Stealth liposomes and long circulating nanoparticles: critical issues in pharmacokinetics, opsonization and protein-binding properties

The application of bacteria-nanomaterial hybrids in antitumor therapy

Adverse effects and multidrug resistance remain significant obstacles in conventional cancer therapy. Nanomedicines, with their intrinsic properties such as nano-sized dimensions and tunable surface characteristics, have the potential to mitigate the side effects of traditional cancer treatments. While nanomaterials have been widely applied in cancer treatment, challenges such as low targeting efficiency and poor tumor penetration persist. Recent research has shown that anaerobic bacteria exhibit high selectivity for primary tumors and metastatic cancers, offering good safety and superior tumor penetration capabilities. This suggests that combining nanomaterials with bacteria could complement their respective limitations, opening vast potential applications in cancer therapy. The use of bacteria in combination with nanomaterials for anticancer treatments, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and photothermal/photodynamic therapy, has contributed to the rapid development of the field of bacterial oncology treatments. This review explores the mechanisms of bacterial tumor targeting and summarizes strategies for synthesizing bacterial-nanomaterial and their application in cancer therapy. The combination of bacterial-nanomaterial hybrids with modern therapeutic approaches represents a promising avenue for future cancer treatment research, with the potential to improve treatment outcomes for cancer patients.

Brain-Targeting Emodin Mitigates Ischemic Stroke via Inhibiting AQP4-Mediated Swelling and Neuroinflammation

Failure to achieve target-specific delivery to ischemic brain sites has hampered the clinical efficacy of newly developed therapies for ischemic stroke. Emodin, an active ingredient isolated from traditional Chinese medicine, has been indicated to alleviate ischemic stroke; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we aimed to achieve brain-targeted delivery of emodin to maximize its therapeutic efficacy and elucidate the mechanisms by which emodin alleviates ischemic stroke. A polyethylene glycol (PEG)/cyclic Arg-Gly-Asp (cRGD)-modified liposome was used to encapsulate emodin. TTC, HE, Nissl staining, and immunofluorescence staining were employed to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of brain-targeting emodin in MCAO and OGD/R models. Inflammatory cytokine levels were determined using ELISA. Immunoprecipitation, immunoblotting, and RT-qPCR were utilized for clarifying the changes in key downstream signaling. Lentivirus-mediated gene restoration was employed to verify the core effector of emodin for relieving ischemic stroke. Encapsulating emodin in a PEG/cRGD-modified liposome enhanced its accumulation in the infarct region and substantially raised its therapeutic efficacy. Furthermore, we demonstrated that AQP4, the most abundant water transporter subunit expressed in astrocytes, plays a crucial role in mediating the mechanisms by which emodin inhibits astrocyte swelling, neuroinflammatory blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown in vivo and in vitro, and brain edema in general. Our study unveiled the critical target of emodin responsible for alleviating ischemic stroke and a localizable drug delivery vehicle in the therapeutic strategy for ischemic stroke and other brain injuries.

Engineered Antibodies to Improve Efficacy against Neurodegenerative Disorders

Antibodies that can selectively remove rogue proteins in the brain are an obvious choice to treat neurodegenerative disorders (NDs), but after decades of efforts, only two antibodies to treat Alzheimer's disease are approved, dozens are in the testing phase, and one was withdrawn, and the other halted, likely due to efficacy issues. However, these outcomes should have been evident since these antibodies cannot enter the brain sufficiently due to the blood-brain barrier (BBB) protectant. However, all products can be rejuvenated by binding them with transferrin, preferably as smaller fragments. This model can be tested quickly and at a low cost and should be applied to bapineuzumab, solanezumab, crenezumab, gantenerumab, aducanumab, lecanemab, donanemab, cinpanemab, and gantenerumab, and their fragments. This paper demonstrates that conjugating with transferrin does not alter the binding to brain proteins such as amyloid-β (Aβ) and α-synuclein. We also present a selection of conjugate designs that will allow cleavage upon entering the brain to prevent their exocytosis while keeping the fragments connected to enable optimal binding to proteins. The identified products can be readily tested and returned to patients with the lowest regulatory cost and delays. These engineered antibodies can be manufactured by recombinant engineering, preferably by mRNA technology, as a more affordable solution to meet the dire need to treat neurodegenerative disorders effectively.

Stealth Nanocarriers in Cancer Therapy: a Comprehensive Review of Design, Functionality, and Clinical Applications

Nanotechnology has significantly transformed cancer treatment by introducing innovative methods for delivering drugs effectively. This literature review provided an in-depth analysis of the role of nanocarriers in cancer therapy, with a particular focus on the critical concept of the 'stealth effect.' The stealth effect refers to the ability of nanocarriers to evade the immune system and overcome physiological barriers. The review investigated the design and composition of various nanocarriers, such as liposomes, micelles, and inorganic nanoparticles, highlighting the importance of surface modifications and functionalization. The complex interaction between the immune system, opsonization, phagocytosis, and the protein corona was examined to understand the stealth effect. The review carefully evaluated strategies to enhance the stealth effect, including surface coating with polymers, biomimetic camouflage, and targeting ligands. The in vivo behavior of stealth nanocarriers and their impact on pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and toxicity were also systematically examined. Additionally, the review presented clinical applications, case studies of approved nanocarrier-based cancer therapies, and emerging formulations in clinical trials. Future directions and obstacles in the field, such as advancements in nanocarrier engineering, personalized nanomedicine, regulatory considerations, and ethical implications, were discussed in detail. The review concluded by summarizing key findings and emphasizing the transformative potential of stealth nanocarriers in revolutionizing cancer therapy. This review enhanced the comprehension of nanocarrier-based cancer therapies and their potential impact by providing insights into advanced studies, clinical applications, and regulatory considerations.

Benznidazole-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles for Oral Chemotherapeutic Treatment of Chagas Disease

Chagas disease (CD) is a worldwide public health problem. Benznidazole (BZ) is the drug used to treat it. However, in its commercial formulation, it has significant side effects and is less effective in the chronic phase of the infection. The development of particulate systems containing BZ is therefore being promoted. The objective of this investigation was to develop polymeric nanoparticles loaded with BZ and examine their trypanocidal impact in vitro. Two formulas (BNP1 and BNP2) were produced through double emulsification and freeze drying. Subsequent to physicochemical and morphological assessment, both formulations exhibited adequate yield, average particle diameter, and zeta potential for oral administration. Cell viability was assessed in H9C2 and RAW 264.7 cells in vitro, revealing no cytotoxicity in cardiomyocytes or detrimental effects in macrophages at specific concentrations. BNP1 and BNP2 enhanced the effect of BZ within 48 h using a treatment of 3.90 μg/mL. The formulations notably improved NO reduction, particularly BNP2. The findings imply that the compositions are suitable for preclinical research, underscoring their potential as substitutes for treating CD. This study aids the quest for new BZ formulations, which are essential in light of the disregard for the treatment of CD and the unfavorable effects associated with its commercial product.

Innovative Therapeutic Strategies in Alzheimer's Disease: A Synergistic Approach to Neurodegenerative Disorders

Alzheimer's disease (AD) remains a significant challenge in the field of neurodegenerative disorders, even nearly a century after its discovery, due to the elusive nature of its causes. The development of drugs that target multiple aspects of the disease has emerged as a promising strategy to address the complexities of AD and related conditions. The immune system's role, particularly in AD, has gained considerable interest, with nanobodies representing a new frontier in biomedical research. Advances in targeting antibodies against amyloid-β (Aβ) and using messenger RNA for genetic translation have revolutionized the production of antibodies and drug development, opening new possibilities for treatment. Despite these advancements, conventional therapies for AD, such as Cognex, Exelon, Razadyne, and Aricept, often have limited long-term effectiveness, underscoring the need for innovative solutions. This necessity has led to the incorporation advanced technologies like artificial intelligence and machine learning into the drug discovery process for neurodegenerative diseases. These technologies help identify therapeutic targets and optimize lead compounds, offering a more effective approach to addressing the challenges of AD and similar conditions.

