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Liu B, Cheng L, Gao H, Zhang J, Dong Y, Gao W, Yuan S, Gong T, Huang W. The biology of VSIG4: Implications for the treatment of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases and cancer. Cancer Lett 2023; 553:215996. [PMID: 36343787 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2022.215996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
V-set and immunoglobulin domain containing 4 (VSIG4), a type I transmembrane receptor exclusively expressed in a subset of tissue-resident macrophages, plays a pivotal role in clearing C3-opsonized pathogens and their byproducts from the circulation. VSIG4 maintains immune homeostasis by suppressing the activation of complement pathways or T cells and inducing regulatory T-cell differentiation, thereby inhibiting the development of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases but enhancing cancer progression. Consequently, VSIG4 exhibits a potential therapeutic effect for immune-mediated inflammatory diseases, but also is regarded as a novel target of immune checkpoint inhibition in cancer therapy. Recently, soluble VSIG4, the extracellular domain of VSIG4, shed from the surface of macrophages, has been found to be a biomarker to define macrophage activation-related diseases. This review mainly summarizes recent new findings of VSIG4 in macrophage phagocytosis and immune homeostasis, and discusses its potential diagnostic and therapeutic usage in infection, inflammation, and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bei Liu
- Department of Hematology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100071, China; PLA 307 Clinical College of Anhui Medical University, Beijing, 100071, China
| | - Li Cheng
- Department of Hematology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100071, China
| | - Honghao Gao
- Department of Hematology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100071, China
| | - Jiale Zhang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Sixth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Fuchenglu 6#, Haidian District, Beijing, 100048, China
| | - Yanxin Dong
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Sixth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Fuchenglu 6#, Haidian District, Beijing, 100048, China
| | - Wenda Gao
- Antagen Institute for Biomedical Research, Boston, MA, 02021, USA
| | - Shunzong Yuan
- Department of Hematology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100071, China; PLA 307 Clinical College of Anhui Medical University, Beijing, 100071, China.
| | - Taiqian Gong
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Sixth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Fuchenglu 6#, Haidian District, Beijing, 100048, China.
| | - Wenrong Huang
- Department of Hematology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100071, China.
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2
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Li Y, Wang Q, Li J, Li A, Wang Q, Zhang Q, Chen Y. Therapeutic modulation of V Set and Ig domain-containing 4 (VSIG4) signaling in immune and inflammatory diseases. Cytotherapy 2023; 25:561-572. [PMID: 36642683 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcyt.2022.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Inflammation is the result of acute and chronic stresses, caused by emotional or physical trauma, or nutritional or environmental pollutants, and brings serious harm to human life and health. As an important cellular component of the innate immune barrier, the macrophage plays a key role in maintaining tissue homeostasis and promoting tissue repair by controlling infection and resolving inflammation. Several studies suggest that V Set and Ig domain-containing 4 is specifically expressed in tissue macrophages and is associated with a variety of inflammatory diseases. In this paper, we mainly summarize the recent research on V Set and Ig domain-containing 4 structures, functions, function and roles in acute and chronic inflammatory diseases, and provide a novel therapeutic avenue for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, including nervous system, urinary, respiratory and metabolic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- You Li
- Chronic Disease Research Center, Medical College, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Engineering Technology Research Center for the Utilization of Functional Components of Organic Natural Products, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Chronic Disease Research Center, Medical College, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Engineering Technology Research Center for the Utilization of Functional Components of Organic Natural Products, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Jiaxin Li
- Chronic Disease Research Center, Medical College, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Engineering Technology Research Center for the Utilization of Functional Components of Organic Natural Products, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Aohan Li
- Chronic Disease Research Center, Medical College, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Engineering Technology Research Center for the Utilization of Functional Components of Organic Natural Products, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Qianqian Wang
- Chronic Disease Research Center, Medical College, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Engineering Technology Research Center for the Utilization of Functional Components of Organic Natural Products, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Qinggao Zhang
- Chronic Disease Research Center, Medical College, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Engineering Technology Research Center for the Utilization of Functional Components of Organic Natural Products, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China.
| | - Yingqing Chen
- Chronic Disease Research Center, Medical College, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Engineering Technology Research Center for the Utilization of Functional Components of Organic Natural Products, Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China.
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3
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Zhou X, Khan S, Huang D, Li L. V-Set and immunoglobulin domain containing (VSIG) proteins as emerging immune checkpoint targets for cancer immunotherapy. Front Immunol 2022; 13:938470. [PMID: 36189222 PMCID: PMC9520664 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.938470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of immune checkpoint inhibitors is becoming a promising approach to fight cancers. Antibodies targeting immune checkpoint proteins such as CTLA-4 and PD-1 can reinvigorate endogenous antitumor T-cell responses and bring durable advantages to several malignancies. However, only a small subset of patients benefit from these checkpoint inhibitors. Identification of new immune checkpoints with the aim of combination blockade of multiple immune inhibitory pathways is becoming necessary to improve efficiency. Recently, several B7 family-related proteins, TIGIT, VSIG4, and VSIG3, which belong to the VSIG family, have attracted substantial attention as coinhibitory receptors during T-cell activation. By interacting with their corresponding ligands, these VSIG proteins inhibit T-cell responses and maintain an immune suppressive microenvironment in tumors. These results indicated that VSIG family members are becoming putative immune checkpoints in cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we summarized the function of each VSIG protein in regulating immune responses and in tumor progression, thus providing an overview of our current understanding of VSIG family members.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Zhou
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Sohail Khan
- Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Dabing Huang
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- *Correspondence: Dabing Huang, ; Lu Li,
| | - Lu Li
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- *Correspondence: Dabing Huang, ; Lu Li,
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4
