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Reyser T, Paloque L, Augereau JM, Di Stefano L, Benoit-Vical F. Epigenetic regulation as a therapeutic target in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Malar J 2024; 23:44. [PMID: 38347549 PMCID: PMC10863139 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-024-04855-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Over the past thirty years, epigenetic regulation of gene expression has gained increasing interest as it was shown to be implicated in illnesses ranging from cancers to parasitic diseases. In the malaria parasite, epigenetics was shown to be involved in several key steps of the complex life cycle of Plasmodium, among which asexual development and sexual commitment, but also in major biological processes like immune evasion, response to environmental changes or DNA repair. Because epigenetics plays such paramount roles in the Plasmodium parasite, enzymes involved in these regulating pathways represent a reservoir of potential therapeutic targets. This review focuses on epigenetic regulatory processes and their effectors in the malaria parasite, as well as the inhibitors of epigenetic pathways and their potential as new anti-malarial drugs. Such types of drugs could be formidable tools that may contribute to malaria eradication in a context of widespread resistance to conventional anti-malarials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibaud Reyser
- LCC-CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination, CNRS, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
- MAAP, Inserm ERL 1289, Team "New Antiplasmodial Molecules and Pharmacological Approaches", Toulouse, France
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, IPBS, CNRS, UPS, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Lucie Paloque
- LCC-CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination, CNRS, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
- MAAP, Inserm ERL 1289, Team "New Antiplasmodial Molecules and Pharmacological Approaches", Toulouse, France
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, IPBS, CNRS, UPS, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Jean-Michel Augereau
- LCC-CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination, CNRS, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
- MAAP, Inserm ERL 1289, Team "New Antiplasmodial Molecules and Pharmacological Approaches", Toulouse, France
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, IPBS, CNRS, UPS, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Luisa Di Stefano
- MCD, Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), CNRS, UPS, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Françoise Benoit-Vical
- LCC-CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination, CNRS, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France.
- MAAP, Inserm ERL 1289, Team "New Antiplasmodial Molecules and Pharmacological Approaches", Toulouse, France.
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, IPBS, CNRS, UPS, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France.
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2
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de Siqueira CDM, Fragoso MSI, Severo VR, Biembengut IV, Nardelli SC, de Souza TDACB. Targeting HDACs of apicomplexans: structural insights for a better treatment. Parasitology 2022; 149:1-37. [PMID: 35356851 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182022000427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAetiologic agents of diseases such as malaria and toxoplasmosis are found in representatives of the phylum Apicomplexa. Therefore, apicomplexan parasites are known to have a significant impact on public health. Epigenetic factors such as histone acetylation/deacetylation are among the main mechanisms of gene regulation in these parasites. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) have aroused a great deal of interest over the past 20 years for being promising targets in the development of drugs for treating several diseases such as cancer. In addition, they have also been shown to be effective for parasitic diseases. However, little is known about the structure of these proteins, as well as their interactions with specific ligands. In this paper, we modelled 14 HDACs from different apicomplexan parasites and performed molecular docking with 12 ligands analogous to the HDAC inhibitors FR235222 and apicidin, which had previously been tested againstToxoplasma gondiiandPlasmodium falciparum. In thisin silicostudy, we were able to gather relevant structural data regarding these proteins as well as insights into protein–ligand interactions for testing and developing drugs for these diseases.
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3
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Hesping E, Chua MJ, Pflieger M, Qian Y, Dong L, Bachu P, Liu L, Kurz T, Fisher GM, Skinner-Adams TS, Reid RC, Fairlie DP, Andrews KT, Gorse ADJ. QSAR Classification Models for Prediction of Hydroxamate Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor Activity against Malaria Parasites. ACS Infect Dis 2022; 8:106-117. [PMID: 34985259 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.1c00355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Malaria, caused by Plasmodium parasites, results in >400,000 deaths annually. There is no effective vaccine, and new drugs with novel modes of action are needed because of increasing parasite resistance to current antimalarials. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are epigenetic regulatory enzymes that catalyze post-translational protein deacetylation and are promising malaria drug targets. Here, we describe quantitative structure-activity relationship models to predict the antiplasmodial activity of hydroxamate-based HDAC inhibitors. The models incorporate P. falciparum in vitro activity data for 385 compounds containing a hydroxamic acid and were subject to internal and external validation. When used to screen 22 new hydroxamate-based HDAC inhibitors for antiplasmodial activity, model A7 (external accuracy 91%) identified three hits that were subsequently verified as having potent in vitro activity against P. falciparum parasites (IC50 = 6, 71, and 84 nM), with 8 to 51-fold selectivity for P. falciparum versus human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Hesping
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan 4111, Australia
| | - Ming Jang Chua
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan 4111, Australia
| | - Marc Pflieger
- Institut für pharmazeutische und medizinische Chemie, Heinrich-Heine Universität, Dusseldorf 40225, Germany
| | - Yunan Qian
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan 4111, Australia
| | - Lilong Dong
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Prabhakar Bachu
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Ligong Liu
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Thomas Kurz
- Institut für pharmazeutische und medizinische Chemie, Heinrich-Heine Universität, Dusseldorf 40225, Germany
| | - Gillian M. Fisher
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan 4111, Australia
| | | | - Robert C. Reid
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - David P. Fairlie
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Katherine T. Andrews
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan 4111, Australia
| | - Alain-Dominique J.P. Gorse
- QCIF Bioinformatics, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Saint Lucia 4072, Australia
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4
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Nardella F, Halby L, Dobrescu I, Viluma J, Bon C, Claes A, Cadet-Daniel V, Tafit A, Roesch C, Hammam E, Erdmann D, Mairet-Khedim M, Peronet R, Mecheri S, Witkowski B, Scherf A, Arimondo PB. Procainamide-SAHA Fused Inhibitors of hHDAC6 Tackle Multidrug-Resistant Malaria Parasites. J Med Chem 2021; 64:10403-10417. [PMID: 34185525 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Epigenetic post-translational modifications are essential for human malaria parasite survival and progression through its life cycle. Here, we present new functionalized suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) derivatives that chemically combine the pan-histone deacetylase inhibitor SAHA with the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor procainamide. A three- or four-step chemical synthesis was designed starting from cheap raw materials. Compared to the single drugs, the combined molecules showed a superior activity in Plasmodium and a potent inhibition against human HDAC6, exerting no cytotoxicity in human cell lines. These new compounds are fully active in multidrug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum Cambodian isolates. They target transmission of the parasite by inducing irreversible morphological changes in gametocytes and inhibiting exflagellation. The compounds are slow-acting and have an additive antimalarial effect in combination with fast-acting epidrugs and dihydroartemisinin. The lead compound decreases parasitemia in mice in a severe malaria model. Taken together, this novel fused molecule offers an affordable alternative to current failing antimalarial therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flore Nardella
- Unité Biologie des Interactions Hôte-Parasite, Département de Parasites et Insectes Vecteurs, Institut Pasteur, CNRS ERL 9195, INSERM Unit U1201, 25-28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France
| | - Ludovic Halby
- Epigenetic Chemical Biology, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Institut Pasteur, UMR n°3523, CNRS, 28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France
| | - Irina Dobrescu
- Unité Biologie des Interactions Hôte-Parasite, Département de Parasites et Insectes Vecteurs, Institut Pasteur, CNRS ERL 9195, INSERM Unit U1201, 25-28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France
| | - Johanna Viluma
- Epigenetic Chemical Biology, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Institut Pasteur, UMR n°3523, CNRS, 28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France
| | - Corentin Bon
- Epigenetic Chemical Biology, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Institut Pasteur, UMR n°3523, CNRS, 28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France.,Ecole Doctorale MTCI ED563, Université de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75270, France
| | - Aurélie Claes
- Unité Biologie des Interactions Hôte-Parasite, Département de Parasites et Insectes Vecteurs, Institut Pasteur, CNRS ERL 9195, INSERM Unit U1201, 25-28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France
| | - Véronique Cadet-Daniel
- Epigenetic Chemical Biology, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Institut Pasteur, UMR n°3523, CNRS, 28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France
| | - Ambre Tafit
- Epigenetic Chemical Biology, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Institut Pasteur, UMR n°3523, CNRS, 28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France
| | - Camille Roesch
- Malaria Molecular Epidemiology Unit, Pasteur Institute in Cambodia, Phnom Penh 12201, Cambodia
| | - Elie Hammam
- Unité Biologie des Interactions Hôte-Parasite, Département de Parasites et Insectes Vecteurs, Institut Pasteur, CNRS ERL 9195, INSERM Unit U1201, 25-28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France
| | - Diane Erdmann
- Epigenetic Chemical Biology, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Institut Pasteur, UMR n°3523, CNRS, 28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France.,Ecole Doctorale MTCI ED563, Université de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75270, France
| | - Melissa Mairet-Khedim
- Malaria Molecular Epidemiology Unit, Pasteur Institute in Cambodia, Phnom Penh 12201, Cambodia
| | - Roger Peronet
- Unité Biologie des Interactions Hôte-Parasite, Département de Parasites et Insectes Vecteurs, Institut Pasteur, CNRS ERL 9195, INSERM Unit U1201, 25-28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France
| | - Salah Mecheri
- Unité Biologie des Interactions Hôte-Parasite, Département de Parasites et Insectes Vecteurs, Institut Pasteur, CNRS ERL 9195, INSERM Unit U1201, 25-28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France
| | - Benoit Witkowski
- Malaria Molecular Epidemiology Unit, Pasteur Institute in Cambodia, Phnom Penh 12201, Cambodia
| | - Artur Scherf
- Unité Biologie des Interactions Hôte-Parasite, Département de Parasites et Insectes Vecteurs, Institut Pasteur, CNRS ERL 9195, INSERM Unit U1201, 25-28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France
| | - Paola B Arimondo
- Epigenetic Chemical Biology, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Institut Pasteur, UMR n°3523, CNRS, 28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France
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5
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Nawaz M, Malik I, Hameed M, Hussain Kuthu Z, Zhou J. Modifications of histones in parasites as drug targets. Vet Parasitol 2020; 278:109029. [PMID: 31978703 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2020.109029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Post-translational modifications of histones and histone modifying enzymes play important roles in gene regulations and other physiological processes in parasites. Inhibitors of such modifying enzymes could be useful as novel therapeutics against parasitic diseases or as chemical probes for investigation of epigenetics. Development of parasitic histone modulators has got rapid expansion in the last few years. A number of highly potent and selective compounds have been reported, together with extensive preclinical studies of their biological activity. Some of these compounds have been widely used in humans targeting cancer and are found non-toxic. This review summarizes the antiparasitic activities of histone and histone modifying enzymes inhibitors evaluated in last few years. As the current chemotherapy against parasites is still not satisfactory, therefore, such compounds represents good starting points for the discovery of effective antiparasitic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohsin Nawaz
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Irfan Malik
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Mudassar Hameed
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Zulfiqar Hussain Kuthu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Jinlin Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China.