Unravelling the in vivo dynamics of liposomes: Insights into biodistribution and cellular membrane interactions

Liposomes, as a colloidal drug delivery system dating back to the 1960s, remain a focal point of extensive research and stand as a highly efficient drug delivery method. The amalgamation of technological and biological advancements has propelled their evolution, elevating them to their current status. The key attributes of biodegradability and biocompatibility have been instrumental in driving substantial progress in liposome development. Demonstrating a remarkable ability to surmount barriers in drug absorption, enhance stability, and achieve targeted distribution within the body, liposomes have become pivotal in pharmaceutical research. In this comprehensive review, we delve into the intricate details of liposomal drug delivery systems, focusing specifically on their pharmacokinetics and cell membrane interactions via fusion, lipid exchange, endocytosis etc. Emphasizing the nuanced impact of various liposomal characteristics, we explore factors such as lipid composition, particle size, surface modifications, charge, dosage, and administration routes. By dissecting the multifaceted interactions between liposomes and biological barriers, including the reticuloendothelial system (RES), opsonization, enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) phenomenon, and Complement Activation-Related Pseudoallergy (CARPA) effect, we provide a deeper understanding of liposomal behaviour in vivo. Furthermore, this review addresses the intricate challenges associated with translating liposomal technology into practical applications, offering insights into overcoming these hurdles. Additionally, we provide a comprehensive analysis of the clinical adoption and patent landscape of liposomes across diverse biomedical domains, shedding light on their potential implications for future research and therapeutic developments.

BET inhibitor nanotherapy halts kidney damage and reduces chronic kidney disease progression after ischemia-reperfusion injury

Targeting epigenetic mechanisms has emerged as a potential therapeutic approach for the treatment of kidney diseases. Specifically, inhibiting the bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) domain proteins using the small molecule inhibitor JQ1 has shown promise in preclinical models of acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, its clinical translation faces challenges due to issues with poor pharmacokinetics and side effects. Here, we developed engineered liposomes loaded with JQ1 with the aim of enhancing kidney drug delivery and reducing the required minimum effective dose by leveraging cargo protection. These liposomes efficiently encapsulated JQ1 in both the membrane and core, demonstrating superior therapeutic efficacy compared to freely delivered JQ1 in a mouse model of kidney ischemia-reperfusion injury. JQ1-loaded liposomes (JQ1-NPs) effectively targeted the kidneys and only one administration, one-hour after injury, was enough to decrease the immune cell (neutrophils and monocytes) infiltration to the kidney-an early and pivotal step to prevent damage progression. By inhibiting BRD4, JQ1-NPs suppress the transcription of pro-inflammatory genes, such as cytokines (il-6) and chemokines (ccl2, ccl5). This success not only improved early the kidney function, as evidenced by decreased serum levels of BUN and creatinine in JQ1-NPs-treated mice, along with reduced tissue expression of the damage marker, NGAL, but also halted the production of extracellular matrix proteins (Fsp-1, Fn-1, α-SMA and Col1a1) and the fibrosis development. In summary, this work presents a promising nanotherapeutic strategy for AKI treatment and its progression and provides new insights into renal drug delivery.

Transcytosis-Driven Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disorders by mRNA-Expressed Antibody-Transferrin Conjugates

The recent setbacks in the withdrawal and approval delays of antibody treatments of neurodegenerative disorders (NDs), attributed to their poor entry across the blood-brain barrier (BBB), emphasize the need to bring novel approaches to enhance the entry across the BBB. One such approach is conjugating the antibodies that bind brain proteins responsible for NDs with the transferrin molecule. This glycoprotein transports iron into cells, connecting with the transferrin receptors (TfRs), piggybacking an antibody-transferrin complex that can subsequently release the antibody in the brain or stay connected while letting the antibody bind. This process increases the concentration of antibodies in the brain, enhancing therapeutic efficacy with targeted delivery and minimum systemic side effects. Currently, this approach is experimented with using drug-transferring conjugates assembled in vitro. Still, a more efficient and safer alternative is to express the conjugate using mRNA technology, as detailed in this paper. This approach will expedite safer discoveries that can be made available at a much lower cost than the recombinant process with in vitro conjugation. Most importantly, the recommendations made in this paper may save the antibodies against the NDs that seem to be failing despite their regulatory approvals.

Targeted chemotherapy via HER2-based chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) engineered T-cell membrane coated polymeric nanoparticles

Cell membrane-derived nanoparticles (NPs) have recently gained popularity due to their desirable features in drug delivery such as mimicking properties of native cells, impeding systemic clearance, and altering foreign body responses. Besides NP technology, adoptive immunotherapy has emerged due to its promise in cancer specificity and therapeutic efficacy. In this research, we developed a biomimetic drug carrier based on chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) transduced T-cell membranes. For that purpose, anti-HER2 CAR-T cells were engineered via lentiviral transduction of anti-HER2 CAR coding lentiviral plasmids. Anti-HER2 CAR-T cells were characterized by their specific activities against the HER2 antigen and used for cell membrane extraction. Anti-cancer drug Cisplatin-loaded poly (D, l-lactide-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NPs were coated with anti-human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-specific CAR engineered T-cell membranes. Anti-HER2 CAR-T-cell membrane-coated PLGA NPs (CAR-T-MNPs) were characterized and confirmed via fluorescent microscopy and flow cytometry. Membrane-coated NPs showed a sustained drug release over the course of 21 days in physiological conditions. Cisplatin-loaded CAR-T-MNPs also inhibited the growth of multiple HER2+ cancer cells in vitro. In addition, in vitro uptake studies revealed that CAR-T-MNPs showed an increased uptake by A549 cells. These results were also confirmed via in vivo biodistribution and therapeutic studies using a subcutaneous lung cancer model in nude mice. CAR-T-MNPs localized preferentially at tumor areas compared to those of other studied groups and consisted of a significant reduction in tumor growth in tumor-bearing mice. In Conclusion, the new CAR modified cell membrane-coated NP drug-delivery platform has demonstrated its efficacy both in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, CAR engineered membrane-coated NP system could be a promising cell-mimicking drug carrier that could improve therapeutic outcomes of lung cancer treatments.

Improved pharmacokinetics and enhanced efficacy of the vancomycin derivative FU002 using a liposomal nanocarrier

Antibiotic resistance still represents a global health concern which diminishes the pool of effective antibiotics. With the vancomycin derivative FU002, we recently reported a highly potent substance active against Gram-positive bacteria with the potential to overcome vancomycin resistance. However, the translation of its excellent antimicrobial activity into clinical efficiency could be hampered by its rapid elimination from the blood stream. To improve its pharmacokinetics, we encapsulated FU002 in PEGylated liposomes. For PEG-liposomal FU002, no relevant cytotoxicity on liver, kidney and red blood cells was observed. Studies in Wistar rats revealed a significantly prolonged blood circulation of the liposomal antibiotic. In microdilution assays it could be demonstrated that encapsulation does not diminish the antimicrobial activity against staphylococci and enterococci. Highlighting its great potency, liposomal FU002 exhibited a superior therapeutic efficacy when compared to the free form in a Galleria mellonella larvae infection model.