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Jeon GH, Lee DS, Byun JM, Kim KT, Jeong DH. Immunoregulatory protein V-set and immunoglobulin domain-containing 4 is overexpressed in patients with endometriosis. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2020; 47:119-127. [PMID: 32830403 DOI: 10.1111/jog.14439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIM V-set and immunoglobulin domain-containing 4 (VSIG4) is a potent negative regulator of T-cell responses and is suggested to regulate antitumor immunity. This study investigates whether VSIG4 is significantly expressed in endometriosis patients and the association between VSIG4 levels and serum cancer antigen (CA)-125 levels, VSIG4 levels and endometriosis severity. METHODS Tumor tissues and peripheral blood samples were obtained during surgery from 42 endometriotic cyst and 21 nonendometriotic tumor patients. The levels of VSIG4 mRNA, VSIG4 protein expression in tumor tissue and serum soluble VSIG4 concentration were compared between the two groups. After dividing the cohort using the optimized cut-off values obtained by receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, we examined the association between VSIG4 levels and serum CA-125 levels, VSIG4 levels and the factors indicating endometriosis severity. RESULTS The expressions of VSIG4 mRNA, VSIG4 protein and serum VSIG4 concentration were significantly increased in the endometriotic cyst group compared with the control group (P = 0.001, 0.002 and 0.049, respectively). The optimized VSIG4 cut-off values for endometriosis prediction were 0.71, 0.32 and 144.37 pg/mL, respectively. After cohort division using these values, high VSIG4 levels group showed significantly elevated CA-125 compared with low VSIG4 level group (P = 0.010, 0.043 and 0.039, respectively). There was no association between VSIG4 levels and the factors indicating endometriosis severity. CONCLUSION The expression of VSIG4 in endometriosis patients is increased compared with nonendometriotic tumor patients, and higher VSIG4 levels are significantly associated with higher serum CA-125 levels. VSIG4 may be importantly involved in the immunological alteration of endometriosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyun-Ho Jeon
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Haeundae Paik Hospital, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Sim Lee
- Paik Institute for Clinical Research, Busan, Republic of Korea.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Busan Paik Hospital, Inje University College of Medicine, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Mi Byun
- Paik Institute for Clinical Research, Busan, Republic of Korea.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Busan Paik Hospital, Inje University College of Medicine, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Tae Kim
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Dong-eui Hospital, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Hoon Jeong
- Paik Institute for Clinical Research, Busan, Republic of Korea.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Busan Paik Hospital, Inje University College of Medicine, Busan, Republic of Korea
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Yuan S, Wang Y, Luo H, Jiang Z, Qiao B, Jiang Y, Hu Y, Cheng Y, Chen X, Gong W, Huang Y, Zhao W, Luo D, Liu B, Su H, Zhou J, Song S. Serum soluble VSIG4 as a surrogate marker for the diagnosis of lymphoma-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Br J Haematol 2020; 189:72-83. [PMID: 31960419 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.16299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Lymphoma-associated haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (L-HLH) is characterized by excessively activated macrophages and cytotoxic T lymphocytes, but few reliable markers for activated macrophages are available clinically. This study, designed to discover novel biomarkers for the diagnosis of lymphoma patients with L-HLH, was initiated between 2016 and 2018. Fifty-seven adult lymphoma patients were enrolled - 39 without HLH and 18 with HLH. The differential serum protein expression profile was first screened between lymphoma patients with and without L-HLH by a quantitative mass spectrometric approach. Soluble V-set and immunoglobulin domain-containing 4 (sVSIG4), specifically expressed by macrophages, was significantly upregulated in the L-HLH group. Subsequently, sVSIG4 concentration was confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to be significantly increased in lymphoma patients with L-HLH. When it was exploited for the diagnosis of lymphoma patients with L-HLH, the area under a receiver operating characteristic curve was 0·98 with an optimal cut-off point of 2195 pg/ml and the corresponding sensitivity and specificity were 94·44% and 94·87% respectively. In addition, the one-year overall survival was significantly worse in patients with a sVSIG4 concentration above 2195 pg/ml compared with those below 2195 pg/ml (5·3% vs. 72·2%, P < 0·0001). sVSIG4 may be a surrogate marker of activated macrophages for the diagnosis of lymphoma patients with L-HLH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunzong Yuan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital (Former 307th hospital of the PLA), Beijing, China
| | - Yanqing Wang
- Department of Lymphoma, Head and Neck Cancer, The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital (Former 307th hospital of the PLA), Beijing, China
| | - Hui Luo
- Department of Hematology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Zheng Jiang
- Laboratory of Oncology, The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital (Former 307th hospital of the PLA), Beijing, China
| | - Bing Qiao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital (Former 307th hospital of the PLA), Beijing, China
| | - Yan Jiang
- Department of Lymphoma, Head and Neck Cancer, The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital (Former 307th hospital of the PLA), Beijing, China
| | - Yaning Hu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital (Former 307th hospital of the PLA), Beijing, China
| | - Yang Cheng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital (Former 307th hospital of the PLA), Beijing, China
| | - Xilin Chen
- Department of Lymphoma, Head and Neck Cancer, The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital (Former 307th hospital of the PLA), Beijing, China
| | - Weihua Gong
- Department of Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yong Huang
- Department of Pathology, The PLA 81st Group Army Hospital, Zhangjiakou, China
| | - Weipeng Zhao
- Department of Breast Cancer, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Deyan Luo
- Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Bing Liu
- Laboratory of Oncology, The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital (Former 307th hospital of the PLA), Beijing, China
| | - Hang Su
- Department of Lymphoma, Head and Neck Cancer, The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital (Former 307th hospital of the PLA), Beijing, China
| | - Jianfeng Zhou
- Department of Hematology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Shiping Song
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital (Former 307th hospital of the PLA), Beijing, China
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Zhu S, Tan W, Li W, Zhou R, Wu X, Chen X, Li W, Shang C, Chen Y. Low expression of VSIG4 is associated with poor prognosis in hepatocellular carcinoma patients with hepatitis B infection. Cancer Manag Res 2018; 10:3697-3705. [PMID: 30288101 PMCID: PMC6159793 DOI: 10.2147/cmar.s165822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background V-set and immunoglobulin domain containing protein 4 (VSIG4) was reported to play an important role in tumorigenesis. However, the expression and clinical relevance in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain unknown. Materials and methods First, the mRNA profiles of HCC were screened from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus databases. VSIG4, a differentially expressed gene that has not been reported in HCC, was distinguished. Second, the correlation between VSIG4 expression and the prognosis of HCC patients from TCGA was analyzed. Third, VSIG4 mRNA level was detected in 36 pairs of HCC tissues and 4 HCC cell lines by PCR assay. And finally, prognosis analysis was assessed for 36 HCC patients with different expression levels of VSIG4. Results Bioinformatics analysis showed that VSIG4 expression was downregulated in HCC tissues, and the expression level of VSIG4 was negatively correlated with serum alpha fetal protein (AFP) level and tumor distant metastasis. Survival analysis of all HCC patients in TCGA indicated that the overall survival and disease-free survival were not significantly associated with VSIG4 expression. However, subgroup analysis showed that in the patients with hepatitis B virus-related HCC, both overall survival and disease-free survival were shorter in the low VSIG4 expression group. Our PCR results further showed that VSIG4 expression was significantly decreased in HCC tissues and HCC cell lines, and the disease-free survival in hepatitis B virus-related HCC patients with low VSIG4 expression was shorter than in those with high VSIG4 expression, which was consistent with the bioinformatics analysis results. Conclusion Our study suggests that VSIG4 is downregulated in HCC, and low expression of VSIG4 is associated with poor prognosis in hepatitis B virus-related HCC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sicong Zhu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Malignant Tumor Epigenetics and Gene Regulation, Medical Research Center, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China, ,