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6
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Ngwa CJ, Kiesow MJ, Orchard LM, Farrukh A, Llinás M, Pradel G. The G9a Histone Methyltransferase Inhibitor BIX-01294 Modulates Gene Expression during Plasmodium falciparum Gametocyte Development and Transmission. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20205087. [PMID: 31615031 PMCID: PMC6829282 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20205087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmission of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum from the human to the mosquito is initiated by specialized sexual cells, the gametocytes. In the human, gametocytes are formed in response to stress signals and following uptake by a blood-feeding Anopheles mosquito initiate sexual reproduction. Gametocytes need to fine-tune their gene expression in order to develop inside the mosquito to continue life-cycle progression. Previously, we showed that post-translational histone acetylation controls gene expression during gametocyte development and transmission. However, the role of histone methylation remains poorly understood. We here use the histone G9a methyltransferase inhibitor BIX-01294 to investigate the role of histone methylation in regulating gene expression in gametocytes. In vitro assays demonstrated that BIX-01294 inhibits intraerythrocytic replication with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 13.0 nM. Furthermore, BIX-01294 significantly impairs gametocyte maturation and reduces the formation of gametes and zygotes. Comparative transcriptomics between BIX-01294-treated and untreated immature, mature and activated gametocytes demonstrated greater than 1.5-fold deregulation of approximately 359 genes. The majority of these genes are transcriptionally downregulated in the activated gametocytes and could be assigned to transcription, translation, and signaling, indicating a contribution of histone methylations in mediating gametogenesis. Our combined data show that inhibitors of histone methylation may serve as a multi-stage antimalarial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Che Julius Ngwa
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Meike Jutta Kiesow
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Lindsey Marie Orchard
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology & Center for Malaria Research, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Afia Farrukh
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Manuel Llinás
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology & Center for Malaria Research, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Gabriele Pradel
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
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7
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Engel JA, Norris EL, Gilson P, Przyborski J, Shonhai A, Blatch GL, Skinner-Adams TS, Gorman J, Headlam M, Andrews KT. Proteomic analysis of Plasmodium falciparum histone deacetylase 1 complex proteins. Exp Parasitol 2019; 198:7-16. [PMID: 30682336 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2019.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 12/01/2018] [Accepted: 01/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum histone deacetylases (PfHDACs) are an important class of epigenetic regulators that alter protein lysine acetylation, contributing to regulation of gene expression and normal parasite growth and development. PfHDACs are therefore under investigation as drug targets for malaria. Despite this, our understanding of the biological roles of these enzymes is only just beginning to emerge. In higher eukaryotes, HDACs function as part of multi-protein complexes and act on both histone and non-histone substrates. Here, we present a proteomics analysis of PfHDAC1 immunoprecipitates, identifying 26 putative P. falciparum complex proteins in trophozoite-stage asexual intraerythrocytic parasites. The co-migration of two of these (P. falciparum heat shock proteins 70-1 and 90) with PfHDAC1 was validated using Blue Native PAGE combined with Western blot. These data provide a snapshot of possible PfHDAC1 interactions and a starting point for future studies focused on elucidating the broader function of PfHDACs in Plasmodium parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Engel
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
| | - Emma L Norris
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Queensland, Australia
| | - Paul Gilson
- Burnet Institute, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jude Przyborski
- Centre of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Addmore Shonhai
- Biochemistry Department, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
| | - Gregory L Blatch
- The Vice Chancellery, The University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, WA, Australia
| | - Tina S Skinner-Adams
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jeffrey Gorman
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Queensland, Australia
| | | | - Katherine T Andrews
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia.
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8
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Diedrich D, Stenzel K, Hesping E, Antonova-Koch Y, Gebru T, Duffy S, Fisher G, Schöler A, Meister S, Kurz T, Avery VM, Winzeler EA, Held J, Andrews KT, Hansen FK. One-pot, multi-component synthesis and structure-activity relationships of peptoid-based histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors targeting malaria parasites. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 158:801-813. [PMID: 30245402 PMCID: PMC6195125 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Malaria drug discovery has shifted from a focus on targeting asexual blood stage parasites, to the development of drugs that can also target exo-erythrocytic forms and/or gametocytes in order to prevent malaria and/or parasite transmission. In this work, we aimed to develop parasite-selective histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) with activity against the disease-causing asexual blood stages of Plasmodium malaria parasites as well as with causal prophylactic and/or transmission blocking properties. An optimized one-pot, multi-component protocol via a sequential Ugi four-component reaction and hydroxylaminolysis was used for the preparation of a panel of peptoid-based HDACi. Several compounds displayed potent activity against drug-sensitive and drug-resistant P. falciparum asexual blood stages, high parasite-selectivity and submicromolar activity against exo-erythrocytic forms of P. berghei. Our optimization study resulted in the discovery of the hit compound 1u which combines high activity against asexual blood stage parasites (Pf 3D7 IC50: 4 nM; Pf Dd2 IC50: 1 nM) and P. berghei exo-erythrocytic forms (Pb EEF IC50: 25 nM) with promising parasite-specific activity (SIPf3D7/HepG2: 2496, SIPfDd2/HepG2: 9990, and SIPbEEF/HepG2: 400).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Diedrich
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Katharina Stenzel
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany; Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Don Young Road, Nathan Campus, QLD, 4111, Australia
| | - Eva Hesping
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Don Young Road, Nathan Campus, QLD, 4111, Australia
| | - Yevgeniya Antonova-Koch
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States
| | - Tamirat Gebru
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Wilhelmstraße 27, 72074, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sandra Duffy
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Don Young Road, Nathan Campus, QLD, 4111, Australia
| | - Gillian Fisher
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Don Young Road, Nathan Campus, QLD, 4111, Australia
| | - Andrea Schöler
- Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, Medical Faculty, Leipzig University, Brüderstraße 34, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stephan Meister
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States
| | - Thomas Kurz
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Vicky M Avery
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Don Young Road, Nathan Campus, QLD, 4111, Australia
| | - Elizabeth A Winzeler
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States
| | - Jana Held
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Wilhelmstraße 27, 72074, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Katherine T Andrews
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Don Young Road, Nathan Campus, QLD, 4111, Australia.
| | - Finn K Hansen
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany; Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, Medical Faculty, Leipzig University, Brüderstraße 34, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
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9
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Kumar A, Dhar SK, Subbarao N. In silico identification of inhibitors against Plasmodium falciparum histone deacetylase 1 (PfHDAC-1). J Mol Model 2018; 24:232. [PMID: 30109440 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-018-3761-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In erythrocytes, actively multiplying Plasmodium falciparum parasites exhibit a unique signature of virulence associated histone modifications, thereby epigenetically regulating the expression of the majority of genes. Histone acetylation is one such modification, effectuated and maintained by the dynamic interplay of two functionally antagonist enzymes, histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs). Their inhibition leads to hypo/hyperacetylation and is known to be deleterious for P. falciparum, and hence they have become attractive molecular targets to design novel antimalarials. Many compounds, including four Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs, have been developed so far to inhibit HDAC activity but are not suitable to treat malaria as they lack selectivity and cause cytotoxicity in mammalian cells. In this study, we used comparative modeling and molecular docking to establish different binding modes of nonselective and selective compounds in the PfHDAC-1 (a class I HDAC protein in P. falciparum) active site and identified the involvement of active site nonidentical residues in binding of selective compounds. Further, we have applied virtual screening with precise selection criteria and molecular dynamics simulation to identify novel potential inhibitors against PfHDAC-1. We report 20 compounds (10 from ChEMBL and 10 from analogues compound library) bearing seven scaffolds having better affinity toward PfHDAC-1. Sixteen of these compounds are known antimalarials with 14 having activity in the nanomolar range against various drug resistant and sensitive strains of P. falciparum. The cytotoxicity of these compounds against various human cell lines are reported at relatively higher concentration and hence can be used as potential PfHDAC-1 inhibitors in P. falciparum. These findings indeed show great potential for using the above molecules as prospective antimalarials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amarjeet Kumar
- School of Computational and Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Suman Kumar Dhar
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Naidu Subbarao
- School of Computational and Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India.