Light-Responsive and Dual-Targeting Liposomes: From Mechanisms to Targeting Strategies

In recent years, nanocarriers have played an ever-increasing role in clinical and biomedical applications owing to their unique physicochemical properties and surface functionalities. Lately, much effort has been directed towards the development of smart, stimuli-responsive nanocarriers that are capable of releasing their cargos in response to specific stimuli. These intelligent-responsive nanocarriers can be further surface-functionalized so as to achieve active tumor targeting in a sequential manner, which can be simply modulated by the stimuli. By applying this methodological approach, these intelligent-responsive nanocarriers can be directed to different target-specific organs, tissues, or cells and exhibit on-demand controlled drug release that may enhance therapeutic effectiveness and reduce systemic toxicity. Light, an external stimulus, is one of the most promising triggers for use in nanomedicine to stimulate on-demand drug release from nanocarriers. Light-triggered drug release can be achieved through light irradiation at different wavelengths, either in the UV, visible, or even NIR region, depending on the photophysical properties of the photo-responsive molecule embedded in the nanocarrier system, the structural characteristics, and the material composition of the nanocarrier system. In this review, we highlighted the emerging functional role of light in nanocarriers, with an emphasis on light-responsive liposomes and dual-targeted stimuli-responsive liposomes. Moreover, we provided the most up-to-date photo-triggered targeting strategies and mechanisms of light-triggered drug release from liposomes and NIR-responsive nanocarriers. Lastly, we addressed the current challenges, advances, and future perspectives for the deployment of light-responsive liposomes in targeted drug delivery and therapy.

Evasion of opsonization of macromolecules using novel surface-modification and biological-camouflage-mediated techniques for next-generation drug delivery

Opsonization plays a pivotal role in hindering controlled drug release from nanoformulations due to macrophage-mediated nanoparticle destruction. While first and second-generation delivery systems, such as lipoplexes (50-150 nm) and quantum dots, hold immense potential in revolutionizing disease treatment through spatiotemporal controlled drug delivery, their therapeutic efficacy is restricted by the selective labeling of nanoparticles for uptake by reticuloendothelial system and mononuclear phagocyte system via various molecular forces, such as electrostatic, hydrophobic, and van der Waals bonds. This review article presents novel insights into surface-modification techniques utilizing macromolecule-mediated approaches, including PEGylation, di-block copolymerization, and multi-block polymerization. These techniques induce stealth properties by generating steric forces to repel micromolecular-opsonins, such as fibrinogen, thereby mitigating opsonization effects. Moreover, advanced biological methods, like cellular hitchhiking and dysopsonic protein adsorption, are highlighted for their potential to induce biological camouflage by adsorbing onto the nanoparticulate surface, leading to immune escape. These significant findings pave the way for the development of long-circulating next-generation nanoplatforms capable of delivering superior therapy to patients. Future integration of artificial intelligence-based algorithms, integrated with nanoparticle properties such as shape, size, and surface chemistry, can aid in elucidating nanoparticulate-surface morphology and predicting interactions with the immune system, providing valuable insights into the probable path of opsonization.

Ginsenoside Rg3 endows liposomes with prolonged blood circulation and reduced accelerated blood clearance

PEGylated cholesterol-containing liposomes (Chol-PEG-lipo) have been widely used as a drug carrier for their good stealth property in blood circulation where cholesterol maintains the stability of the liposomal lipid bilayer and PEGylation endows liposomes with long circulation capability. However, cholesterol-related disadvantages and the accelerated blood clearance (ABC) phenomenon caused by PEGylation greatly limit the application of conventional stealth liposomes in clinic. Herein, ginsenoside Rg3 was selected to substitute cholesterol and PEG for liposomes preparation (Rg3-lipo). Rg3 was proved with similar liposomal membrane regulation ability to cholesterol and comparable long circulation effect to PEG. In addition, repeated administrations of Chol-PEG-lipo and Rg3-lipo were performed. The circulation time of the second dose of Chol-PEG-lipo was substantially reduced accompanied by a greatly increased accumulation in the liver due to the induction of anti-PEG IgM and the subsequent activated complement system. In contrast, no significantly increased level of relative plasma cells, IgM secretion and the complement activation in blood circulation was observed after the second injection of Rg3-lipo. As a result, Rg3-lipo showed great stealth property without ABC phenomenon. Therefore, developing liposomes utilizing Rg3 instead of PEG and cholesterol presents a promising strategy to prolong the blood circulation time of liposomes without triggering the ABC phenomenon and activated immune responses.

Responsive nanosystems for targeted therapy of ulcerative colitis: Current practices and future perspectives

The pharmacological approach to treating gastrointestinal diseases is suffering from various challenges. Among such gastrointestinal diseases, ulcerative colitis manifests inflammation at the colon site specifically. Patients suffering from ulcerative colitis notably exhibit thin mucus layers that offer increased permeability for the attacking pathogens. In the majority of ulcerative colitis patients, the conventional treatment options fail in controlling the symptoms of the disease leading to distressing effects on the quality of life. Such a scenario is due to the failure of conventional therapies to target the loaded moiety into specific diseased sites in the colon. Targeted carriers are needed to address this issue and enhance the drug effects. Conventional nanocarriers are mostly readily cleared and have nonspecific targeting. To accumulate the desired concentration of the therapeutic candidates at the inflamed area of the colon, smart nanomaterials with responsive nature have been explored recently that include pH responsive, reactive oxygen species responsive (ROS), enzyme responsive and thermo - responsive smart nanocarrier systems. The formulation of such responsive smart nanocarriers from nanotechnology scaffolds has resulted in the selective release of therapeutic drugs, avoiding systemic absorption and limiting the undesired delivery of targeting drugs into healthy tissues. Recent advancements in the field of responsive nanocarrier systems have resulted in the fabrication of multi-responsive systems i.e. dual responsive nanocarriers and derivitization that has increased the biological tissues and smart nanocarrier's interaction. In addition, it has also led to efficient targeting and significant cellular uptake of the therapeutic moieties. Herein, we have highlighted the latest status of the responsive nanocarrier drug delivery system, its applications for on-demand delivery of drug candidates for ulcerative colitis, and the prospects are underpinned.

Anti-Cancer Properties of Flaxseed Proteome

Flaxseed has been recognized as a valuable source of nutrients and bioactive compounds, including proteins that possess various health benefits. In recent years, studies have shown that flaxseed proteins, including albumins, globulins, glutelin, and prolamins, possess anti-cancer properties. These properties are attributed to their ability to inhibit cancer cell proliferation, induce apoptosis, and interfere with cancer cell signaling pathways, ultimately leading to the inhibition of metastasis. Moreover, flaxseed proteins have been reported to modulate cancer cell mechanobiology, leading to changes in cell behavior and reduced cancer cell migration and invasion. This review provides an overview of the anti-cancer properties of flaxseed proteins, with a focus on their potential use in cancer treatment. Additionally, it highlights the need for further research to fully establish the potential of flaxseed proteins in cancer therapy.

Drug-drug conjugates self-assembled nanomedicines triggered photo-/immuno- therapy for synergistic cancer treatments

Although immunotherapies have made progress in cancer treatment, their clinical response rates vary widely and are typically low due to sparse immune cell infiltration (immune "cold") and suppressive tumor immune microenvironment (TIME). A simple yet effective approach that integrates a variety of immune-stimulating and TIME-modulating functions could potentially address this clinical challenge. Herein, we conjugate two small molecules, including a photosensitizer (pyropheophorbide-a, PA) and a Toll-like receptor 7/8 agonist (resiquimod, R848), into prodrug (PA-R848) that self-assembles into PA-R848 esterase responsive nanoparticles (PARE NPs) with 100% drug composition and synergistic photo-/immune- therapeutic effects. In PARE NPs, PA exhibits strong phototherapeutic effects which ablate the primary tumor directly and elicits immunogenic cell death (ICD) to promote the immune response. R848 effectively polarizes the M2-type tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) to M1-type TAM, consequently reversing the "cold" and suppressive TIME when working together with phototherapy. The PARE NPs can efficiently pare down the tumor development by two synergisms, including i) synergistic immunotherapy between ICD and TAM polarization; ii) and the antitumor effects between phototherapy and immunotherapy. On a head-neck squamous cell carcinoma mouse model, PARE NPs combined with PD-1 antibody eliminate primary tumors, and significantly inhibit the progress of distant tumors thanks to the robust antitumor immunity enhanced by the PARE NPs.