| | - Wenliang Tan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Malignant Tumor Epigenetics and Gene Regulation, Medical Research Center, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China, ,
| | - Wenxin Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Malignant Tumor Epigenetics and Gene Regulation, Medical Research Center, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China, ,
| | - Rui Zhou
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Malignant Tumor Epigenetics and Gene Regulation, Medical Research Center, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China, ,
| | - Xiaolin Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Malignant Tumor Epigenetics and Gene Regulation, Medical Research Center, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China, ,
| | - Xianqing Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Malignant Tumor Epigenetics and Gene Regulation, Medical Research Center, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China, ,
| | - Wenda Li
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China, ,
| | - Changzhen Shang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China, ,
| | - Yajin Chen
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Sun Yat- sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China, ,
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van Lookeren Campagne M, Verschoor A. Pathogen clearance and immune adherence "revisited": Immuno-regulatory roles for CRIg. Semin Immunol 2018; 37:4-11. [PMID: 29573978 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2018.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Rapid elimination of microbes from the bloodstream, along with the ability to mount an adaptive immune response, are essential for optimal host-defense. Kupffer cells are strategically positioned in the liver sinusoids and efficiently capture circulating microbes from the hepatic artery and portal vein, thus preventing bacterial dissemination. In vivo and in vitro studies have probed how complement receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily (CRIg), also referred to as Z39Ig and V-set and Ig domain-containing 4 (VSIG4), acts as a critical player in pathogen recognition and clearance. While recent data suggested that CRIg may bind bacterial cell wall components directly, the single transmembrane receptor is best known for its interaction with complement C3 opsonization products on the microbial surface. On Kupffer cells, CRIg must capture opsonized microbes against the shear forces of the blood flow. In vivo work reveals how immune adherence (IA), a process in which blood platelets or erythrocytes associate with circulating bacteria, plays a critical role in regulating pathogen capture by CRIg under flow conditions. In addition to its typical innate immune functions, CRIg was shown to directly and indirectly influence adaptive immune responses. Here, we review our current understanding of the diverse roles of CRIg in pathogen elimination, anti-microbial immunity and autoimmunity. In particular, we will explore how, through selective capturing by CRIg, an important balance is achieved between the immunological and clearance functions of liver and spleen.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Admar Verschoor
- Institute for Systemic Inflammation Research, Universität zu Lübeck, 23538 Lübeck, Germany.
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Cytokines regulate complement receptor immunoglobulin expression and phagocytosis of Candida albicans in human macrophages: A control point in anti-microbial immunity. Sci Rep 2017. [PMID: 28642550 PMCID: PMC5481325 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-04325-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Complement Receptor Immunoglobulin (CRIg), selectively expressed by macrophages, plays an important role in innate immunity by promoting phagocytosis of bacteria. Thus modulation of CRIg on macrophages by cytokines can be an important mechanism by which cytokines regulate anti-microbial immunity. The effects of the cytokines, tumor necrosis factor, transforming growth factor-β1, interferon-γ, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-13, IL-10, IL-1β, IL-6, lymphotoxin-α, macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) and GM-CSF on CRIg expression were examined in human macrophages. We demonstrated that cytokines regulated the CRIg expression on macrophages during their development from monocytes in culture at the transcriptional level using qPCR and protein by Western blotting. Both CRIg spliced forms (Long and Short), were similarly regulated by cytokines. Direct addition of cytokines to matured CRIg+ macrophages also changed CRIg mRNA expression, suggesting that cytokines control macrophage function via CRIg, at two checkpoints. Interestingly the classical complement receptors, CR3 and CR4 were differentially regulated by cytokines. The changes in CRIg but not CR3/CR4 mRNA expression correlated with ability to phagocytose Candida albicans by macrophages. These findings suggest that CRIg is likely to be a control point in infection and immunity through which cytokines can mediate their effects, and is differentially regulated from CR3 and CR4 by cytokines.
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Jun DY, Kim H, Jang WY, Lee JY, Fukui K, Kim YH. Ectopic overexpression of LAPTM5 results in lysosomal targeting and induces Mcl-1 down-regulation, Bak activation, and mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in human HeLa cells. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0176544. [PMID: 28464033 PMCID: PMC5413007 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0176544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Human lysosomal-associated protein multispanning membrane 5 (LAPTM5) was identified by an ordered differential display-polymerase chain reaction (ODD-PCR) as an up-regulated cDNA fragment during 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA)-induced differentiation of U937 cells into monocytes/macrophages. After TPA-treatment, the levels of LAPTM5 mRNA and protein increased and reached a maximum at 18-36 h. In healthy human tissues, LAPTM5 mRNA was expressed at high levels in hematopoietic cells and tissues, at low levels in the lung and fetal liver, and was not detected in other non-hematopoietic tissues. LAPTM5 mRNA was detected in immature malignant cells of myeloid lineage, such as K562, HL-60, U937, and THP-1 cells, and in unstimulated peripheral T cells, but was absent or barely detectable in lymphoid malignant or non-hematopoietic malignant cells. The LAPTM5 level in HL-60 cells increased more significantly during TPA-induced monocyte/macrophage differentiation than during DMSO-induced granulocyte differentiation. Ectopic expression of GFP-LAPTM5 or LAPTM5 in HeLa cells exhibited the localization of LAPTM5 to the lysosome. In HeLa cells overexpressing LAPTM5, the Mcl-1 and Bid levels declined markedly and apoptosis was induced via Bak activation, Δψm loss, activation of caspase-9, -8 and -3, and PARP degradation without accompanying necrosis. However, these LAPTM5-induced apoptotic events except for the decline of Bid level were completely abrogated by concomitant overexpression of Mcl-1. The pan-caspase inhibitor (z-VAD-fmk) could suppress the LAPTM5-induced apoptotic sub-G1 peak by ~40% but failed to block the induced Δψm loss, whereas the broad-range inhibitor of cathepsins (Cathepsin Inhibitor I) could suppress the LAPTM5-induced apoptotic sub-G1 peak and Δψm loss, by ~22% and ~23%, respectively, suggesting that the LAPTM5-mediated Δψm loss was exerted at least in part in a cathepsin-dependent manner. Together, these results demonstrate that ectopic overexpression of LAPTM5 in HeLa cells induced apoptosis via cleavage of Mcl-1 and Bid by a LAPTM5-associated lysosomal pathway, and subsequent activation of the mitochondria-dependent caspase cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Do Youn Jun
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, College of Natural Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
- Institute of Life Science and Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
| | - Hyejin Kim