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10
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Evolutionary relationships among protein lysine deacetylases of parasites causing neglected diseases. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2017; 53:175-188. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2017.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Revised: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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11
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Ngwa CJ, Kiesow MJ, Papst O, Orchard LM, Filarsky M, Rosinski AN, Voss TS, Llinás M, Pradel G. Transcriptional Profiling Defines Histone Acetylation as a Regulator of Gene Expression during Human-to-Mosquito Transmission of the Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:320. [PMID: 28791254 PMCID: PMC5522858 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmission of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum from the human to the mosquito is mediated by the intraerythrocytic gametocytes, which, once taken up during a blood meal, become activated to initiate sexual reproduction. Because gametocytes are the only parasite stages able to establish an infection in the mosquito, they are crucial for spreading the tropical disease. During gametocyte maturation, different repertoires of genes are switched on and off in a well-coordinated sequence, pointing to regulatory mechanisms of gene expression. While epigenetic gene control has been studied during erythrocytic schizogony of P. falciparum, little is known about this process during human-to-mosquito transmission of the parasite. To unveil the potential role of histone acetylation during gene expression in gametocytes, we carried out a microarray-based transcriptome analysis on gametocytes treated with the histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A (TSA). TSA-treatment impaired gametocyte maturation and lead to histone hyper-acetylation in these stages. Comparative transcriptomics identified 294 transcripts, which were more than 2-fold up-regulated during gametocytogenesis following TSA-treatment. In activated gametocytes, which were less sensitive to TSA, the transcript levels of 48 genes were increased. TSA-treatment further led to repression of ~145 genes in immature and mature gametocytes and 7 genes in activated gametocytes. Up-regulated genes are mainly associated with functions in invasion, cytoadherence, and protein export, while down-regulated genes could particularly be assigned to transcription and translation. Chromatin immunoprecipitation demonstrated a link between gene activation and histone acetylation for selected genes. Among the genes up-regulated in TSA-treated mature gametocytes was a gene encoding the ring finger (RING)-domain protein PfRNF1, a putative E3 ligase of the ubiquitin-mediated signaling pathway. Immunochemistry demonstrated PfRNF1 expression mainly in the sexual stages of P. falciparum with peak expression in stage II gametocytes, where the protein localized to the nucleus and cytoplasm. Pfrnf1 promoter and coding regions associated with acetylated histones, and TSA-treatment resulted in increased PfRNF1 levels. Our combined data point to an essential role of histone acetylation for gene regulation in gametocytes, which can be exploited for malaria transmission-blocking interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Che J Ngwa
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen UniversityAachen, Germany
| | - Meike J Kiesow
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen UniversityAachen, Germany
| | - Olga Papst
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen UniversityAachen, Germany
| | - Lindsey M Orchard
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, United States
| | - Michael Filarsky
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteBasel, Switzerland
| | - Alina N Rosinski
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen UniversityAachen, Germany
| | - Till S Voss
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteBasel, Switzerland
| | - Manuel Llinás
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, United States.,Department of Chemistry and Huck Center for Malaria Research, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, United States
| | - Gabriele Pradel
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen UniversityAachen, Germany
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12
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Abstract
Organisms with identical genome sequences can show substantial differences in their phenotypes owing to epigenetic changes that result in different use of their genes. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression plays a key role in the control of several fundamental processes in the biology of malaria parasites, including antigenic variation and sexual differentiation. Some of the histone modifications and chromatin-modifying enzymes that control the epigenetic states of malaria genes have been characterized, and their functions are beginning to be unraveled. The fundamental principles of epigenetic regulation of gene expression appear to be conserved between malaria parasites and model eukaryotes, but important peculiarities exist. Here, we review the current knowledge of malaria epigenetics and discuss how it can be exploited for the development of new molecular markers and new types of drugs that may contribute to malaria eradication efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfred Cortés
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Centre for International Health Research (CRESIB), Hospital Clínic - Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia 08036, Spain.,ICREA, Barcelona, Catalonia 08010, Spain
| | - Kirk W Deitsch
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York 10065
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13
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Gupta AP, Bozdech Z. Epigenetic landscapes underlining global patterns of gene expression in the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Int J Parasitol 2017; 47:399-407. [PMID: 28414071 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2016.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Revised: 10/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The dynamic chromatin landscape displaying combinatorial complexity of the epigenome impacts gene expression that underlies many events of differentiation and cell cycle progression. In the past few years, epigenetic mechanisms have emerged as important processes involved in the tight gene regulation in malaria parasites, Plasmodium spp. Focusing predominantly on Plasmodium falciparum, the species associated with the most severe form of the disease, many advances have been made in our understanding of the interaction between transcriptional regulation and epigenetic mechanisms as the pivotal processes in regulating life cycle progression, host parasite interactions and parasite adaptation to the host environment. This review focuses on the epigenome and its effect on transcriptional regulation in P. falciparum, highlighting its unique, evolutionary diverse features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Archana P Gupta
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Zbynek Bozdech
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551, Singapore.
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14
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Hailu GS, Robaa D, Forgione M, Sippl W, Rotili D, Mai A. Lysine Deacetylase Inhibitors in Parasites: Past, Present, and Future Perspectives. J Med Chem 2017; 60:4780-4804. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b01595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gebremedhin S. Hailu
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco “Sapienza” Università di Roma, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Dina Robaa
- Institute of Pharmacy, Martin-Luther-Universitat Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Mariantonietta Forgione
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco “Sapienza” Università di Roma, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Center
for Life Nano Science@Sapienza, Italian Institute of Technology, Viale Regina Elena 291, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Wolfgang Sippl
- Institute of Pharmacy, Martin-Luther-Universitat Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Dante Rotili
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco “Sapienza” Università di Roma, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Antonello Mai
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco “Sapienza” Università di Roma, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Istituto
Pasteur, Fondazione Cenci-Bolognetti, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, 00185 Rome, Italy
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15
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Wang Q, Rosa BA, Nare B, Powell K, Valente S, Rotili D, Mai A, Marshall GR, Mitreva M. Targeting Lysine Deacetylases (KDACs) in Parasites. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0004026. [PMID: 26402733 PMCID: PMC4581690 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to an increasing problem of drug resistance among almost all parasites species ranging from protists to worms, there is an urgent need to explore new drug targets and their inhibitors to provide new and effective parasitic therapeutics. In this regard, there is growing interest in exploring known drug leads of human epigenetic enzymes as potential starting points to develop novel treatments for parasitic diseases. This approach of repurposing (starting with validated targets and inhibitors) is quite attractive since it has the potential to reduce the expense of drug development and accelerate the process of developing novel drug candidates for parasite control. Lysine deacetylases (KDACs) are among the most studied epigenetic drug targets of humans, and a broad range of small-molecule inhibitors for these enzymes have been reported. In this work, we identify the KDAC protein families in representative species across important classes of parasites, screen a compound library of 23 hydroxamate- or benzamide-based small molecules KDAC inhibitors, and report their activities against a range of parasitic species, including the pathogen of malaria (Plasmodium falciparum), kinetoplastids (Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania donovani), and nematodes (Brugia malayi, Dirofilaria immitis and Haemonchus contortus). Compound activity against parasites is compared to that observed against the mammalian cell line (L929 mouse fibroblast) in order to determine potential parasite-versus-host selectivity). The compounds showed nanomolar to sub-nanomolar potency against various parasites, and some selectivity was observed within the small panel of compounds tested. The possible binding modes of the active compounds at the different protein target sites within different species were explored by docking to homology models to help guide the discovery of more selective, parasite-specific inhibitors. This current work supports previous studies that explored the use of KDAC inhibitors in targeting Plasmodium to develop new anti-malarial treatments, and also pioneers experiments with these KDAC inhibitors as potential new anthelminthics. The selectivity observed begins to address the challenges of targeting specific parasitic diseases while limiting host toxicity. Due to pandemic drug resistance in the treatment of parasitic infections, there is an urgent need to identify novel drug targets and their associated drug compounds. Although “drug repurposing”, i.e. the application of known drugs and compounds to new indications such as infectious diseases, provides a cost effective approach in the development of novel therapeutics, selectivity is one of the major obstacles to overcome in getting such compounds into clinical trials as anti-parasitic drugs. Using the lysine deacetylases (KDACs) as an example, we explored the activities of a panel of known inhibitors against the KDAC targets in a range of parasitic organisms. The computational study of their binding modes to the targets (by docking the compounds to the homology models within different organisms in comparison with the human proteins) helps to rationalize the different activities observed and provide insight on the optimization of lead compounds to improve selectivity. Our work provides support of “drug repurposing” in the treatment of parasitic diseases, and demonstrates the necessity of optimizing these leads for the ultimate goal of preparing them for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Wang
- The Genome Institute, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Bruce A. Rosa
- The Genome Institute, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Bakela Nare