Nano-mediated strategy for targeting and treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)

Lung cancer is the most common type of cancer, with over 2.1 million cases diagnosed annually worldwide. It has a high incidence and mortality rate, leading to extensive research into various treatment options, including the use of nanomaterial-based carriers for drug delivery. With regard to cancer treatment, the distinct biological and physico-chemical features of nano-structures have acquired considerable impetus as drug delivery system (DDS) for delivering medication combinations or combining diagnostics and targeted therapy. This review focuses on the use of nanomedicine-based drug delivery systems in the treatment of lung cancer, including the use of lipid, polymer, and carbon-based nanomaterials for traditional therapies such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and phototherapy. The review also discusses the potential of stimuli-responsive nanomaterials for drug delivery in lung cancer, and the limitations and opportunities for improving the design of nano-based materials for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

Activity of Bacteriophage D29 Loaded on Nanoliposomes against Macrophages Infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis

The search for new antimicrobial agents is a continuous struggle, mainly because more and more cases of resistant strains are being reported. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) is the main microorganism responsible for millions of deaths worldwide. The development of new antimicrobial agents is generally aimed at finding strong interactions with one or more bacterial receptors. It has been proven that bacteriophages have the ability to adhere to specific and selective regions. However, their transport and administration must be carefully evaluated as an excess could prevent a positive response and the bacteriophages may be eliminated during their journey. With this in mind, the mycobacteriophage D29 was encapsulated in nanoliposomes, which made it possible to determine its antimicrobial activity during transport and its stability in the treatment of active and latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The antimicrobial activity, the cytotoxicity in macrophages and fibroblasts, as well as their infection and time-kill were evaluated. Phage nanoencapsulation showed efficient cell internalization to induce MTB clearance with values greater than 90%. Therefore, it was shown that nanotechnology is capable of assisting in the activity of degradation-sensitive compounds to achieve better therapy and evade the immune response against phages during treatment.

Advances in dendritic cell targeting nano-delivery systems for induction of immune tolerance

Dendritic cells (DCs) are the major specialized antigen-presenting cells (APCs), play a key role in initiating the body's immune response, maintain the balance of immunity. DCs can also induce immune tolerance by rendering effector T cells absent and anergy, and promoting the expansion of regulatory T cells. Induction of tolerogenic DCs has been proved to be a promising strategy for the treatment of autoimmune diseases, organ transplantation, and allergic diseases by various laboratory researches and clinical trials. The development of nano-delivery systems has led to advances in situ modulation of the tolerance phenotype of DCs. By changing the material composition, particle size, zeta-potential, and surface modification of nanoparticles, nanoparticles can be used for the therapeutic payloads targeted delivery to DCs, endowing them with great potential in the induction of immune tolerance. This paper reviews how nano-delivery systems can be modulated for targeted delivery to DCs and induce immune tolerance and reviews their potential in the treatment of autoimmune diseases, organ transplantation, and allergic diseases.

Peptides Targeting HER2-Positive Breast Cancer Cells and Applications in Tumor Imaging and Delivery of Chemotherapeutics

Breast cancer represents the most common cancer type and one of the major leading causes of death in the female worldwide population. Overexpression of HER2, a transmembrane glycoprotein related to the epidermal growth factor receptor, results in a biologically and clinically aggressive breast cancer subtype. It is also the primary driver for tumor detection and progression and, in addition to being an important prognostic factor in women diagnosed with breast cancer, HER2 is a widely known therapeutic target for drug development. The aim of this review is to provide an updated overview of the main approaches for the diagnosis and treatment of HER2-positive breast cancer proposed in the literature over the past decade. We focused on the different targeting strategies involving antibodies and peptides that have been explored with their relative outcomes and current limitations that need to be improved. The review also encompasses a discussion on targeted peptides acting as probes for molecular imaging. By using different types of HER2-targeting strategies, nanotechnology promises to overcome some of the current clinical challenges by developing novel HER2-guided nanosystems suitable as powerful tools in breast cancer imaging, targeting, and therapy.

Multicompartment colloid systems with lipid and polymer membranes for biomedical applications

Multicompartment structures have the potential for biomedical applications because they can act as multifunctional systems and provide simultaneous delivery of drugs and diagnostics agents of different types. Moreover, some of them mimic biological cells to some extent with organelles as separate sub-compartments. This article analyses multicompartment colloidal structures with smaller sub-units covered with lipid or polymer membranes that provide additional protection for the encapsulated substances. Vesosomes with small vesicles encapsulated in the inner pools of larger liposomes are the most studied systems to date. Dendrimer molecules are enclosed by a lipid bilayer shell in dendrosomes. Capsosomes, polymersomes-in-polymer capsules, and cubosomes-in-polymer capsules are composed of sub-compartments encapsulated within closed multilayer polymer membranes. Janus or Cerberus emulsions contain droplets composed of two or three phases: immiscible oils in O/W emulsions and aqueous polymer or salt solutions that are separated into two or three phases and form connected droplets in W/O emulsions. In more cases, the external surface of engulfed droplets in Janus or Cerberus emulsions is covered with a lipid or polymer monolayer. eLiposomes with emulsion droplets encapsulated into a bilayer shell have been given little attention so far, but they have very great prospects. In addition to nanoemulsion droplets, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers and inorganic nanoparticles can be loaded into eLiposomes. Molecular engineering of the external membrane allows the creation of ligand-targeted and stimuli-responsive multifunctional systems. As a result, the efficacy of drug delivery can be significantly enhanced.

In silico prediction of protein binding affinities onto core-shell PEGylated noble metal nanoparticles for rational design of drug nanocarriers

Polymer-coated nanoparticles (NP) are commonly used as drug carriers or theranostic agents. Their uptake rates are modulated by the interactions with essential serum proteins such as transferrin and albumin. Understanding the control parameters of these interactions is crucial for improving the efficiency of these nanoscale devices. In this work, we perform a multiscale computational study of protein adsorption onto polyethylene glycol (PEG) coated gold and silver NPs, producing protein-NP adsorption rankings as a function of PEG grafting density, which are validated against previously reported experimental protein-NP binding constants. Furthermore, the applied nano-docking method provides information on the preferred orientation of proteins immobilised on the surface of NPs. We propose a method of construction of model core-shell NPs in silico. The presented protocol can provide molecular level insights for the experimental development of biosensors, nanocarriers, or other nanoplatforms where information on the preferred orientation of protein at the bio-nano interface is crucial, and enables fast in silico prescreening of assays of various nanocarriers, i.e., combinations of proteins, NPs, and coatings.

The role of protein corona on nanodrugs for organ-targeting and its prospects of application

Nowadays, nanodrugs become a hotspot in the high-end medical field. They have the ability to deliver drugs to reach their destination more effectively due to their unique properties and flexible functionalization. However, the fate of nanodrugs in vivo is not the same as those presented in vitro, which indeed influenced their therapeutic efficacy in vivo. When entering the biological organism, nanodrugs will first come into contact with biological fluids and then be covered by some biomacromolecules, especially proteins. The proteins adsorbed on the surface of nanodrugs are known as protein corona (PC), which causes the loss of prospective organ-targeting abilities. Fortunately, the reasonable utilization of PC may determine the organ-targeting efficiency of systemically administered nanodrugs based on the diverse expression of receptors on cells in different organs. In addition, the nanodrugs for local administration targeting diverse lesion sites will also form unique PC, which plays an important role in the therapeutic effect of nanodrugs. This article introduced the formation of PC on the surface of nanodrugs and summarized the recent studies about the roles of diversified proteins adsorbed on nanodrugs and relevant protein for organ-targeting receptor through different administration pathways, which may deepen our understanding of the role that PC played on organ-targeting and improve the therapeutic efficacy of nanodrugs to promote their clinical translation.

