injury and DNA damage.

Aporrectodea caliginosa, a suitable earthworm species for field based genotoxicity assessment?

There is a growing interest for the application of biomakers to field-collected earthworms. Therefore we have evaluated the usability of native populations of endogeic, widely distributed earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa in the assessment of soil genotoxicity using the Comet assay. Validation of the Comet assay on earthworm coelomocytes has been established using commercially available Eisenia fetida exposed to copper, cadmium, and pentachlorophenol, along with A. caliginosa exposed to copper in a filter paper contact test. Neutral red retention time (NRRT) assay was conducted on copper exposed and field-collected earthworms. Significant DNA and lysosomal damage was measured using Comet and NRRT assays in native populations of A. caliginosa sampled from the polluted soils in the urban area in comparison to the earthworms from the reference site. The results of this study confirm the employment of A. caliginosa as a suitable species for the in situ soil toxicity and genotoxicity field surveys.

Introduction of the land snail Eobania vermiculata as a bioindicator organism of terrestrial pollution using a battery of biomarkers

The present study aimed to enrich the group of sentinel organisms of terrestrial pollution biomonitoring, by investigating the efficacy of the land snail Eobania vermiculata. For this reason, a package of biomarkers was performed on land snails E. vermiculata collected from polluted areas in the field or treated with heavy metals in the laboratory. The biomarkers used were neutral red lysosomal retention assay of the haemocytes, acetylcholinesterase activity in the digestive gland and the haemolymph, and metallothionein content of the digestive gland. Moreover, the morphometric changes in the lysosomal system and the morphometric alterations of the neutral lipids were also investigated. In addition, the content of cadmium, lead and copper was evaluated in the digestive gland of the snails. The results revealed appreciable alterations in the biomarker values both in field- and laboratory-conditions, accompanied by significant correlations among the biomarkers. Therefore, this exploratory study suggests the utility of E. vermiculata as a sentinel organism for biomonitoring the biologic impact of terrestrial pollution, and supports the package's efficacy of the selected biomarkers.

Influence of clay content on bioavailability of copper in the earthworm Eisenia fetida

We investigated the effect of clay content on the bioavailability of copper to the earthworm Eisenia fetida, in the laboratory for 28 days using OECD artificial soil adjusted to 5%, 20% and 40% clay. Mortality, growth, cocoon production and internal copper concentrations were assessed in worms, and total, DTPA and CaCl(2) extractable copper in the substrates were also determined. The results showed that with increased clay content, there was significant reduction in internal Cu concentration of worms as well as toxicity of copper as shown by data for growth and mortality. However, internal copper concentrations of worms could not explain fully the observed toxicity in this study probably because of Cu regulation. Among the three extraction methods, DTPA extraction revealed the strongest relationship between partitioning and toxicity of Cu in this study. DTPA extract is thus a promising surrogate measure of bioavailability of Cu to earthworms. It is concluded that clay content has significant influence on the bioavailability of copper to earthworms and other similar species.

Quantitative changes in digestive gland cells and oocytes of Helix aspersa, as biomarkers of copper oxychloride exposure under field conditions

This study investigated the effects of accumulated copper, on digestive epithelium height and percentage area, and on oocyte numbers of the snail Helix aspersa, in a vineyard where copper oxychloride is sprayed. The ultimate aim was to determine the usefulness of these cellular responses as biomarkers. Results showed that snails collected 2 months after fungicide application, had a significantly lower mean digestive epithelium height and percentage area, as well as significantly fewer oocytes per 1 mm(2) of ovotestis, compared to snails collected only 1 week after fungicide application and those from a control vineyard. It was concluded that these cellular responses are clear, measurable responses to copper oxychloride exposure and copper accumulation. However, they do not provide an early warning of copper exposure, which impacts on their usefulness as biomarkers.