- SCYNEXIS, Inc, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Kerrie Powell
- SCYNEXIS, Inc, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Sergio Valente
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza”, Roma, Italy
| | - Dante Rotili
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza”, Roma, Italy
| | - Antonello Mai
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza”, Roma, Italy
| | - Garland R. Marshall
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Makedonka Mitreva
- The Genome Institute, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Departments of Genetics and of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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16
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Elbadawi MAA, Awadalla MKA, Hamid MMA, Mohamed MA, Awad TA. Valproic acid as a potential inhibitor of Plasmodium falciparum histone deacetylase 1 (PfHDAC1): an in silico approach. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:3915-31. [PMID: 25679451 PMCID: PMC4346934 DOI: 10.3390/ijms16023915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A new Plasmodium falciparum histone deacetylase1 (PfHDAC1) homology model was built based on the highest sequence identity available template human histone deacetylase 2 structure. The generated model was carefully evaluated for stereochemical accuracy, folding correctness and overall structure quality. All evaluations were acceptable and consistent. Docking a group of hydroxamic acid histone deacetylase inhibitors and valproic acid has shown binding poses that agree well with inhibitor-bound histone deacetylase-solved structural interactions. Docking affinity dG scores were in agreement with available experimental binding affinities. Further, enzyme-ligand complex stability and reliability were investigated by running 5-nanosecond molecular dynamics simulations. Thorough analysis of the simulation trajectories has shown that enzyme-ligand complexes were stable during the simulation period. Interestingly, the calculated theoretical binding energies of the docked hydroxamic acid inhibitors have shown that the model can discriminate between strong and weaker inhibitors and agrees well with the experimental affinities reported in the literature. The model and the docking methodology can be used in screening virtual libraries for PfHDAC1 inhibitors, since the docking scores have ranked ligands in accordance with experimental binding affinities. Valproic acid calculated theoretical binding energy suggests that it may inhibit PfHDAC1.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Muzamil Mahdi Abdel Hamid
- Department of Parasitology and Medical Entomology, Institute of Endemic Diseases, University of Khartoum, Khartoum 11111, Sudan.
| | - Magdi Awadalla Mohamed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Khartoum, Khartoum 11111, Sudan.
| | - Talal Ahmed Awad
- Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Institute, National Centre of Research, Khartoum 11111, Sudan.
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17
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Sodji Q, Patil V, Jain S, Kornacki JR, Mrksich M, Tekwani BL, Oyelere AK. The antileishmanial activity of isoforms 6- and 8-selective histone deacetylase inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2014; 24:4826-30. [PMID: 25240614 PMCID: PMC4225773 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.08.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Accepted: 08/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) pleiotropy is largely due to their nonselective inhibition of various cellular HDAC isoforms. Connecting inhibition of a specific isoform to biological responses and/or phenotypes is essential toward deconvoluting HDACi pleiotropy. The contribution of classes I and II HDACs to the antileishmanial activity of HDACi was investigated using the amastigote and promastigote forms of Leishmania donovani. We observed that the antileishmanial activities of HDACi are largely due to the inhibition of HDAC6-like activity. This observation could facilitate the development of HDACi as antileishmanial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quaovi Sodji
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Parker H. Petit for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400, USA
| | - Vishal Patil
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Parker H. Petit for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400, USA
| | - Surendra Jain
- National Center for Natural Products Research, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677-1848, USA
| | - James R Kornacki
- Department of Chemistry and Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Rd, Evanston, IL 60208-3113, USA
| | - Milan Mrksich
- Department of Chemistry and Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Rd, Evanston, IL 60208-3113, USA
| | - Babu L Tekwani
- National Center for Natural Products Research, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677-1848, USA.
| | - Adegboyega K Oyelere
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Parker H. Petit for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400, USA.
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18
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Jensen AN, Chindaudomsate W, Thitiananpakorn K, Mongkolsuk S, Jensen LT. Improper protein trafficking contributes to artemisinin sensitivity in cells lacking the KDAC Rpd3p. FEBS Lett 2014; 588:4018-25. [PMID: 25263705 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2014.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Revised: 09/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Lysine deacetylases (KDACs) inhibitors may have therapeutic value in anti-malarial combination therapies with artemisinin. To evaluate connections between KDACs and artemisinin, Saccharomyces cerevisiae deletion mutants in KDAC genes were assayed. Deletion of RPD3, but not other KDAC genes, resulted in strong sensitivity to artemisinin, which was also observed in sit4Δ mutants with impaired endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to Golgi protein trafficking. Decreased accumulation of the transporters Pdr5p, Fur4p, and Tat2p was observed in rpd3Δ and sit4Δ cells. The unfolded protein response is induced in rpd3Δ cells consistent with retention of proteins in the ER. Disruption of protein trafficking appears to sensitize cells to artemisinin and targeting these pathways may be useful as part of artemisinin based anti-malarial therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Skorn Mongkolsuk
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Laran T Jensen
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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19
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Lysine acetylation in sexual stage malaria parasites is a target for antimalarial small molecules. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:3666-78. [PMID: 24733477 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02721-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Therapies to prevent transmission of malaria parasites to the mosquito vector are a vital part of the global malaria elimination agenda. Primaquine is currently the only drug with such activity; however, its use is limited by side effects. The development of transmission-blocking strategies requires an understanding of sexual stage malaria parasite (gametocyte) biology and the identification of new drug leads. Lysine acetylation is an important posttranslational modification involved in regulating eukaryotic gene expression and other essential processes. Interfering with this process with histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors is a validated strategy for cancer and other diseases, including asexual stage malaria parasites. Here we confirm the expression of at least one HDAC protein in Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes and show that histone and nonhistone protein acetylation occurs in this life cycle stage. The activity of the canonical HDAC inhibitors trichostatin A (TSA) and suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA; Vorinostat) and a panel of novel HDAC inhibitors on early/late-stage gametocytes and on gamete formation was examined. Several compounds displayed early/late-stage gametocytocidal activity, with TSA being the most potent (50% inhibitory concentration, 70 to 90 nM). In contrast, no inhibitory activity was observed in P. falciparum gametocyte exflagellation experiments. Gametocytocidal HDAC inhibitors caused hyperacetylation of gametocyte histones, consistent with a mode of action targeting HDAC activity. Our data identify HDAC inhibitors as being among a limited number of compounds that target both asexual and sexual stage malaria parasites, making them a potential new starting point for gametocytocidal drug leads and valuable tools for dissecting gametocyte biology.
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20
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Deshmukh AS, Srivastava S, Dhar SK. Plasmodium falciparum: epigenetic control of var gene regulation and disease. Subcell Biochem 2013; 61:659-682. [PMID: 23150271 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4525-4_28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum, one of the deadliest parasites on earth causes human malaria resulting one million deaths annually. Central to the parasite pathogenicity and morbidity is the switching of parasite virulence (var) gene expression causing host immune evasion. The regulation of Plasmodium var gene expression is poorly understood. The complex life cycle of Plasmodium and mutually exclusive expression pattern of var genes make this disease difficult to control. Recent studies have demonstrated the pivotal role of epigenetic mechanism for control of coordinated expression of var genes, important for various clinical manifestations of malaria. In this review, we discuss about different Plasmodium histones and their various modifications important for gene expression and gene repression.Contribution of epigenetic mechanism to understand the var gene expression is also highlighted. We also describe in details P. falciparum nuclear architecture including heterochromatin, euchromatin and telomeric regions and their importance in subtelomeric and centrally located var gene expression. Finally, we explore the possibility of using Histone Acetyl Transferase (HAT) and Histone Deacetylase (HDAC)inhibitors against multi-drug resistance malaria parasites to provide another line of treatment for malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhijit S Deshmukh
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
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21
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Antimalarial activity of the anticancer histone deacetylase inhibitor SB939. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56:3849-56. [PMID: 22508312 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00030-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes posttranslationally modify lysines on histone and nonhistone proteins and play crucial roles in epigenetic regulation and other important cellular processes. HDAC inhibitors (e.g., suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid [SAHA; also known as vorinostat]) are used clinically to treat some cancers and are under investigation for use against many other diseases. Development of new HDAC inhibitors for noncancer indications has the potential to be accelerated by piggybacking onto cancer studies, as several HDAC inhibitors have undergone or are undergoing clinical trials. One such compound, SB939, is a new orally active hydroxamate-based HDAC inhibitor with an improved pharmacokinetic profile compared to that of SAHA. In this study, the in vitro and in vivo antiplasmodial activities of SB939 were investigated. SB939 was found to be a potent inhibitor of the growth of Plasmodium falciparum asexual-stage parasites in vitro (50% inhibitory concentration [IC(50)], 100 to 200 nM), causing hyperacetylation of parasite histone and nonhistone proteins. In combination with the aspartic protease inhibitor lopinavir, SB939 displayed additive activity. SB939 also potently inhibited the in vitro growth of exoerythrocytic-stage Plasmodium parasites in liver cells (IC(50), ~150 nM), suggesting that inhibitor targeting to multiple malaria parasite life cycle stages may be possible. In an experimental in vivo murine model of cerebral malaria, orally administered SB939 significantly inhibited P. berghei ANKA parasite growth, preventing development of cerebral malaria-like symptoms. These results identify SB939 as a potent new antimalarial HDAC inhibitor and underscore the potential of investigating next-generation anticancer HDAC inhibitors as prospective new drug leads for treatment of malaria.