Preparation of Selenium-Based Drug-Modified Polymeric Ligand-Functionalised Fe3O4 Nanoparticles as Multimodal Drug Carrier and Magnetic Hyperthermia Inductor

In recent years, much effort has been invested into developing multifunctional drug delivery systems to overcome the drawbacks of conventional carriers. Magnetic nanoparticles are not generally used as carriers but can be functionalised with several different biomolecules and their size can be tailored to present a hyperthermia response, allowing for the design of multifunctional systems which can be active in therapies. In this work, we have designed a drug carrier nanosystem based on Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles with large heating power and 4-amino-2-pentylselenoquinazoline as an attached drug that exhibits oxidative properties and high selectivity against a variety of cancer malignant cells. For this propose, two samples composed of homogeneous Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (NPs) with different sizes, shapes, and magnetic properties have been synthesised and characterised. The surface modification of the prepared Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles has been developed using copolymers composed of poly(ethylene-alt-maleic anhydride), dodecylamine, polyethylene glycol and the drug 4-amino-2-pentylselenoquinazoline. The obtained nanosystems were properly characterised. Their in vitro efficacy in colon cancer cells and as magnetic hyperthermia inductors was analysed, thereby leaving the door open for their potential application as multimodal agents.

Design, development, and in-vitro/in-vivo evaluation of Docetaxel-loaded PEGylated Solid Lipid Nanoparticles in Prostate Cancer Therapy

Docetaxel (DOC) is a potent anticancer molecule widely used to treat various cancers. However, its therapeutic efficacy as a potential anticancer agent has been limited owing to poor aqueous solubility, short circulation time, rapid reticuloendothelial system uptake, and high renal clearance, which consecutively showed poor bioavailability. In the present investigation, we developed polyethylene glycol (PEG) decorated solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) using the solvent diffusion method to increase the biopharmaceutical properties of DOC. PEG monostearate (SA-PEG₂₀₀₀) was initially synthesized and characterized using various analytical techniques. Afterwards, DOC-loaded SLN was synthesized with and without SA-PEG₂₀₀₀and systematically characterized for in-vitro and in-vivo properties. Spherical-shaped SA-PEG₂₀₀₀-DOC SLN showed hydrodynamic diameter and zeta potential of 177 nm and -13 mV, respectively. During the in-vitro release study DOC-loaded SLN showed a controlledrelease of approximately 54.35 % ±5.46 within 12 h with Higuchi release kinetics in the tumor microenvironment (pH 5.5).In an in-vitro cytotoxicity study,SA-PEG₂₀₀₀-DOC SLN showedsignificantlylower IC₅₀values(p < 0.001)compared to DOC-SLN and DOC aloneagainst prostate cancer cell lines (PC-3). Similarly, an in-vitro cellular uptake study showed a significant increase in intracellular DOC concentration for SA-PEG₂₀₀₀-DOC SLN. Additionally, inin-vivostudies,PEGylated SLN of DOC showed around 2- and 15-fold increase in the maximum concentration of drug (Cmax) and area under the curve (AUC), respectively, as compared to plain DOC solution due to the uniquehydrophilicity and hydrophobicity balance and electrical neutrality of specially designed PEG architect. The biological half-life (t_1/2) and mean residence time (MRT) was found to increase from 8.55 and 11.43 to 34.96 and 47.68 h, respectively, with SA-PEG₂₀₀₀-DOC SLN. Moreover, the bio-distribution study indicates high DOC concentration in the plasma which signifies the more pronounced blood residence time of SA-PEG₂₀₀₀-DOC SLN. In a nutshell, SA-PEG₂₀₀₀-DOC SLNwasfound to bea promising and efficient drug delivery platform for the management of Metastatic Prostate cancer.

The Role of Integrins for Mediating Nanodrugs to Improve Performance in Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment

Integrins are heterodimeric transmembrane proteins that mediate adhesive connections between cells and their surroundings, including surrounding cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM). They modulate tissue mechanics and regulate intracellular signaling, including cell generation, survival, proliferation, and differentiation, and the up-regulation of integrins in tumor cells has been confirmed to be associated with tumor development, invasion, angiogenesis, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance. Thus, integrins are expected to be an effective target to improve the efficacy of tumor therapy. A variety of integrin-targeting nanodrugs have been developed to improve the distribution and penetration of drugs in tumors, thereby, improving the efficiency of clinical tumor diagnosis and treatment. Herein, we focus on these innovative drug delivery systems and reveal the improved efficacy of integrin-targeting methods in tumor therapy, hoping to provide prospective guidance for the diagnosis and treatment of integrin-targeting tumors.

Liposomes in Cancer Therapy: How Did We Start and Where Are We Now

Since their first discovery in the 1960s by Alec Bangham, liposomes have been shown to be effective drug delivery systems for treating various cancers. Several liposome-based formulations received approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Medicines Agency (EMA), with many others in clinical trials. Liposomes have several advantages, including improved pharmacokinetic properties of the encapsulated drug, reduced systemic toxicity, extended circulation time, and targeted disposition in tumor sites due to the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) mechanism. However, it is worth noting that despite their efficacy in treating various cancers, liposomes still have some potential toxicity and lack specific targeting and disposition. This explains, in part, why their translation into the clinic has progressed only incrementally, which poses the need for more research to focus on addressing such translational limitations. This review summarizes the main properties of liposomes, their current status in cancer therapy, and their limitations and challenges to achieving maximal therapeutic efficacy.

Nanoparticles Bind to Endothelial Cells in Injured Blood Vessels via a Transient Protein Corona

Nanoparticles travel through blood vessels to reach disease sites, but the local environment they encounter may affect their surface chemistry and cellular interactions. Here, we found that as nanoparticles transit through injured blood vessels they may interact with a highly localized concentration of platelet factor 4 proteins released from activated platelets. The platelet factor 4 binds to the nanoparticle surface and interacts with heparan sulfate proteoglycans on endothelial cells, and induces uptake. Understanding nanoparticle interactions with blood proteins and endothelial cells during circulation is critical to optimizing their design for diseased tissue targeting and delivery.

Cerasome Versus Liposome: A Comparative Pharmacokinetic Analysis Following Intravenous Administration into Rats

Background

Cerasomes, due to their external siloxane network, demonstrate markedly higher physicochemical stability and, therefore, easier handling and storage than liposomes.

Objectives

The main objective of this study was to compare the pharmacokinetics (PK) of cerasome and liposome following intravenous administration. The PK of PEGylated and non-PEGylated cerasomes was also compared to see whether the presence of a hydrophilic siloxane network on the surface of cerasomes can play the role of polyethylene glycol (PEG) in increasing the blood circulation of these vesicles.

Methods

Silver sulfide (Ag2S) quantum dots (Qds)-loaded PEGylated and non-PEGylated cerasomes and PEGylated liposomes were fabricated and thoroughly characterized in terms of particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and in vitro stability. For pharmacokinetic evaluation, the free Qds and the selected formulations were intravenously injected into rats, and blood samples were collected for up to 72 hours. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated by the non-compartmental method.