Effects of metal pollution on earthworm communities in a contaminated floodplain area: Linking biomarker, community and functional responses

Effects on earthworms in the contaminated floodplain area the Biesbosch, the Netherlands, were determined at different levels of organization using a combination of field and laboratory tests. The species Lumbricus rubellus, collected from different polluted sites in the Biesbosch, showed reduced values for the biomarker neutral red retention time (NRRT), mainly explained by high metal concentrations in the soil and the resulting high internal copper concentrations in the earthworms. Organic pollutant levels in earthworms were low and did not explain reduced NRRTs. Earthworm abundance and biomass were not correlated with pollutant levels in the soil. Litterbag decomposition and bait-lamina feeding activity, measures of the functional role of earthworms, were not affected by metal pollution and did not show any correlation with metal concentrations in soil or earthworms nor with NRRT. Effects at the biochemical level therefore did not result in a reduced functioning of earthworm communities.

Role of clay content in partitioning, uptake and toxicity of zinc in the earthworm Eisenia fetida

We studied the effect of clay content on the bioavailability of zinc to pre-clitellate earthworm, Eisenia fetida in the laboratory using OECD artificial soil adjusted to 5%, 20%, and 40% clay. Batches of worms were exposed to a wide range of zinc concentrations. Mortality, growth, maturation (% clitellate), cocoon production, and body zinc concentrations were assessed over and after a period of 4 weeks. Total, DTPA, and CaCl(2) extractable zinc in the substrates were also determined. The results of the biological responses showed that interaction of clay and zinc had a significant influence on mortality but not on the other biological parameters. None of the three extraction methods showed consistent and significant effect of clay content on zinc partitioning. Although total, DTPA, and CaCl(2) extracts of zinc correlated strongly with one another and were in similar relation with the observed biological responses, only the CaCl(2) extract revealed a time dependent availability of this metal. It is concluded that clay content had no significant influence on sub-lethal toxicity of zinc to this earthworm over the range of exposure concentrations.

The relationship between lysosomal biomarker and organismal responses in an acute toxicity test with Eisenia Fetida (Oligochaeta) exposed to the fungicide copper oxychloride

The LC50 of copper oxychloride for Eisenia fetida was determined, and its effects on biomass change and lysosomal damage using neutral red retention times (NRRT) of coelomocytes were measured. The aim was to establish whether a lysosomal subcellular response, measured as NRRT, could be linked to the LC50 and biomass changes. Further, we attempted to establish the ecological relevance of the LC50 by comparing it to studies previously carried out on the effects of copper oxychloride on field earthworm populations. The experiment was conducted over a period of 28 days, during which the earthworms were exposed to different concentrations of copper oxychloride in artificial soil. The calculated LC50 was 883 microg g(-1) for copper oxychloride and 519 microg g(-1) for copper. Results indicated that changes in coelomocyte membrane stability manifested earlier than effects on biomass. Since the NRRT assay was very sensitive and generated an early response before changes in biomass or mortality could be measured, it may have predictive value and may contribute information during acute toxicity tests, which could be of greater ecological relevance than mortality data alone.

Influence of copper fungicide residues on occurrence of earthworms in avocado orchard soils

The compost worm Eisenia fetida was used to demonstrate the avoidance by worms of Cu contaminated soil. Soils were collected from two avocado orchards in north eastern New South Wales, Australia. In avoidance trials, worms preferred non-contaminated control soils, sourced from adjacent to the orchard or an OECD control soil, when Cu residues in the orchard soils reached 4-34 mg Cu kg(-1). At levels of 553 mg Cu kg(-1), 90% avoidance of orchard soil was observed. The worms showed preference for the soils in the order; uncontaminated field derived soil >OECD standard soil >Cu contaminated orchard soil. It was demonstrated that OECD standard soil was less favoured by worms than control soil derived from the test sites. While Cu was found to be the primary influence on worm avoidance in orchard soil, other factors, such as elevated soil Zn concentrations, could not be discounted. In a corresponding field study, it was shown that earthworms occurred at lower density in orchard soils with a history of Cu fungicide use. In one such orchard, soil Cu concentrations of up to 270 mg kg(-1) were determined and no earthworms were found, while nearby control sites and less contaminated sites within the orchard had up to 40.7 g m(-2) earthworm biomass. Considering the potential for Cu to accumulate in these soils and the subsequent impacts on soil biota, our results highlight the importance of limiting future application of Cu based fungicides.