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, College of Natural Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
| | - Won Young Jang
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, College of Natural Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
| | - Ji Young Lee
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, College of Natural Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
| | - Kiyoshi Fukui
- Institute for Enzyme Research, Division of Gene Regulatorics, University of Tokushima, Kuramoto-cho, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Young Ho Kim
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, College of Natural Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
- * E-mail:
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10
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Ma Y, Usuwanthim K, Munawara U, Quach A, Gorgani NN, Abbott CA, Hii CS, Ferrante A. Protein kinase cα regulates the expression of complement receptor Ig in human monocyte-derived macrophages. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 194:2855-61. [PMID: 25687755 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1303477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The complement receptor Ig (CRIg) is selectively expressed by macrophages. This receptor not only promotes the rapid phagocytosis of bacteria by macrophages but also has anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive functions. Previous findings have suggested that protein kinase C (PKC) may be involved in the regulation of CRIg expression in human macrophages. We have now examined the role of PKCα in CRIg expression in human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM). Macrophages nucleofected with plasmid containing short hairpin RNA against PKCα showed markedly reduced expression of PKCα, but normal PKCζ expression, by Western blotting analysis, and vice versa. PKCα-deficient MDM showed increased expression of CRIg mRNA and protein (both the long and short form), an increase in phagocytosis of complement-opsonized Candida albicans, and decreased production of TNF-α and IL-6. TNF-α caused a marked decrease in CRIg expression, and addition of anti-TNF mAb to the TNF-α-producing MDMs increased CRIg expression. PKCα-deficient macrophages also showed significantly less bacterial LPS-induced downregulation of CRIg. In contrast, cells deficient in PKCα showed decreased expression of CR type 3 (CR3) and decreased production of TNF-α and IL-6 in response to LPS. MDM developed under conditions that increased expression of CRIg over CR3 showed significantly reduced production of TNF-α in response to opsonized C. albicans. The findings indicate that PKCα promotes the downregulation of CRIg and upregulation of CR3 expression and TNF-α and IL-6 production, a mechanism that may promote inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuefang Ma
- Department of Immunopathology, SA Pathology, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5006, Australia; School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Kanchana Usuwanthim
- Department of Immunopathology, SA Pathology, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5006, Australia; School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia; Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand
| | - Usma Munawara
- Department of Immunopathology, SA Pathology, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5006, Australia; School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia; School of Biological Science, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Alex Quach
- Department of Immunopathology, SA Pathology, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5006, Australia; School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Nick N Gorgani
- Department of Immunopathology, SA Pathology, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5006, Australia; School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia; Children's Medical Research Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, New South Wales 2145, Australia
| | - Catherine A Abbott
- School of Biological Science, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Charles S Hii
- Department of Immunopathology, SA Pathology, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5006, Australia; School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Antonio Ferrante
- Department of Immunopathology, SA Pathology, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5006, Australia; School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia; School of Molecular Biosciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia; and School of Pharmaceutical and Medical Science, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
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11
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Bohlson SS, O'Conner SD, Hulsebus HJ, Ho MM, Fraser DA. Complement, c1q, and c1q-related molecules regulate macrophage polarization. Front Immunol 2014; 5:402. [PMID: 25191325 PMCID: PMC4139736 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Complement is a critical system of enzymes, regulatory proteins, and receptors that regulates both innate and adaptive immune responses. Natural mutations in complement molecules highlight their requirement in regulation of a variety of human conditions including infectious disease and autoimmunity. As sentinels of the immune system, macrophages are specialized to respond to infectious microbes, as well as normal and altered self, and dictate appropriate immune responses. Complement components such as anaphylatoxins (C3a and C5a) and opsonins [C3b, C1q, mannan binding lectin (MBL)] influence macrophage responses. While anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a trigger inflammasome activation, opsonins such as C1q and related molecules (MBL and adiponectin) downregulate inflammasome activation and inflammation, and upregulate engulfment of apoptotic cells consistent with a pro-resolving or M2 macrophage phenotype. This review summarizes our current understanding of the influence of the complement system on macrophage polarization with an emphasis on C1q and related molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne S Bohlson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Des Moines University , Des Moines, IA , USA
| | - Sean D O'Conner
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Des Moines University , Des Moines, IA , USA
| | - Holly Jo Hulsebus
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Des Moines University , Des Moines, IA , USA
| | - Minh-Minh Ho
- Department of Biologicial Sciences, California State University Long Beach , Long Beach, CA , USA
| | - Deborah A Fraser
- Department of Biologicial Sciences, California State University Long Beach , Long Beach, CA , USA
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12
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VSIG4 expression on macrophages facilitates lung cancer development. J Transl Med 2014; 94:706-15. [PMID: 24862966 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2014.73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2013] [Revised: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 04/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages are a prominent component of lung cancer stroma and contribute to tumor progression. The protein V-set and Ig domain-containing 4 (VSIG4), a novel B7 family-related macrophage protein that has the capacity to inhibit T-cell activation, has a potential role in the development of lung cancer. In this study, 10 human non-small-cell lung cancer specimens were collected and immunohistochemically analyzed for VSIG4 expression. Results showed massive VSIG4(+) cell infiltration throughout the samples. Immunofluorescent double staining showed that VSIG4 was present on CD68(+) macrophages, but absent from CD3(+) T cells, CD31(+) endothelial cells, and CK-18(+) epithelial cells. Moreover, VSIG4 was coexpressed on B7-H1(+) and B7-H3(+) cells in these tumor specimens. Transfection of the VSIG4 gene into 293FT cells demonstrated that the VSIG4 signal could inhibit cocultured CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell proliferation and cytokine (IL-2 and IFN-γ) production in vitro. Interestingly, in a murine tumor model induced by Lewis lung carcinoma cell line, we found that tumors grown in VSIG4-deficient (VSIG4(-/-)) mice were significantly smaller than those found in wild-type littermates. All of these results demonstrate that macrophage-associated VSIG4 is an activator that facilitates lung carcinoma development. Specific targeting of VSIG4 may prove to be a novel, efficacious strategy for the treatment of this carcinoma.