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22
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Duffy MF, Selvarajah SA, Josling GA, Petter M. The role of chromatin in Plasmodium gene expression. Cell Microbiol 2012; 14:819-28. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2012.01777.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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23
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Abstract
Parasitic diseases cause significant global morbidity and mortality, particularly in underdeveloped regions of the world. Malaria alone causes ~800000 deaths each year, with children and pregnant women being at highest risk. There is no licensed vaccine available for any human parasitic disease and drug resistance is compromising the efficacy of many available anti-parasitic drugs. This is driving drug discovery research on new agents with novel modes of action. Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors are being investigated as drugs for a range of diseases, including cancers and infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and several parasitic diseases. This review focuses on the current state of knowledge of HDAC inhibitors targeted to the major human parasitic diseases malaria, schistosomiasis, trypanosomiasis, toxoplasmosis and leishmaniasis. Insights are provided into the unique challenges that will need to be considered if HDAC inhibitors are to be progressed towards clinical development as potential new anti-parasitic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine T Andrews
- Eskitis Institute for Cell and Molecular Therapies, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia.
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24
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Ex vivo activity of histone deacetylase inhibitors against multidrug-resistant clinical isolates of Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 55:961-6. [PMID: 21135175 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01220-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Histone acetylation plays an important role in regulating gene transcription and silencing in Plasmodium falciparum. Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors, particularly those of the hydroxamate class, have been shown to have potent in vitro activity against drug-resistant and -sensitive laboratory strains of P. falciparum, raising their potential as a new class of antimalarial compounds. In the current study, stage-specific ex vivo susceptibility profiles of representative hydroxamate-based HDAC inhibitors suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA), 2-ASA-9, and 2-ASA-14 (2-ASA-9 and 2-ASA-14 are 2-aminosuberic acid-based HDAC inhibitors) were assessed in multidrug-resistant clinical isolates of P. falciparum (n = 24) and P. vivax (n = 25) from Papua, Indonesia, using a modified schizont maturation assay. Submicromolar concentrations of SAHA, 2-ASA-9, and 2-ASA-14 inhibited the growth of both P. falciparum (median 50% inhibitory concentrations [IC₅₀s] of 310, 533, and 266 nM) and P. vivax (median IC₅₀s of 170, 503, and 278 nM). Inverse correlation patterns between HDAC inhibitors and chloroquine for P. falciparum and mefloquine for P. vivax indicate species-specific susceptibility profiles for HDAC inhibitors. These HDAC inhibitors were also found to be potent ex vivo against P. vivax schizont maturation, comparable to that in P. falciparum, suggesting that HDAC inhibitors may be promising candidates for antimalarial therapy in geographical locations where both species are endemic. Further studies optimizing the selectivity and in vivo efficacy of HDAC inhibitors in Plasmodium spp. and defining drug interaction with common antimalarial compounds are warranted to investigate the role of HDAC inhibitors in antimalarial therapy.
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25
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Wheatley NC, Andrews KT, Tran TL, Lucke AJ, Reid RC, Fairlie DP. Antimalarial histone deacetylase inhibitors containing cinnamate or NSAID components. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:7080-4. [PMID: 20951583 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.09.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2010] [Revised: 09/15/2010] [Accepted: 09/16/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is the most lethal parasite-mediated tropical infectious disease, killing 1-2 million people each year. An emerging drug target is the enzyme Plasmodium falciparum histone deacetylase 1 (PfHDAC1). We report 26 compounds designed to bind the zinc and exterior surface around the entrance to the active site of PfHDAC1, 16 displaying potent in vitro antimalarial activity (IC(50)<100 nM) against P. falciparum. Selected compounds were shown to cause hyperacetylation of P. falciparum histones and be >10-fold more cytotoxic towards P. falciparum than a normal human cell type (NFF). Twenty-two inhibitors feature cinnamic acid derivatives or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) as HDAC-binding components. A homology model of PfHDAC1 enzyme gives new insights to interactions likely made by some of these inhibitors. Results support PfHDAC1 as a promising new antimalarial drug target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole C Wheatley
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
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26
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Chen HF, Kang JH, Li Q, Zeng BS, Yao XJ, Fan BT, Yuan SG, Panay A, Doucet JP. 3D-QSAR Study on Apicidin Inhibit Histone Deacetylase. CHINESE J CHEM 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/cjoc.20030211216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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27
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Guerrant W, Mwakwari SC, Chen PC, Khan SI, Tekwani BL, Oyelere AK. A structure-activity relationship study of the antimalarial and antileishmanial activities of nonpeptide macrocyclic histone deacetylase inhibitors. ChemMedChem 2010; 5:1232-5. [PMID: 20533500 PMCID: PMC3138184 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201000087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- William Guerrant
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400 (USA)
| | - Sandra C. Mwakwari
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400 (USA)
| | - Po C. Chen
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400 (USA)
| | - Shabana I. Khan
- National Center for Natural Products Research School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi University, MS 38677-1848 (USA)
| | - Babu L. Tekwani
- National Center for Natural Products Research School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi University, MS 38677-1848 (USA)
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Mississippi University, MS 38677-1848 (USA)
| | - Adegboyega K. Oyelere
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400 (USA)
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28
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Chromatin-mediated epigenetic regulation in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2010; 9:1138-49. [PMID: 20453074 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00036-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a major public health problem in many developing countries, with the malignant tertian parasite Plasmodium falciparum causing the most malaria-associated mortality. Extensive research, especially with the advancement of genomics and transfection tools, has highlighted the fundamental importance of chromatin-mediated gene regulation in the developmental program of this early-branching eukaryote. The Plasmodium parasite genomes reveal the existence of both canonical and variant histones that make up the nucleosomes, as well as a full collection of conserved enzymes for chromatin remodeling and histone posttranslational modifications (PTMs). Recent studies have identified a wide array of both conserved and novel histone PTMs in P. falciparum, indicating the presence of a complex and divergent "histone code." Genome-wide analysis has begun to decipher the nucleosome landscape and histone modifications associated with the dynamic organization of chromatin structures during the parasite's life cycle. Focused studies on malaria-specific phenomena such as antigenic variation and red cell invasion pathways shed further light on the involvement of epigenetic mechanisms in these processes. Here we review our current understanding of chromatin-mediated gene regulation in malaria parasites, with specific reference to exemplar studies on antigenic variation and host cell invasion.
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29
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Regulation of gene expression in protozoa parasites. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010:726045. [PMID: 20204171 PMCID: PMC2830571 DOI: 10.1155/2010/726045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2009] [Revised: 11/10/2009] [Accepted: 01/08/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections with protozoa parasites are associated with high burdens of morbidity and mortality across the developing world. Despite extensive efforts to control the transmission of these parasites, the spread of populations resistant to drugs and the lack of effective vaccines against them contribute to their persistence as major public health problems. Parasites should perform a strict control on the expression of genes involved in their pathogenicity, differentiation, immune evasion, or drug resistance, and the comprehension of the mechanisms implicated in that control could help to develop novel therapeutic strategies. However, until now these mechanisms are poorly understood in protozoa. Recent investigations into gene expression in protozoa parasites suggest that they possess many of the canonical machineries employed by higher eukaryotes for the control of gene expression at transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and epigenetic levels, but they also contain exclusive mechanisms. Here, we review the current understanding about the regulation of gene expression in Plasmodium sp., Trypanosomatids, Entamoeba histolytica and Trichomonas vaginalis.
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30
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Gardiner DL, Skinner-Adams TS, Brown CL, Andrews KT, Stack CM, McCarthy JS, Dalton JP, Trenholme KR. Plasmodium falciparum: new molecular targets with potential for antimalarial drug development. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2010; 7:1087-98. [PMID: 19883329 DOI: 10.1586/eri.09.93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Malaria remains one of the world's most devastating infectious diseases. Drug resistance to all classes of antimalarial agents has now been observed, highlighting the need for new agents that act against novel parasite targets. The complete sequencing of the Plasmodium falciparum genome has allowed the identification of new molecular targets within the parasite that may be amenable to chemotherapeutic intervention. In this review, we investigate four possible targets for the future development of new classes of antimalarial agents. These targets include histone deacetylase, the aspartic proteases or plasmepsins, aminopeptidases and the purine salvage enzyme hypoxanthine-xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald L Gardiner
- Malaria Biology Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, 300 Herston Road, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia.