Results

Both cerasomal and liposomal carriers significantly improved the PK of Qds. For example, the elimination half-life (t1/2) and the area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time 0 to time infinity (AUC0-∞) for the free Qds were 4.39 h and 8.01 µg/mL*h and for cerasomal and liposomal formulations were 28.82 versus 26.95 h and 73.25 versus 62.02 µg/mL*h, respectively. However, compared to each other, the plasma concentration-time profiles of PEGylated cerasomes and liposomes displayed similar patterns, and the statistical comparison of their pharmacokinetic parameters did not show any significant difference between the two types of carriers. For PEGylated cerasomes, t1/2 and AUC0-∞ values were respectively 1.6 and 3.3 times greater than the classic cerasome, indicating that despite the presence of a hydrophilic siloxane network, the incorporation of PEG is necessary to reduce the clearance of cerasomes.

Conclusions

The comparable PK of PEGylated cerasomes and liposomes, along with the higher physicochemical stability of cerasomes, can be considered an important advantage for the clinical application of cerasomes. Additionally, the easy surface functionalizing ability of cerasomes confers a dual advantage over liposomes. The study findings also showed that the presence of a hydrophilic siloxane network on the surface of cerasomes alone is not enough to make them circulate long.

A Comprehensive Review on Targeted Cancer Therapy: New Face of Treatment Approach

Cancer is one of life's most difficult difficulties and a severe health risk everywhere. Except for haematological malignancies, it is characterized by unchecked cell growth and a lack of cell death, which results in an aberrant tissue mass or tumour. Vascularization promotes tumor growth, which eventually aids metastasis and migration to other parts of the body, ultimately resulting in death. The genetic material of the cells is harmed or mutated by environmental or inherited influences, which results in cancer. Presently, anti-neoplastic medications (chemotherapy, hormone, and biological therapies) are the treatment of choice for metastatic cancers, whilst surgery and radiotherapy are the mainstays for local and non-metastatic tumors. Regrettably, chemotherapy disturbs healthy cells with rapid proliferation, such as those in the gastrointestinal tract and hair follicles, leading to the typical side effects of chemotherapy. Finding new, efficient, targeted therapies based on modifications in the molecular biology of tumor cells is essential because current chemotherapeutic medications are harmful and can cause the development of multidrug resistance. These new targeted therapies, which are gaining popularity as demonstrated by the FDA-approved targeted cancer drugs in recent years, enter molecules directly into tumor cells, diminishing the adverse reactions. A form of cancer treatment known as targeted therapy goes after the proteins that regulate how cancer cells proliferate, divide, and disseminate. Most patients with specific cancers, such as chronic myelogenous leukemia (commonly known as CML), will have a target for a particular medicine, allowing them to be treated with that drug. Nonetheless, the tumor must typically be examined to determine whether it includes drug targets.

In vivo assessment of triazine lipid nanoparticles as transfection agents for plasmid DNA

Non-viral vectors for in vivo delivery of plasmid DNA rely on optimized formulations to achieve robust transgene expression. Several cationic lipids have been developed to deliver nucleic acids, but most recent literature has focused on mRNA due to its increased expression profile and excluded plasmid DNA, which may have the advantage of being less immunogenic. In this study, we describe the in vivo evaluation of cationic triazine based lipids, previously prepared by our group. We identify one lipid with limited in vivo toxicity for studies to optimize the lipid formulations, which include an evaluation of the influence of PEG and helper lipids on transgene expression. We then demonstrate that lipoplexes, but not lipid nanoparticles, formed from triazine lipids achieve similar transgene expression levels as AAV vectors and offer enhanced expression as compared to a commercially available cationic lipid, DOTAP. Importantly, the lipid nanoparticles and lipoplexes induce minimal antibody profiles toward the expressed protein, while serving as a platform to induce robust antibody responses when directly delivering the protein. Collectively, these data demonstrate the potential for triazine based lipids as non-viral vectors for gene delivery, and highlights the need to optimize each formulation based on the exact contents to achieve enhanced transgene expression with plasmid DNA constructs.

Role of Surface Charge of Nanoscale Ultrasound Contrast Agents in Complement Activation and Phagocytosis

Purpose

To prepare nanoscale ultrasound contrast agents (Nano-UCAs) and examine the role of their surface charge in complement activation and phagocytosis.

Materials and Methods

We analyzed serum proteins present in the corona formed on Nano-UCAs and evaluated two important protein markers of complement activation (C3 and SC5b-9). The effect of surface charge on phagocytosis was further assessed using THP-1 macrophages.

Results

When Nano-UCAs were incubated with human serum, they were opsonized by various blood proteins, especially C3. Highly charged Nano-UCAs, whether positive or negative, were favorably opsonized by complement proteins and phagocytized by macrophages.

Conclusion

Charged Nano-UCAs show a higher tendency to activated complement system, and are efficiently engulfed by macrophages. The present results provide meaningful insights into the role of the surface charge of nanoparticles in the activation of the innate immune system, which is important not only for the design of targeted Nano-UCAs, but also for the effectiveness and safety of other theranostic agents.

Synergistically Enhancing the Therapeutic Effect on Cancer, via Asymmetric Bioinspired Materials

The undesirable side effects of conventional chemotherapy are one of the major problems associated with cancer treatment. Recently, with the development of novel nanomaterials, tumor-targeted therapies have been invented in order to achieve more specific cancer treatment with reduced unfavorable side effects of chemotherapic agents on human cells. However, the clinical application of nanomedicines has some shortages, such as the reduced ability to cross biological barriers and undesirable side effects in normal cells. In this order, bioinspired materials are developed to minimize the related side effects due to their excellent biocompatibility and higher accumulation therapies. As bioinspired and biomimetic materials are mainly composed of a nanometric functional agent and a biologic component, they can possess both the physicochemical properties of nanomaterials and the advantages of biologic agents, such as prolonged circulation time, enhanced biocompatibility, immune modulation, and specific targeting for cancerous cells. Among the nanomaterials, asymmetric nanomaterials have gained attention as they provide a larger surface area with more active functional sites compared to symmetric nanomaterials. Additionally, the asymmetric nanomaterials are able to function as two or more distinct components due to their asymmetric structure. The mentioned properties result in unique physiochemical properties of asymmetric nanomaterials, which makes them desirable materials for anti-cancer drug delivery systems or cancer bio-imaging systems. In this review, we discuss the use of bioinspired and biomimetic materials in the treatment of cancer, with a special focus on asymmetric nanoparticle anti-cancer agents.

Stimuli-responsive crosslinked nanomedicine for cancer treatment

Nanomedicines are attractive paradigms to deliver drugs, contrast agents, immunomodulators, and gene editors for cancer therapy and diagnosis. However, the currently developed nanomedicine suffers from poor serum stability, premature drug release, and lack of responsiveness. Crosslinking strategy can be utilized to overcome these shortcomings by employing stimuli-responsive chemical bonds to tightly hold the nanostructure and releasing the payloads spatiotemporally in a highly controlled manner. In this Review, we summarize the recently ingenious design of the stimuli-responsive crosslinked nanomedicines (SCN) in the field of cancer treatment and their advances in circumventing the drawbacks of the conventional drug delivery system. We classify the SCNs into three categories based on the crosslinking strategies, including built-in, on-surface, and inter-particle crosslinking nanomedicines. Thanks to the stimuli-responsive crosslinkages, SCNs are capable of keeping robust stability during systemic circulation. They also respond to the particular tumoral conditions to experience a series of dynamic changes, such as the changes in size, surface charge, targeting moieties, integrity, and imaging signals. These characteristics allow them to efficiently overcome different biological barriers and substantially improve the drug delivery efficiency, tumor-targeting ability, and imaging sensitivities. With the examples discussed, we envision that our perspectives can inspire more attempts to engineer intelligent nanomedicine to achieve effective cancer therapy and diagnosis.