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13
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Sturtz LA, Deyarmin B, van Laar R, Yarina W, Shriver CD, Ellsworth RE. Gene expression differences in adipose tissue associated with breast tumorigenesis. Adipocyte 2014; 3:107-14. [PMID: 24719783 DOI: 10.4161/adip.28250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2014] [Revised: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Long thought to function only as an inert energy storage depot, the role of adipose tissue in breast tumorigenesis has been largely ignored. In light of increasing rates of obesity and use of breast conserving therapy and autologous fat grafting, improved understanding of the role of adipose tissue in tumor etiology is crucial. Thus, adipose tissue adjacent to and distant from invasive breast tumors (n = 20), or adjacent to non-malignant diagnoses (n = 20) was laser microdissected from post-menopausal women. Gene expression data were generated using microarrays and data analyzed to identify significant patterns of differential expression between adipose tissue groups at the individual gene and molecular pathway level. Pathway analysis revealed significant differences in immune response between non-malignant, distant, and tumor-adjacent adipose tissue, with the highest response in tumor-adjacent and lowest in non-malignant adipose tissue. Adipose tissue from invasive breasts exhibits increased expression of anti-inflammatory genes such as MARCO and VSIG4 while genes differentially expressed between tumor-adjacent and distant adipose tissue such as SPP1, RRM2, and MMP9, are associated with increased cellular proliferation, invasion, and angiogenesis. These data suggest that molecular profiles of adipose tissue differ depending on presence of or proximity to tumor cells. Heightened immunotolerance in adipose tissue from invasive breasts provides a microenvironment favorable to tumorigenesis. In addition, tumor-adjacent adipose tissue demonstrates expression of genes associated with tumor growth and progression. Thus, adipose tissue is not an inert component of the breast microenvironment but plays an active role in tumorigenesis.
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14
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Zheng F, Put S, Bouwens L, Lahoutte T, Matthys P, Muyldermans S, De Baetselier P, Devoogdt N, Raes G, Schoonooghe S. Molecular imaging with macrophage CRIg-targeting nanobodies for early and preclinical diagnosis in a mouse model of rheumatoid arthritis. J Nucl Med 2014; 55:824-9. [PMID: 24686780 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.113.130617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED An accurate and noninvasive tracer able to detect molecular events underlying the development of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) would be useful for RA diagnosis and drug efficacy assessment. A complement receptor of the Ig superfamily (CRIg) is expressed on synovial macrophages of RA patients, making it an interesting target for molecular imaging of RA. We aim to develop a radiotracer for the visualization of CRIg in a mouse model for RA using radiolabeled single-domain variable antibody VHH fragments (Nanobodies). METHODS Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to locate CRIg expression in mice with collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). A Nanobody, NbV4m119, was generated to specifically target CRIg. Flow cytometry, phosphorimaging, and confocal microscopy were used to confirm NbVm119 binding to CRIg-positive cells. SPECT (SPECT/CT) was used to image arthritic lesions in the inflamed paws of 29 mice using (99m)Tc-NbV4m119 Nanobody. RESULTS CRIg is constitutively expressed in the liver and was found to be upregulated in synovial tissues of CIA mice. SPECT/CT imaging revealed that (99m)Tc-NbV4m119 specifically targeted CRIg-positive liver macrophages in naïve wild-type but not in CRIg(-/-) (CRIg knockout) mice. In CIA mice, (99m)Tc-NbV4m119 accumulation in arthritic lesions increased according to the severity of the inflammation. In the knees of mice with CIA, (99m)Tc-NbV4m119 was found to accumulate even before the onset of macroscopic clinical symptoms. CONCLUSION SPECT/CT imaging with (99m)Tc-NbV4m119 visualizes joint inflammation in CIA. Furthermore, imaging could predict which mice will develop clinical symptoms during CIA. Consequently, imaging of joint inflammation with CRIg-specific Nanobodies offers perspectives for clinical applications in RA patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Zheng
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
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15
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Zhao M, Shi Y, Zhu X, Chen K, Pan D, Wei C. Molecular Characterization and Expression Analysis of VSIG4 from the Asian Yellow Pond Turtle, Mauremys mutica. Biochem Genet 2012; 50:946-58. [DOI: 10.1007/s10528-012-9534-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2011] [Accepted: 06/13/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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16
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He JQ, Wiesmann C, van Lookeren Campagne M. A role of macrophage complement receptor CRIg in immune clearance and inflammation. Mol Immunol 2008; 45:4041-7. [PMID: 18752851 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2008.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2008] [Accepted: 07/06/2008] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Complement receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily (CRIg), also referred to as Z39Ig and V-set and Ig domain-containing 4 (VSIG4), has recently been implicated in the clearance of systemic pathogens and autologous cells. CRIg is exclusively expressed on tissue resident macrophages and binds to multimers of C3b and iC3b that are covalently attached to particle surfaces. Next to functioning as an important clearance receptor, CRIg's extracellular domain inhibits complement activation through the alternative, but not the classical, pathway, providing a novel tool to selectively block this pathway in vivo. Here, we review a role for CRIg in immune clearance, T-cell responses and complement regulation, and discuss the implications for disease manifestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeannie Q He
- Department of Immunology, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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17
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Tanaka M, Nagai T, Tsuneyoshi Y, Sunahara N, Matsuda T, Nakamura T, Tsuyama S, Hasui K, FitzGerald O, Matsuyama T. Expansion of a unique macrophage subset in rheumatoid arthritis synovial lining layer. Clin Exp Immunol 2008; 154:38-47. [PMID: 18727628 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2008.03733.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The Z39Ig protein (complement receptor for C3b and iC3b) is expressed on resident tissue macrophages in various tissues. This study was undertaken to examine the distribution of Z39Ig+cells and their phenotypic features in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovium, in comparison with those of osteoarthritis (OA) and psoriatic arthritis (PsA) synovium. Monoclonal anti-Z39Ig antibody was produced by immunizing Z39Ig transfected murine pre B cells and used for the identification of Z39Ig+cells. Z39Ig+cells were further stained with antibodies to macrophages, fibroblast-like synoviocytes, complement receptors and dendritic cells by using the double immunostaining method in normal, RA, OA and PsA synovium. RA synovial mononuclear cells were double-stained using anti-Z39Ig and anti-CD11c antibodies and sorted into Z39Ig+CD11c+cells and Z39Ig+CD11c-cells. These cell populations were then analysed by electron microscopy. The expression of the Z39Ig protein was limited to intimal macrophages in normal, RA, OA and PsA synovium. The numbers of Z39Ig+CD11c+cells and the ratios of Z39Ig+CD11c+cells to Z39Ig+cells were increased in the synovial lining layer of RA as compared with those of OA and PsA. The ultrastructural analysis of Z39Ig+CD11c+cells showed the character of macrophages with many secondary lysosomes and swelling of mitochondria. Z39Ig+ cells appeared to be useful for identification of resident tissue macrophages in normal synovium and the corresponding macrophages in the synovial lining layer of inflammatory arthritis. Expansion of Z39Ig+CD11c+cells was characteristic of RA synovial lining layer.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Tanaka
- Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
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18
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Pellagatti A, Jädersten M, Forsblom AM, Cattan H, Christensson B, Emanuelsson EK, Merup M, Nilsson L, Samuelsson J, Sander B, Wainscoat JS, Boultwood J, Hellström-Lindberg E. Lenalidomide inhibits the malignant clone and up-regulates the SPARC gene mapping to the commonly deleted region in 5q- syndrome patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:11406-11. [PMID: 17576924 PMCID: PMC1892786 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0610477104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs) are a group of hematopoietic stem cell disorders characterized by ineffective hematopoiesis and peripheral blood cytopenias. Lenalidomide has dramatic therapeutic effects in patients with low-risk MDS and a chromosome 5q31 deletion, resulting in complete cytogenetic remission in >60% of patients. The molecular basis of this remarkable drug response is unknown. To gain insight into the molecular targets of lenalidomide we investigated its in vitro effects on growth, maturation, and global gene expression in isolated erythroblast cultures from MDS patients with del(5)(q31). Lenalidomide inhibited growth of differentiating del(5q) erythroblasts but did not affect cytogenetically normal cells. Moreover, lenalidomide significantly influenced the pattern of gene expression in del(5q) intermediate erythroblasts, with the VSIG4, PPIC, TPBG, activin A, and SPARC genes up-regulated by >2-fold in all samples and many genes involved in erythropoiesis, including HBA2, GYPA, and KLF1, down-regulated in most samples. Activin A, one of the most significant differentially expressed genes between lenalidomide-treated cells from MDS patients and healthy controls, has pleiotropic functions, including apoptosis of hematopoietic cells. Up-regulation and increased protein expression of the tumor suppressor gene SPARC is of particular interest because it is antiproliferative, antiadhesive, and antiangiogenic and is located at 5q31-q32, within the commonly deleted region in MDS 5q- syndrome. We conclude that lenalidomide inhibits growth of del(5q) erythroid progenitors and that the up-regulation of SPARC and activin A may underlie the potent effects of lenalidomide in MDS with del(5)(q31). SPARC may play a role in the pathogenesis of the 5q- syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Pellagatti
- *Leukaemia Research Fund Molecular Haematology Unit, Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Jädersten
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, SE-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ann-Mari Forsblom
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, SE-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Helen Cattan
- *Leukaemia Research Fund Molecular Haematology Unit, Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, United Kingdom
| | - Birger Christensson
- Department of Pathology, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, SE-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Emma K. Emanuelsson
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, SE-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mats Merup
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, SE-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lars Nilsson
- Hematopoietic Stem Cell Laboratory, Lund Strategic Research Center for Stem Cell Biology and Cell Therapy, Lund University, SE-221 84 Lund, Sweden
- Department of Hematology, Lund University Hospital, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden; and
| | - Jan Samuelsson
- Department of Medicine, South Hospital, SE-118 83 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Birgitta Sander
- Department of Pathology, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, SE-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - James S. Wainscoat
- *Leukaemia Research Fund Molecular Haematology Unit, Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, United Kingdom
| | - Jacqueline Boultwood
- *Leukaemia Research Fund Molecular Haematology Unit, Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, United Kingdom
| | - Eva Hellström-Lindberg
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, SE-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
- **To whom correspondence should be addressed: E-mail:
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19
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Torres A, Storey L, Anders M, Miller RL, Bulbulian BJ, Jin J, Raghavan S, Lee J, Slade HB, Birmachu W. Immune-mediated changes in actinic keratosis following topical treatment with imiquimod 5% cream. J Transl Med 2007; 5:7. [PMID: 17257431 PMCID: PMC1796543 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-5-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2006] [Accepted: 01/26/2007] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The objective of this study was to identify the molecular processes responsible for the anti-lesional activity of imiquimod in subjects with actinic keratosis using global gene expression profiling. Methods A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized study was conducted to evaluate gene expression changes in actinic keratosis treated with imiquimod 5% cream. Male subjects (N = 17) with ≥ 5 actinic keratosis on the scalp applied placebo cream or imiquimod 3 times a week on nonconsecutive days for 4 weeks. To elucidate the molecular processes involved in actinic keratosis lesion regression by imiquimod, gene expression analysis using oligonucleotide arrays and real time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction were performed on shave biopsies of lesions taken before and after treatment. Results Imiquimod modulated the expression of a large number of genes important in both the innate and adaptive immune response, including increased expression of interferon-inducible genes with known antiviral, anti-proliferative and immune modulatory activity, as well as various Toll-like receptors. In addition, imiquimod increased the expression of genes associated with activation of macrophages, dendritic cells, cytotoxic T cells, and natural killer cells, as well as activation of apoptotic pathways. Conclusion Data suggest that topical application of imiquimod stimulates cells in the skin to secrete cytokines and chemokines that lead to inflammatory cell influx into the lesions and subsequent apoptotic and immune cell-mediated destruction of lesions.