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31
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Histone deacetylases play a major role in the transcriptional regulation of the Plasmodium falciparum life cycle. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6:e1000737. [PMID: 20107518 PMCID: PMC2809759 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2009] [Accepted: 12/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The apparent paucity of molecular factors of transcriptional control in the genomes of Plasmodium parasites raises many questions about the mechanisms of life cycle regulation in these malaria parasites. Epigenetic regulation has been suggested to play a major role in the stage specific gene expression during the Plasmodium life cycle. To address some of these questions, we analyzed global transcriptional responses of Plasmodium falciparum to a potent inhibitor of histone deacetylase activities (HDAC). The inhibitor apicidin induced profound transcriptional changes in multiple stages of the P. falciparum intraerythrocytic developmental cycle (IDC) that were characterized by rapid activation and repression of a large percentage of the genome. A major component of this response was induction of genes that are otherwise suppressed during that particular stage of the IDC or specific for the exo-erythrocytic stages. In the schizont stage, apicidin induced hyperacetylation of histone lysine residues H3K9, H4K8 and the tetra-acetyl H4 (H4Ac4) and demethylation of H3K4me3. Interestingly, we observed overlapping patterns of chromosomal distributions between H4K8Ac and H3K4me3 and between H3K9Ac and H4Ac4. There was a significant but partial association between the apicidin-induced gene expression and histone modifications, which included a number of stage specific transcription factors. Taken together, inhibition of HDAC activities leads to dramatic de-regulation of the IDC transcriptional cascade, which is a result of both disruption of histone modifications and up-regulation of stage specific transcription factors. These findings suggest an important role of histone modification and chromatin remodeling in transcriptional regulation of the Plasmodium life cycle. This also emphasizes the potential of P. falciparum HDACs as drug targets for malaria chemotherapy. Plasmodium falciparum, a parasitic protozoan, causes the most lethal form of human malaria, killing more than 2 million people per year. It has a complex life cycle that involves distinct morphological stages accompanied by stage specific gene expression in both the mosquito and human hosts. The lack of a vaccine for malaria and widespread resistance highlights the urgency for new anti-malarial drugs that act on different parasite targets. We show that inhibition of histone deacetylase activities results in activation and repression of transcriptionally regulated genes in multiple stages of the P. falciparum asexual life cycle. We also show that inhibition disrupts the steady-state level of histone acetylation and methylation across the P. falciparum genome. Our data strongly implies that in P. falciparum, inhibition of histone deacetylase activity leads to a dramatic increase in global acetylation of histones and subsequently disruption of stage specific gene expression. This process then leads to a collapse of the transcriptional cascade of P. falciparum. Therefore, the essential role of histone deacetylases in Plasmodium parasites suggests their high potential as molecular targets for malaria intervention strategies.
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32
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Patil V, Guerrant W, Chen PC, Gryder B, Benicewicz DB, Khan SI, Tekwani BL, Oyelere AK. Antimalarial and antileishmanial activities of histone deacetylase inhibitors with triazole-linked cap group. Bioorg Med Chem 2010; 18:415-25. [PMID: 19914074 PMCID: PMC2818366 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2009.10.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2009] [Revised: 10/19/2009] [Accepted: 10/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) are endowed with plethora of biological functions including anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory, anti-parasitic, and cognition-enhancing activities. Parsing the structure-activity relationship (SAR) for each disease condition is vital for long-term therapeutic applications of HDACi. We report in the present study specific cap group substitution patterns and spacer-group chain lengths that enhance the antimalarial and antileishmanial activity of aryltriazolylhydroxamates-based HDACi. We identified many compounds that are several folds selectively cytotoxic to the plasmodium parasites compared to standard HDACi. Also, a few of these compounds have antileishmanial activity that rivals that of miltefosine, the only currently available oral agent against visceral leishmaniasis. The anti-parasite properties of several of these compounds tracked well with their anti-HDAC activities. The results presented here provide further evidence on the suitability of HDAC inhibition as a viable therapeutic option to curb infections caused by apicomplexan protozoans and trypanosomatids.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Babu L. Tekwani
- To whom the correspondence should be addressed. . Phone: 404-894-4047; fax: 404-894-2291; . Phone: (662) 915-7882; Fax: (662) 915-7062
| | - Adegboyega K. Oyelere
- To whom the correspondence should be addressed. . Phone: 404-894-4047; fax: 404-894-2291; . Phone: (662) 915-7882; Fax: (662) 915-7062
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33
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Chung DWD, Ponts N, Cervantes S, Le Roch KG. Post-translational modifications in Plasmodium: more than you think! Mol Biochem Parasitol 2009; 168:123-34. [PMID: 19666057 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2009.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2009] [Revised: 07/10/2009] [Accepted: 08/03/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidences indicate that transcription in Plasmodium may be hard-wired and rigid, deviating from the classical model of transcriptional gene regulation. Thus, it is important that other regulatory pathways be investigated as a comprehensive effort to curb the deadly malarial parasite. Research in post-translational modifications in Plasmodium is an emerging field that may provide new venues for drug discovery and potential new insights into how parasitic protozoans regulate their life cycle. Here, we discuss the recent findings of post-translational modifications in Plasmodium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duk-Won Doug Chung
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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34
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Patel V, Mazitschek R, Coleman B, Nguyen C, Urgaonkar S, Cortese J, Barker RH, Greenberg E, Tang W, Bradner JE, Schreiber SL, Duraisingh MT, Wirth DF, Clardy J. Identification and characterization of small molecule inhibitors of a class I histone deacetylase from Plasmodium falciparum. J Med Chem 2009; 52:2185-7. [PMID: 19317450 PMCID: PMC2669731 DOI: 10.1021/jm801654y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
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A library of approximately 2000 small molecules biased toward inhibition of histone deacetylases was assayed for antimalarial activity in a high-throughput P. falciparum viability assay. Active compounds were cross-analyzed for induction of histone hyperacetylation in a human myeloma cell line to identify HDAC inhibitors with selectivity for P. falciparum over the human host. To verify on-target selectivity, pfHDAC-1 was expressed and purified and a biochemical assay for pfHDAC-1 activity was established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishal Patel
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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35
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Novel inhibitor of Plasmodium histone deacetylase that cures P. berghei-infected mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53:1727-34. [PMID: 19223622 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00729-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Histone deacetylases (HDAC) are potential targets for the development of new antimalarial drugs. The growth of Plasmodium falciparum and other apicomplexans can be suppressed in the presence of potent HDAC inhibitors in vitro and in vivo; however, in vivo parasite suppression is generally incomplete or reversible after the discontinuation of drug treatment. Furthermore, most established HDAC inhibitors concurrently show broad toxicities against parasites and human cells and high drug concentrations are required for effective antimalarial activity. Here, we report on HDAC inhibitors that are potent against P. falciparum at subnanomolar concentrations and that have high selectivities; the lead compounds have mean 50% inhibitory concentrations for the killing of the malaria parasite up to 950 times lower than those for the killing of mammalian cells. These potential drugs improved survival and completely and irreversibly suppressed parasitemia in P. berghei-infected mice.
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36
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Sriwilaijaroen N, Boonma S, Attasart P, Pothikasikorn J, Panyim S, Noonpakdee W. Inhibition of Plasmodium falciparum proliferation in vitro by double-stranded RNA directed against malaria histone deacetylase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009; 381:144-7. [PMID: 19338767 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.01.165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2009] [Accepted: 01/23/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Acetylation and deacetylation of histones play important roles in transcription regulation, cell cycle progression and development events. The steady state status of histone acetylation is controlled by a dynamic equilibrium between competing histone acetylase and deacetylase (HDAC). We have used long PfHDAC-1 double-stranded (ds)RNA to interfere with its cognate mRNA expression and determined the effect on malaria parasite growth and development. Chloroquine- and pyrimethamine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum K1 strain was exposed to 1-25 microg of dsRNA/ml of culture for 48 h and growth was determined by [3H]-hypoxanthine incorporation and microscopic examination. Parasite culture treated with 10 microg/ml pfHDAC-1 dsRNA exhibited 47% growth inhibition when compared with either untreated control or culture treated with an unrelated dsRNA. PfHDAC-1 dsRNA specifically blocked maturation of trophozoite to schizont stages and decreased PfHDAC-1 transcript 44% in treated trophozoites. These results indicate the potential of HDAC-1 as a target for development of novel antimalarials.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Sriwilaijaroen
- Faculty of Medicine, Thammasat University (Rangsit Campus), Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
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37
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Horrocks P, Wong E, Russell K, Emes RD. Control of gene expression in Plasmodium falciparum - ten years on. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2008; 164:9-25. [PMID: 19110008 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2008.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2008] [Revised: 11/25/2008] [Accepted: 11/26/2008] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Ten years ago this journal published a review with an almost identical title detailing how the then recent introduction of transfection technology had advanced our understanding of the molecular control of transcriptional processes in Plasmodium falciparum, particularly in terms of promoter structure and function. In the succeeding years, sequencing of several Plasmodium spp. genomes and application of high throughput global postgenomic technologies have proven as significant, if not more, as has the ability to genetically manipulate these parasites in dissecting the molecular control of gene expression. Here we aim to review our current understanding of the control of gene expression in P. falciparum, including evidence available from other Plasmodium spp. and apicomplexan parasites. Specifically, however, we will address the current polarised debate regarding the level at which control is mediated, and attempt to identify some of the challenges this field faces in the next 10 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Horrocks
- Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine, Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, United Kingdom.