Nanoparticle-Based Delivery Systems for Vaccines

Vaccination is still the most cost-effective way to combat infectious illnesses. Conventional vaccinations may have low immunogenicity and, in most situations, only provide partial protection. A new class of nanoparticle-based vaccinations has shown considerable promise in addressing the majority of the shortcomings of traditional and subunit vaccines. This is due to recent breakthroughs in chemical and biological engineering, which allow for the exact regulation of nanoparticle size, shape, functionality, and surface characteristics, resulting in improved antigen presentation and robust immunogenicity. A blend of physicochemical, immunological, and toxicological experiments can be used to accurately characterize nanovaccines. This narrative review will provide an overview of the current scenario of the nanovaccine.

The Therapeutic Potential of Chemo/Thermotherapy with Magnetoliposomes for Cancer Treatment

Cancer represents a very grave and quickly growing public health problem worldwide. Despite the breakthroughs in treatment and early detection of the disease, an increase is projected in the incidence rate and mortality during the next 30 years. Thus, it is important to develop new treatment strategies and diagnostic tools. One alternative is magnetic hyperthermia, a therapeutic approach that has shown promising results, both as monotherapy and in combination with chemo- and radiotherapy. However, there are still certain limitations and questions with respect to the safety of the systemic administration of magnetic nanoparticles. To deal with these issues, magnetoliposomes were conceived as a new generation of liposomes that incorporate superparamagnetic nanoparticles and oncological pharmaceuticals within their structure. They have the advantage of targeted and selective drug delivery to the diseased organs and tissues. Some of them can avoid the immune response of the host. When exposed to a magnetic field of alternating current, magnetoliposomes produce hyperthermia, which acts synergistically with the released drug. The aim of the present review is to describe the most recent advances in the use of magnetoliposomes and point out what research remains to be done for their application to chemo-thermal therapy in cancer patients.

Microfluidic formulation of lipid/polymer hybrid nanoparticles for plasmid DNA (pDNA) delivery

Lipid/polymer hybrid nanoparticles loaded with red fluorescent protein (RFP) encoded plasmid DNA (pDNA) was formulated using poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), cationic lipid DC-cholesterol and surfactant mPEG₂₀₀₀- DSPE. A lipid/ polymer ratio of 1: 10 at 1 mg/mL surfactant concentration was found to be optimal for producing nanoparticles with diameters of 100-120 nm that remained stable upon ultracentrifugation. The production of lipid/ polymer hybrid nanoparticles was investigated using microfluidics with a toroidal mixer design. Our results showed that the flow parameters significantly influenced the physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles and loading of pDNA was only achieved at flow rate ratio (FRR) of 3: 1. The pDNA associated with nanoparticles was demonstrated to be structurally intact using gel electrophoresis, and the encapsulation efficiency (EE) was measured to be ∼65%. The prepared hybrid nanoparticles resulted in 20% of transfection efficacy in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293T). This study demonstrated the potential of microfluidics in the development of hybrid nanoparticles for pDNA delivery, thus facilitating the clinical translation of DNA therapeutics.

Aggregation-Induced Emission (AIE) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Characteristics for Targeted and Image-Guided siRNA Therapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common form of primary liver cancer and remains a global health challenge. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) is a promising therapeutic modality that blocks multiple disease-causing genes without impairing cell structures. However, siRNA therapeutics still have off-target proportion and lack effective quantitative analysis method in vivo. Thus, a novel theragnostic nanoparticle with dual-mode imaging is synthesized for targeted and image-guided siRNA therapy of HCC. Survivin siRNA is carried by Poly-ethylenimine (PEI) and interacted with T7-AIE/Gd NPs, which are self-assembled of DSPE-PEG-DTPA(Gd), DSPE-PEG-Mal, DSPE-PEG-PEI, and TPE. The resulting theragnostic nanoparticles exhibit lower toxicity and high therapeutic effect, and excellent T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and aggregation-induced emission (AIE) imaging performance. Moreover, in vivo MRI and AIE imaging indicate that this kind of theragnostic nanoparticles rapidly accumulates in the tumor due to active targeting and enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effects. Sur@T7-AIE-Gd suppresses HCC tumor growth by inducing autophagy and destabilizes DNA integrity in tumor cells. The results suggest that T7-AIE-Gd nanoparticles carrying Survivin siRNA with dual-mode imaging characteristics are promising for targeted and image-guided siRNA therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma.

PEG Spacer Length Substantially Affects Antibody-Based Nanocarrier Targeting of Dendritic Cell Subsets

Successful cell targeting depends on the controlled positioning of cell-type-specific antibodies on the nanocarrier’s (NC) surface. Uncontrolled antibody immobilization results in unintended cell uptake due to Fc-mediated cell interaction. Consequently, precise immobilization of the Fc region towards the nanocarrier surface is needed with the Fab regions staying freely accessible for antigen binding. Moreover, the antibody needs to be a certain distance from the nanocarrier surface, influencing the targeting performance after formation of the biomolecular corona. This can be achieved by using PEG linker molecules. Here we demonstrate cell type-specific targeting for dendritic cells (DC) as cellular key regulators of immune responses. However, to date, dendritic cell targeting experiments using different linker lengths still need to be conducted. Consequently, we focused on the surface modification of nanocarriers with different molecular weight PEG linkers (0.65, 2, and 5 kDa), and their ability to reduce undesired cell uptake, while achieving efficient DC targeting via covalently immobilized antibodies (stealth targeting). Our findings demonstrate that the PEG linker length significantly affects active dendritic cell targeting from cell lines (DC2.4) to primary cells (BMDCs, splenocytic conventional DCs type 1 (cDC1)). While antibody-functionalized nanocarriers with a shorter PEG length (0.65 kDa) showed the best targeting in DC2.4, a longer PEG length (5 kDa) was required to specifically accumulate in BMDCs and splenocytic cDC1. Our study highlights that these crucial aspects must be considered when targeting dendritic cell subsets, which are of great importance in the fields of cancer immunotherapy and vaccine development.

Nanoparticles-based delivery system and its potentials in treating central nervous system disorders

Central nervous system (CNS) disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), have become severe health concern worldwide. The treatment of the CNS diseases is of great challenges due largely to the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). On the one hand, BBB protects brain from the harmful exogenous molecules via inhibiting their entry into the brain. On the other hand, it also hampers the transport of therapeutic drugs into the brain, resulting in the difficulties in treating the CNS diseases. In the past decades, nanoparticles-based drug delivery systems have shown great potentials in overcoming the BBB owing to their unique physicochemical properties, such as small size and specific morphology. In addition, functionalization of nanomaterials confers these nanocarriers controlled drug release features and targeting capacities. These properties make nanocarriers the potent delivery systems for treating the CNS disorders. Herein, we summarize the recent progress in nanoparticles-based systems for the CNS delivery, including the conventional and innovative systems. The prerequisites, drawbacks and challenges of nanocarriers (such as protein corona formation) in the CNS delivery are also discussed.

Stealth oxime ether lipid vesicles promote delivery of functional DsiRNA in human lung cancer A549 tumor bearing mouse xenografts

We previously reported that hydroxylated oxime ether lipids (OELs) efficiently deliver functional Dicer substrate siRNAs (DsiRNAs) in cells. Here, we explored in vivo utility of these OELs, using OEL4 as a prototype and report that surface modification of the OEL4 formulations was essential for their in vivo applications. These surface-modified OEL4 formulations were developed by inclusion of various PEGylated lipids. The vesicle stability and gene knock-down were dependent on the PEG chain length. OEL4 containing DSPE-PEG350 and DSPE-PEG1000 (surprisingly not DSPE2000) promoted gene silencing in cells. In vivo studies demonstrated that OEL4 vesicles formulated using 3 mol% DSPE-PEG350 accumulate in human lung cancer (A549-luc2) xenografts in mice and exhibit a significant increase in tumor to liver ratios. These vesicles also showed a statistically significant reduction of luciferase signal in tumors compared to untreated mice. Taken together, the scalable OEL4:DSPE-PEG350 formulation serves as a novel candidate for delivery of RNAi therapeutics.