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MESH Headings
- Adaptive Immunity/drug effects
- Adaptive Immunity/genetics
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/pharmacology
- Administration, Topical
- Aged
- Aged, 80 and over
- Aminoquinolines/administration & dosage
- Aminoquinolines/therapeutic use
- Apoptosis/drug effects
- Apoptosis/genetics
- Cell Proliferation/drug effects
- Chemokines/genetics
- Chemokines/metabolism
- Demography
- Dendritic Cells/drug effects
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Dosage Forms
- Gene Expression Profiling
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Humans
- Imiquimod
- Immunity, Innate/drug effects
- Immunity, Innate/genetics
- Interferon Type I/pharmacology
- Keratosis, Actinic/drug therapy
- Keratosis, Actinic/genetics
- Keratosis, Actinic/immunology
- Keratosis, Actinic/pathology
- Killer Cells, Natural/drug effects
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Macrophages/drug effects
- Macrophages/metabolism
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis
- Receptors, Pattern Recognition/metabolism
- Reproducibility of Results
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Abel Torres
- Dermatology Office, Loma Linda University Medical Center, Loma Linda, California, USA
| | - Leslie Storey
- Dermatology Office, Loma Linda University Medical Center, Loma Linda, California, USA
| | - Makala Anders
- Dermatology Office, Loma Linda University Medical Center, Loma Linda, California, USA
| | | | | | - Jizhong Jin
- Pharmacology, 3M Pharmaceuticals, St Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | | | - James Lee
- Medical & Scientific Affairs, 3M Pharmaceuticals, St Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Herbert B Slade
- Medical & Scientific Affairs, 3M Pharmaceuticals, St Paul, Minnesota, USA
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20
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Vogt L, Schmitz N, Kurrer MO, Bauer M, Hinton HI, Behnke S, Gatto D, Sebbel P, Beerli RR, Sonderegger I, Kopf M, Saudan P, Bachmann MF. VSIG4, a B7 family-related protein, is a negative regulator of T cell activation. J Clin Invest 2007; 116:2817-26. [PMID: 17016562 PMCID: PMC1578631 DOI: 10.1172/jci25673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2005] [Accepted: 07/18/2006] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
T cell activation by APCs is positively and negatively regulated by members of the B7 family. We have identified a previously unknown function for B7 family-related protein V-set and Ig domain-containing 4 (VSIG4). In vitro experiments using VSIG4-Ig fusion molecules showed that VSIG4 is a strong negative regulator of murine and human T cell proliferation and IL-2 production. Administration to mice of soluble VSIG4-Ig fusion molecules reduced the induction of T cell responses in vivo and inhibited the production of Th cell-dependent IgG responses. Unlike that of B7 family members, surface expression of VSIG4 was restricted to resting tissue macrophages and absent upon activation by LPS or in autoimmune inflammatory foci. The specific expression of VSIG4 on resting macrophages in tissue suggests that this inhibitory ligand may be important for the maintenance of T cell unresponsiveness in healthy tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenz Vogt
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Schmitz
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael O. Kurrer
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Monika Bauer
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Heather I. Hinton
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Silvia Behnke
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Gatto
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Peter Sebbel
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roger R. Beerli
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ivo Sonderegger
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Manfred Kopf
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Philippe Saudan
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin F. Bachmann
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
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21
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Lee MY, Kim WJ, Kang YJ, Jung YM, Kang YM, Suk K, Park JE, Choi EM, Choi BK, Kwon BS, Lee WH. Z39Ig is expressed on macrophages and may mediate inflammatory reactions in arthritis and atherosclerosis. J Leukoc Biol 2006; 80:922-8. [PMID: 16882875 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0306160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Z39Ig is a transmembrane protein containing two Ig homology domains with unknown functions. Immunohistochemical analyses of human carotid atherosclerotic plaques detected Z39Ig staining in areas rich in foamy macrophages. Z39Ig staining was also observed in macrophages in the lining layers and sublining areas of rheumatoid arthritis synovium. Z39Ig staining in the osteoarthritis synovium was restricted to macrophages in the lining layers. To identify the role(s) of Z39Ig in the function of macrophages, we used human monocytic cell lines TF-1A (Z39Ig-negative) and THP-1 (Z39Ig-positive). The expression of Z39Ig was induced in TF-1A cells ,when they were differentiated into macrophages by treatment with PMA. The stimulation of PMA-treated TF-1A or THP-1 cells with immobilized anti-Z39Ig mAb induced the secretion of IL-8 and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, which was dependent on NF-kappaB activation. These data indicate that the macrophage Z39Ig is involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases through chemokine induction, which will promote the migration of inflammatory cells into the lesion area, and MMP-9 induction, which will contribute to cartilage destruction or extracellular matrix degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Young Lee
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Taegu 702-701, Korea
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22
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Helmy KY, Katschke KJ, Gorgani NN, Kljavin NM, Elliott JM, Diehl L, Scales SJ, Ghilardi N, van Lookeren Campagne M. CRIg: a macrophage complement receptor required for phagocytosis of circulating pathogens. Cell 2006; 124:915-27. [PMID: 16530040 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2005.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 394] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2005] [Revised: 09/08/2005] [Accepted: 12/09/2005] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The complement system serves an important role in clearance of pathogens, immune complexes, and apoptotic cells present in the circulation. Complement fragments deposited on the particle surface serve as targets for complement receptors present on phagocytic cells. Although Kupffer cells, the liver resident macrophages, play a dominant role in clearing particles in circulation, complement receptors involved in this process have yet to be identified. Here we report the identification and characterization of a Complement Receptor of the Immunoglobulin superfamily, CRIg, that binds complement fragments C3b and iC3b. CRIg expression on Kupffer cells is required for efficient binding and phagocytosis of complement C3-opsonized particles. In turn, Kupffer cells from CRIg-deficient mice are unable to efficiently clear C3-opsonized pathogens in the circulation, resulting in increased infection and mortality of the host. CRIg therefore represents a dominant component of the phagocytic system responsible for rapid clearance of C3-opsonized particles from the circulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karim Y Helmy
- Department of Immunology, Genentech Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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23
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Gemelli C, Montanari M, Tenedini E, Zanocco Marani T, Vignudelli T, Siena M, Zini R, Salati S, Tagliafico E, Manfredini R, Grande A, Ferrari S. Virally mediated MafB transduction induces the monocyte commitment of human CD34+ hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. Cell Death Differ 2006; 13:1686-96. [PMID: 16456583 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Upregulation of specific transcription factors is a generally accepted mechanism to explain the commitment of hematopoietic stem cells along precise maturation lineages. Based on this premise, transduction of primary hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells with viral vectors containing the investigated transcription factors appears as a suitable experimental model to identify such regulators. Although MafB transcription factor is believed to play a role in the regulation of monocytic commitment, no demonstration is, to date, available supporting this function in normal human hematopoiesis. To address this issue, we retrovirally transduced cord blood CD34+ hematopoietic progenitors with a MafB cDNA. Immunophenotypic and morphological analysis of transduced cells demonstrated the induction of a remarkable monomacrophage differentiation. Microarray analysis confirmed these findings and disclosed the upregulation of macrophage-related transcription factors belonging to the AP-1, MAF, PPAR and MiT families. Altogether our data allow to conclude that MafB is a key regulator of human monocytopoiesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Gemelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
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24
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Finis K, Sültmann H, Ruschhaupt M, Buness A, Helmchen B, Kuner R, Gross ML, Fink B, Schirmacher P, Poustka A, Berger I. Analysis of pigmented villonodular synovitis with genome-wide complementary DNA microarray and tissue array technology reveals insight into potential novel therapeutic approaches. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 54:1009-19. [PMID: 16508983 DOI: 10.1002/art.21641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To characterize the gene expression profile and determine potential diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets in pigmented villonodular synovitis (PVNS). METHODS Gene expression patterns in 11 patients with PVNS, 18 patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and 19 patients with osteoarthritis (OA) were investigated using genome-wide complementary DNA microarrays. Validation of differentially expressed genes was performed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemical analysis on tissue arrays (80 patients with PVNS, 51 patients with RA, and 20 patients with OA). RESULTS The gene expression profile in PVNS was clearly distinct from those in RA and OA. One hundred forty-one up-regulated genes and 47 down-regulated genes were found in PVNS compared with RA, and 153 up-regulated genes and 89 down-regulated genes were found in PVNS compared with OA (fold change > or = 1.5; Q < or = 0.001). Genes differentially expressed in PVNS were involved in apoptosis regulation, matrix degradation, and inflammation (ALOX5AP, ATP6V1B2, CD53, CHI3L1, CTSL, CXCR4, HSPA8, HSPCA, LAPTM5, MMP9, MOAP1, and SPP1). CONCLUSION The gene expression signature in PVNS is similar to that of activated macrophages and is consistent with the local destructive course of the disease. The gene and protein expression patterns suggest that the ongoing proliferation in PVNS is sustained by apoptosis resistance. This result suggests the possibility of a potential novel therapeutic intervention against PVNS.