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38
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Heterologous expression of plasmodial proteins for structural studies and functional annotation. Malar J 2008; 7:197. [PMID: 18828893 PMCID: PMC2567985 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-7-197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2008] [Accepted: 10/01/2008] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains the world's most devastating tropical infectious disease with as many as 40% of the world population living in risk areas. The widespread resistance of Plasmodium parasites to the cost-effective chloroquine and antifolates has forced the introduction of more costly drug combinations, such as Coartem®. In the absence of a vaccine in the foreseeable future, one strategy to address the growing malaria problem is to identify and characterize new and durable antimalarial drug targets, the majority of which are parasite proteins. Biochemical and structure-activity analysis of these proteins is ultimately essential in the characterization of such targets but requires large amounts of functional protein. Even though heterologous protein production has now become a relatively routine endeavour for most proteins of diverse origins, the functional expression of soluble plasmodial proteins is highly problematic and slows the progress of antimalarial drug target discovery. Here the status quo of heterologous production of plasmodial proteins is presented, constraints are highlighted and alternative strategies and hosts for functional expression and annotation of plasmodial proteins are reviewed.
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39
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Antimalarial activity of phenylthiazolyl-bearing hydroxamate-based histone deacetylase inhibitors. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52:3467-77. [PMID: 18644969 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00439-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The antimalarial activity and pharmacology of a series of phenylthiazolyl-bearing hydroxamate-based histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACIs) was evaluated. In in vitro growth inhibition assays approximately 50 analogs were evaluated against four drug resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum. The range of 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC(50)s) was 0.0005 to >1 microM. Five analogs exhibited IC(50)s of <3 nM, and three of these exhibited selectivity indices of >600. The most potent compound, WR301801 (YC-2-88) was shown to cause hyperacetylation of P. falciparum histones, which is a marker for HDAC inhibition in eukaryotic cells. The compound also inhibited malarial and mammalian HDAC activity in functional assays at low nanomolar concentrations. WR301801 did not exhibit cures in P. berghei-infected mice at oral doses as high as 640 mg/kg/day for 3 days or in P. falciparum-infected Aotus lemurinus lemurinus monkeys at oral doses of 32 mg/kg/day for 3 days, despite high relative bioavailability. The failure of monotherapy in mice may be due to a short half-life, since the compound was rapidly hydrolyzed to an inactive acid metabolite by loss of its hydroxamate group in vitro (half-life of 11 min in mouse microsomes) and in vivo (half-life in mice of 3.5 h after a single oral dose of 50 mg/kg). However, WR301801 exhibited cures in P. berghei-infected mice when combined at doses of 52 mg/kg/day orally with subcurative doses of chloroquine. Next-generation HDACIs with greater metabolic stability than WR301801 may be useful as antimalarials if combined appropriately with conventional antimalarial drugs.
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40
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Coleman BI, Duraisingh MT. Transcriptional control and gene silencing in Plasmodium falciparum. Cell Microbiol 2008; 10:1935-46. [PMID: 18637022 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2008.01203.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Infection with the apicomplexan parasite Plasmodium falciparum is associated with a high burden of morbidity and mortality across the developing world, yet the mechanisms of transcriptional control in this organism are poorly understood. While P. falciparum possesses many of the characteristics common to eukaryotic transcription, including much of the canonical machinery, it also demonstrates unique patterns of gene expression and possesses unusually AT-rich intergenic sequences. Importantly, several biological processes that are critical to parasite virulence involve highly regulated patterns of gene expression and silencing. The relative scarcity of transcription-associated proteins and specific cis-regulatory motifs recognized in the P. falciparum genome have been thought to reflect a reduced role for transcription factors in transcriptional control in these parasites. New approaches and technologies, however, have led to the discovery of many more of these elements, including an expanded family of DNA-binding proteins, and a re-assessment of this hypothesis is required. We review the current understanding of transcriptional control in P. falciparum, specifically highlighting promoter-driven and epigenetic mechanisms involved in the control of transcription initiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley I Coleman
- Harvard School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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41
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Chen Y, Lopez-Sanchez M, Savoy DN, Billadeau DD, Dow GS, Kozikowski AP. A Series of Potent and Selective, Triazolylphenyl-Based Histone Deacetylases Inhibitors with Activity against Pancreatic Cancer Cells and Plasmodium falciparum. J Med Chem 2008; 51:3437-48. [DOI: 10.1021/jm701606b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yufeng Chen
- Drug Discovery Program, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Avenue, Silver Springs, Maryland 20910, and Department of Immunology, Division of Oncology Research, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 13-42 Guggenheim, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Miriam Lopez-Sanchez
- Drug Discovery Program, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Avenue, Silver Springs, Maryland 20910, and Department of Immunology, Division of Oncology Research, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 13-42 Guggenheim, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Doris N. Savoy
- Drug Discovery Program, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Avenue, Silver Springs, Maryland 20910, and Department of Immunology, Division of Oncology Research, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 13-42 Guggenheim, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Daniel D. Billadeau
- Drug Discovery Program, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Avenue, Silver Springs, Maryland 20910, and Department of Immunology, Division of Oncology Research, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 13-42 Guggenheim, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Geoffrey S. Dow
- Drug Discovery Program, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Avenue, Silver Springs, Maryland 20910, and Department of Immunology, Division of Oncology Research, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 13-42 Guggenheim, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Alan P. Kozikowski
- Drug Discovery Program, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Avenue, Silver Springs, Maryland 20910, and Department of Immunology, Division of Oncology Research, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 13-42 Guggenheim, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
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Structural insights into the Plasmodium falciparum histone deacetylase 1 (PfHDAC-1): A novel target for the development of antimalarial therapy. Bioorg Med Chem 2008; 16:5254-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2008.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2008] [Revised: 02/27/2008] [Accepted: 03/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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43
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Potent antimalarial activity of histone deacetylase inhibitor analogues. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52:1454-61. [PMID: 18212103 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00757-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has at least five putative histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes, which have been proposed as new antimalarial drug targets and may play roles in regulating gene transcription, like the better-known and more intensively studied human HDACs (hHDACs). Fourteen new compounds derived from l-cysteine or 2-aminosuberic acid were designed to inhibit P. falciparum HDAC-1 (PfHDAC-1) based on homology modeling with human class I and class II HDAC enzymes. The compounds displayed highly potent antiproliferative activity against drug-resistant (Dd2) or drug sensitive (3D7) strains of P. falciparum in vitro (50% inhibitory concentration of 13 to 334 nM). Unlike known hHDAC inhibitors, some of these new compounds were significantly more toxic to P. falciparum parasites than to mammalian cells. The compounds inhibited P. falciparum growth in erythrocytes at both the early and late stages of the parasite's life cycle and caused altered histone acetylation patterns (hyperacetylation), which is a marker of HDAC inhibition in mammalian cells. These results support PfHDAC enzymes as being promising targets for new antimalarial drugs.
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44
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Abstract
Protozoan parasites are early branching eukaryotes causing significant morbidity and mortality in humans and livestock. Single-celled parasites have evolved complex life cycles, which may involve multiple host organisms, and strategies to evade host immune responses. Consequently, two key aspects of virulence that underlie pathogenesis are parasite differentiation and antigenic variation, both of which require changes in the expressed genome. Complicating these requisite alterations in the parasite transcriptome is chromatin, which serves as a formidable barrier to DNA processes including transcription, repair, replication and recombination. Considerable progress has been made in the study of chromatin dynamics in other eukaryotes, and there is much to be gained in extending these analyses to protozoan parasites. Much of the work completed to date has focused on histone acetylation and methylation in the apicomplexans and trypanosomatids. As we describe in this review, such studies provide a unique vantage point of the evolutionary picture of eukaryotic cell development, and reveal unique phenomena that could be exploited pharmacologically to treat protozoal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Sullivan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.