Near-infrared fluorescence guided surgery: State of the evidence from a health technology assessment perspective

Different applications of near-infrared fluorescence-guided surgery are very promising, and techniques that help surgeons in intraoperative guidance have been developed, thereby bridging the gap between preoperative imaging and intraoperative visualization and palpation. Thus, these techniques are advantageous in terms of being faster, safer, less invasive, and cheaper. There are a few fluorescent dyes available, but the most commonly used dye is indocyanine green. It can be used in its natural form, but different nanocapsulated and targeted modifications are possible, making this dye more stable and specific. A new active tumor-targeting strategy is the conjugation of indocyanine green nanoparticles with antibodies, making this dye targeted and highly selective to various tumor proteins. In this mini-review, we discuss the application of near-infrared fluorescence-guided techniques in thoracic surgery. During lung surgery, it can help find small, non-palpable, or additional tumor nodules, it is also useful for finding the sentinel lymph node and identifying the proper intersegmental plane for segmentectomies. Furthermore, it can help visualize the thoracic duct, smaller bullae of the lung, phrenic nerve, or pleural nodules. We summarize current applications and provide a framework for future applications and development.

Recent Progress on the Applications of Nanomaterials and Nano-Characterization Techniques in Endodontics: A Review

The impact of nano-based technologies in endodontics for the identification and treatment of various dental infections is showing fast progress. Studies show that nanoparticles could serve as useful agents with many beneficial results and continue to be promising in the field of endodontics. To ensure progress and improvements on novel nanomaterials in relation to their physicochemical and biological properties, nano-identification methods for the detection and evaluation of diseases need to be further highlighted. This study aims to review the current technological progress and recent research outcomes as well as possible prospective applications of nano-based technologies in endodontics. A comprehensive literature survey has been carried out on the utilizations of nanomaterials and nano-characterization techniques in endodontics. The current status and recent applications in endodontics are discussed with illustrative examples. The results have shown that the progress and improved accuracy of nano-identification techniques enabled a better characterization, evaluation and selection of appropriate treatment plans for endodontics-related diseases. The results have been inspiring for further clinical investigations. Nano-endodontics is still a developing field with a strong potential for revolutions of novel materials and techniques in the diagnosis and treatment of dental diseases. Further improvements in nanoparticles properties will pave the way for the development of many beneficial endodontic therapeutic agents. The future looks encouraging for sustainable products and testing methods for clinical endodontic applications.

Stability characterization for pharmaceutical liposome product development with focus on regulatory considerations: An update

Liposomes have several advantages, such as the ability to be employed as a carrier/vehicle for a variety of drug molecules and at the same time they are safe and biodegradable. In the recent times, compared to other delivery systems, liposomes have been one of the most well-established and commercializing drug products of new drug delivery methods for majority of therapeutic applications. On the other hand, it has several limitations, particularly in terms of stability, which impedes product development and performance. In this review, we reviewed all the potential instabilities (physical, chemical, and biological) that a formulation development scientist confronts throughout the development of liposomal formulations as along with the ways to overcome these challenges. We have also discussed the effect of microbiological contamination on liposomal formulations with a focus on the use of sterilization methods used to improve the stability. Finally, we have reviewed quality control techniques and regulatory considerations recommended by the agencies (USFDA and MHLW) for liposome drug product development.

Targeted delivery via albumin corona nanocomplex to renal tubules to alleviate acute kidney injury

Renal tubular epithelial cell (RTEC) is a critical target cell for the treatment of acute kidney injury (AKI). Despite various RTEC targeting strategies using ligand modified nanoparticles (NPs) following systemic administration, the nonspecific interaction between NPs and plasma proteins greatly weakens the targeting efficiency as well as the stability of NPs. Herein, celastrol (CLT) was entrapped in D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) forming a CLT-loaded nanocomplex core (CT) with a high loading capacity of ~50%. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) was then adsorbed onto the CT surface to afford a complete albumin corona without obvious denaturation (CTB). CTB showed uniform particle size distribution and sufficient stability in vitro and in vivo. Besides clathrin-mediated and macropinocytosis pathways, CTB was actively internalized through megalin receptor-mediated endocytosis in HK-2 cells. Per biodistribution studies, CTB demonstrates enhanced renal tubule-specific distribution and targetability in mice compared to CT without albumin corona. Furthermore, pharmacodynamic studies in vivo further support that CTB effectively alleviated ischemia-reperfusion induced injuries without obvious systemic side effects in AKI mice models.

Mono and Multiple Tumor-Targeting Ligand-Coated Ultrasmall Gadolinium Oxide Nanoparticles: Enhanced Tumor Imaging and Blood Circulation

Hydrophilic and biocompatible PAA-coated ultrasmall Gd₂O₃ nanoparticles (d_avg = 1.7 nm) were synthesized and conjugated with tumor-targeting ligands, i.e., cyclic arginylglycylaspartic acid (cRGD) and/or folic acid (FA). FA-PAA-Gd₂O₃ and cRGD/FA-PAA-Gd₂O₃ nanoparticles were successfully applied in U87MG tumor-bearing mice for tumor imaging using T₁ magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). cRGD/FA-PAA-Gd₂O₃ nanoparticles with multiple tumor-targeting ligands exhibited higher contrasts at the tumor site than FA-PAA-Gd₂O₃ nanoparticles with mono tumor-targeting ligands. In addition, the cRGD/FA-PAA-Gd₂O₃ nanoparticles exhibited higher contrasts in all organs, especially the aorta, compared with those of the FA-PAA-Gd₂O₃ nanoparticles, because of the blood cell hitchhiking effect of cRGD in the cRGD/FA-PAA-Gd₂O₃ nanoparticles, which prolonged their circulation in the blood.

Engineered Nanoscale Lipid-Based Formulation as Potential Enhancer of Gefitinib Lymphatic Delivery: Cytotoxicity and Apoptotic Studies Against the A549 Cell Line

The present study aimed to engineer a nanoscale lipid-based lymphatic drug delivery system with D-α-Tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate to combat the lymphatic metastasis of lung cancer. The nanoscale lipid-based systems including GEF-SLN, GEF-NLC, and GEF-LE were prepared and pharmaceutically characterized. In addition, the most stable formulation (GEF-NLC) was subjected to an in vitro release study. Afterward, the optimized GEF-NLC was engineered with TPGS (GEF-TPGS-NLC) and subjected to in vitro cytotoxicity, and apoptotic studies using the A549 cells line as a surrogate model for lung cancer. The present results revealed that particle size and polydispersity index of freshly prepared formulations were ranging from 198 to 280 nm and 0.106 to 0.240, respectively, with negative zeta potential ranging from − 14 to − 27.6.mV. An in vitro release study showed that sustained drug release was attained from GEF-NLC containing a high concentration of lipid. In addition, GEF-NLC and GEF-TPGS-NLC showed remarkable entrapment efficiency above 89% and exhibited sustained release profiles. Cytotoxicity showed that IC₅₀ of pure GEF was 11.15 μg/ml which decreased to 7.05 μg/ml for GEF-TPGS-NLC. The apoptotic study revealed that GEF-TPGS-NLC significantly decreased the number of living cells from 67 to 58% when compared with pure GEF. The present results revealed that the nanoscale and lipid composition of the fabricated SLN, NLC, and LE could mediate the lymphatic uptake of GEF to combat the lymphatic tumor metastasis. Particularly, GEF-TPGS-NLC is a promising LDDS to increase the therapeutic outcomes of GEF during the treatment of metastatic lung cancer.