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25
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Reiss J, Bonin M, Schwegler H, Sass JO, Garattini E, Wagner S, Lee HJ, Engel W, Riess O, Schwarz G. The pathogenesis of molybdenum cofactor deficiency, its delay by maternal clearance, and its expression pattern in microarray analysis. Mol Genet Metab 2005; 85:12-20. [PMID: 15862276 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2005.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2004] [Revised: 01/28/2005] [Accepted: 01/28/2005] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Molybdenum cofactor (Moco)-deficiency is a lethal autosomal recessive disease, for which until now no effective therapy is available. The biochemical hallmark of this disorder is the inactivity of the Moco-dependent sulfite oxidase, which results in elevated sulfite and diminished sulfate levels throughout the organism. In humans, Moco-deficiency results in neurological damage, which is apparent in untreatable seizures and various brain dysmorphisms. We have recently described a murine model for Moco-deficiency, which reflects all enzyme and metabolite changes observed in the patients, and an efficient therapy using a biosynthetic precursor of Moco has been established in this animal model. We now analyzed these mice in detail and excluded morphological brain damage, while expression analysis with microarrays indicates a massive cell death program. This neuronal damage appears to be triggered by elevated sulfite levels and is ameliorated in affected embryos by maternal clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jochen Reiss
- Institut für Humangenetik der Universität Göttingen, Heinrich-Düker-Weg 12, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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26
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Kim JK, Choi EM, Shin HI, Kim CH, Hwang SH, Kim SM, Kwon BS. Characterization of monoclonal antibody specific to the Z39Ig protein, a member of immunoglobulin superfamily. Immunol Lett 2005; 99:153-61. [PMID: 16009265 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2005.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2005] [Accepted: 02/11/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Z39Ig, a recently identified immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily member, is localized in the pericentromeric region of human chromosome X and detectable in all human tissue, but it is predominantly expressed in fetal human tissues as well as in adult lungs and placenta. In the present study, we generated a monoclonal antibody against Z39Ig protein to investigate the immunological role of Z39Ig protein on various immune cells. The anti-Z39Ig mAb that we generated specifically bound to Z39Ig protein on human promonocytic THP-1 cells, monocytes isolated from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and mature CD14(+) dendritic cells (DC) differentiated from umbilical-cord blood CD34(+) hematopoietic progenitor cells. In addition, a signal through the Z39Ig protein induced an obvious cell surface expression of HLA-DR on THP-1 cells mediated by MHC class II transactivator (CIITA). These data suggest that the Z39Ig protein might be a critical molecule to regulate an immune response mediated by phagocytosis and/or antigen presentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Kyung Kim
- Immunomodulation Research Center, University of Ulsan, South Korea
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27
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Colland F, Jacq X, Trouplin V, Mougin C, Groizeleau C, Hamburger A, Meil A, Wojcik J, Legrain P, Gauthier JM. Functional proteomics mapping of a human signaling pathway. Genome Res 2004; 14:1324-32. [PMID: 15231748 PMCID: PMC442148 DOI: 10.1101/gr.2334104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Access to the human genome facilitates extensive functional proteomics studies. Here, we present an integrated approach combining large-scale protein interaction mapping, exploration of the interaction network, and cellular functional assays performed on newly identified proteins involved in a human signaling pathway. As a proof of principle, we studied the Smad signaling system, which is regulated by members of the transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) superfamily. We used two-hybrid screening to map Smad signaling protein-protein interactions and to establish a network of 755 interactions, involving 591 proteins, 179 of which were poorly or not annotated. The exploration of such complex interaction databases is improved by the use of PIMRider, a dedicated navigation tool accessible through the Web. The biological meaning of this network is illustrated by the presence of 18 known Smad-associated proteins. Functional assays performed in mammalian cells including siRNA knock-down experiments identified eight novel proteins involved in Smad signaling, thus validating this integrated functional proteomics approach.
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28
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Mottram PL. Past, present and future drug treatment for rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Immunol Cell Biol 2003; 81:350-3. [PMID: 12969322 DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1711.2003.01184.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Historically, treatment of complex autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus has aimed to relieve symptoms, and in severe cases, use broad-spectrum immunosuppressive treatments in attempts to induce permanent remission. Recent research into the causes of chronic autoimmune inflammatory activation have not only explored the mechanism of action of known therapies, but also provided a number of new targets for therapy, by identifying the cells, cytokines and signalling pathways activated during autoimmune antibody mediated processes. This review briefly outlines progress in the understanding of the autoimmune nature of rheumatoid diseases and the expansion of treatment options, from broad to specific immunotherapies for these closely related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia L Mottram
- Austin Research Institute, Kronheimer Building, Austin and Repatriation Medical Centre, Melbourne, Australia.
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