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45
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Smith AT, Tucker-Samaras SD, Fairlamb AH, Sullivan WJ. MYST family histone acetyltransferases in the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2006; 4:2057-65. [PMID: 16339723 PMCID: PMC1317489 DOI: 10.1128/ec.4.12.2057-2065.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The restructuring of chromatin precedes tightly regulated events such as DNA transcription, replication, and repair. One type of chromatin remodeling involves the covalent modification of nucleosomes by histone acetyltransferase (HAT) complexes. The observation that apicidin exerts antiprotozoal activity by targeting a histone deacetyltransferase has prompted our search for more components of the histone modifying machinery in parasitic protozoa. We have previously identified GNAT family HATs in the opportunistic pathogen Toxoplasma gondii and now describe the first MYST (named for members MOZ, Ybf2/Sas3, Sas2, and Tip60) family HATs in apicomplexa (TgMYST-A and -B). The TgMYST-A genomic locus is singular and generates a approximately 3.5-kb transcript that can encode two proteins of 411 or 471 amino acids. TgMYST-B mRNA is approximately 7.0 kb and encodes a second MYST homologue. In addition to the canonical MYST HAT catalytic domain, both TgMYST-A and -B possess an atypical C2HC zinc finger and a chromodomain. Recombinant TgMYST-A exhibits a predilection to acetylate histone H4 in vitro at lysines 5, 8, 12, and 16. Antibody generated to TgMYST-A reveals that both the long and short (predominant) versions are present in the nucleus and are also plentiful in the cytoplasm. Moreover, both TgMYST-A forms are far more abundant in rapidly replicating parasites (tachyzoites) than encysted parasites (bradyzoites). A bioinformatics survey of the Toxoplasma genome reveals numerous homologues known to operate in native MYST complexes. The characterization of TgMYST HATs represents another important step toward understanding the regulation of gene expression in pathogenic protozoa and provides evolutionary insight into how these processes operate in eukaryotic cells in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron T Smith
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 635 Barnhill Drive, Medical Sciences Building Room A-525, Indianapolis, IN 46202-5120, USA
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Ouaissi M, Ouaissi A. Histone deacetylase enzymes as potential drug targets in cancer and parasitic diseases. J Biomed Biotechnol 2006; 2006:13474. [PMID: 16883049 PMCID: PMC1510935 DOI: 10.1155/jbb/2006/13474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2005] [Revised: 03/19/2006] [Accepted: 03/22/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The elucidation of the mechanisms of transcriptional activation and repression in eukaryotic cells has shed light on the important role of acetylation-deacetylation of histones mediated by histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs), respectively. Another group belonging to the large family of sirtuins (silent information regulators (SIRs)) has an (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) NAD(+)-dependent HDAC activity. Several inhibitors of HDACs (HDIs) have been shown to exert antitumor effects. Interestingly, some of the HDIs exerted a broad spectrum of antiprotozoal activity. The purpose of this review is to analyze some of the current data related to the deacetylase enzymes as a possible target for drug development in cancer and parasitic diseases with special reference to protozoan infections. Given the structural differences among members of this family of enzymes, development of specific inhibitors will not only allow selective therapeutic intervention, but may also provide a powerful tool for functional study of these enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Ouaissi
- Service de Chirurgie Digestive et Générale, Hôpital Sainte Marguerite,
270 Boulevard de Sainte Marguerite, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Ali Ouaissi
- IRD UR008 “Pathogénie des Trypanosomatidés,” Centre IRD de Montpellier, Institut de la Recherche pour le Développement, 911
Avenue Agropolis, BP 64501, 34394 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
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Saksouk N, Bhatti MM, Kieffer S, Smith AT, Musset K, Garin J, Sullivan WJ, Cesbron-Delauw MF, Hakimi MA. Histone-modifying complexes regulate gene expression pertinent to the differentiation of the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Mol Cell Biol 2005; 25:10301-14. [PMID: 16287846 PMCID: PMC1291236 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.25.23.10301-10314.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2005] [Revised: 08/25/2005] [Accepted: 09/14/2005] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic apicomplexan parasites like Toxoplasma and Plasmodium (malaria) have complex life cycles consisting of multiple stages. The ability to differentiate from one stage to another requires dramatic transcriptional changes, yet there is a paucity of transcription factors in these protozoa. In contrast, we show here that Toxoplasma possesses extensive chromatin remodeling machinery that modulates gene expression relevant to differentiation. We find that, as in other eukaryotes, histone acetylation and arginine methylation are marks of gene activation in Toxoplasma. We have identified mediators of these histone modifications, as well as a histone deacetylase (HDAC), and correlate their presence at target promoters in a stage-specific manner. We purified the first HDAC complex from apicomplexans, which contains novel components in addition to others previously reported in eukaryotes. A Toxoplasma orthologue of the arginine methyltransferase CARM1 appears to work in concert with the acetylase TgGCN5, which exhibits an unusual bias for H3 [K18] in vitro. Inhibition of TgCARM1 induces differentiation, showing that the parasite life cycle can be manipulated by interfering with epigenetic machinery. This may lead to new approaches for therapy against protozoal diseases and highlights Toxoplasma as an informative model to study the evolution of epigenetics in eukaryotic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nehmé Saksouk
- ATIP-UMR5163-CNRS, Jean-Roget Institute, Domaine de la Merci, 38700 Grenoble, France
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Meissner M, Soldati D. The transcription machinery and the molecular toolbox to control gene expression in Toxoplasma gondii and other protozoan parasites. Microbes Infect 2005; 7:1376-84. [PMID: 16087378 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2005.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2005] [Revised: 04/28/2005] [Accepted: 04/29/2005] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The phylum of Apicomplexa groups a large variety of obligate intracellular protozoan parasites that exhibit complicated life cycles, involving transmission and differentiation within and between different hosts. Little is known about the level of regulation and the nature of the factors controlling gene expression throughout their life stages. Unravelling the mechanisms that govern gene regulation is critical for the development of adequate tools to manipulate these parasites and modulate gene expression, in order to study their function in molecular terms in vivo. A comparative analysis of the transcriptional machinery of several apicomplexan genomes and other protozoan parasites has revealed the existence of a primitive eukaryotic transcription apparatus consisting only of a subset of the general transcription factors found in higher eukaryotes. These findings have some direct implications on development of tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Meissner
- Hygieneinstitut, abteilung parasitologie, universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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Thapar MM, Gil JP, Björkman A. In vitro recrudescence of Plasmodium falciparum parasites suppressed to dormant state by atovaquone alone and in combination with proguanil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2005; 99:62-70. [PMID: 15550263 DOI: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2004.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2003] [Revised: 01/14/2004] [Accepted: 01/14/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We studied the viability of Plasmodium falciparum parasites reappearing in long-term cultures after repetitive exposure to atovaquone and proguanil. Parasites (F32 and FCR3) exposed to 100-5000 nM atovaquone for 96 hours were reduced to <5% of initial parasitaemia but recrudesced after 9-15 days. Also, parasites exposed to 1000 nM atovaquone for 48, 72, 96 and 144 hours recrudesced after 9, 14, 21 and 23 days respectively. Immediately after removal of the drug, only 1-3 schizonts per 10000 red blood cells were found consistently, apparently unable to produce trophozoites and thus, possibly, adopting a "dormant state". Parasites (F32 and FCR3) exposed to 500 nM atovaquone for 72 hours reappeared after 14 days. These recrudescing parasites were then re-exposed and suppressed by atovaquone in three consecutive follow-up experiments. They reappeared after 12, 11 and 9 days respectively. No known point mutations in cytochrome b gene (cytb), associated with atovaquone resistance, were detected in any recrudescing parasites. Finally, parasites (F32) exposed to various concentrations of atovaquone and proguanil in combination for 72 hours reappeared after 9-17 days. The baseline susceptibilities of the parasites to individual drugs were similar before and after recrudescence in all experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mita M Thapar
- Department of Medicine, Infectious Diseases Unit, Malaria Research Laboratory, M9/02, Karolinska University Hospital, Karolinska Institute, SE 171-76 Stockholm, Sweden.
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Ramakrishnan G, Gilchrist CA, Musa H, Torok MS, Grant PA, Mann BJ, Petri WA. Histone acetyltransferases and deacetylase in Entamoeba histolytica. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2005; 138:205-16. [PMID: 15555732 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2004.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2004] [Accepted: 09/02/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In our efforts to understand how transcription may be regulated in Entamoeba histolytica, we have examined if this parasite has conserved enzymatic mechanisms for targeted acetylation and deacetylation of histones. Western blotting indicated that basic nuclear proteins in the size range of 16-23 kDa were acetylated in amebic trophozoites, suggesting histone acetylation. Single representatives of the GNAT and MYST family of histone acetyltransferases (HATs) were identified in the E. histolytica genome and their expression in amebic trophozoites was detected by reverse transcription of RNA followed by the polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Full-length recombinant EhMYST protein demonstrated HAT activity with calf thymus histones and showed a preference for histone H4, similar to the yeast MYST protein, Esa1. However, ehMYST did not complement a yeast esa1 mutation. Histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity was detected in nuclear extracts from E. histolytica, and characteristically, was inhibited by trichostatin A (TSA). Consistent with the observation of HDAC activity, RT-PCR analysis demonstrated that an amebic hdac1 homolog (ehHDAC) is expressed and appropriately spliced in E. histolytica trophozoites. Our results suggest that mechanisms for histone acetylation and deacetylation are operational in E. histolytica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Girija Ramakrishnan
- Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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