1
|
Horn JM, Obermeyer AC. Genetic and Covalent Protein Modification Strategies to Facilitate Intracellular Delivery. Biomacromolecules 2021; 22:4883-4904. [PMID: 34855385 PMCID: PMC9310055 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c00745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Protein-based therapeutics represent a rapidly growing segment of approved disease treatments. Successful intracellular delivery of proteins is an important precondition for expanded in vivo and in vitro applications of protein therapeutics. Direct modification of proteins and peptides for improved cytosolic translocation are a promising method of increasing delivery efficiency and expanding the viability of intracellular protein therapeutics. In this Review, we present recent advances in both synthetic and genetic protein modifications for intracellular delivery. Active endocytosis-based and passive internalization pathways are discussed, followed by a review of modification methods for improved cytosolic delivery. After establishing how proteins can be modified, general strategies for facilitating intracellular delivery, such as chemical supercharging or inclusion of cell-penetrating motifs, are covered. We then outline protein modifications that promote endosomal escape. We finally examine the delivery of two potential classes of therapeutic proteins, antibodies and associated antibody fragments, and gene editing proteins, such as cas9.
Collapse
|
2
|
Dókus LE, Yousef M, Bánóczi Z. Modulators of calpain activity: inhibitors and activators as potential drugs. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2020; 15:471-486. [DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2020.1722638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Levente Endre Dókus
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Mo’ath Yousef
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Bánóczi
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
O’Brien KT, Golla K, Kranjc T, O’Donovan D, Allen S, Maguire P, Simpson JC, O’Connell D, Moran N, Shields DC. Computational and experimental analysis of bioactive peptide linear motifs in the integrin adhesome. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0210337. [PMID: 30689642 PMCID: PMC6349357 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0210337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic modulation of protein interactions is challenging, but short linear motifs (SLiMs) represent potential targets. Focal adhesions play a central role in adhesion by linking cells to the extracellular matrix. Integrins are central to this process, and many other intracellular proteins are components of the integrin adhesome. We applied a peptide network targeting approach to explore the intracellular modulation of integrin function in platelets. Firstly, we computed a platelet-relevant integrin adhesome, inferred via homology of known platelet proteins to adhesome components. We then computationally selected peptides from the set of platelet integrin adhesome cytoplasmic and membrane adjacent protein-protein interfaces. Motifs of interest in the intracellular component of the platelet integrin adhesome were identified using a predictor of SLiMs based on analysis of protein primary amino acid sequences (SLiMPred), a predictor of strongly conserved motifs within disordered protein regions (SLiMPrints), and information from the literature regarding protein interactions in the complex. We then synthesized peptides incorporating these motifs combined with cell penetrating factors (tat peptide and palmitylation for cytoplasmic and membrane proteins respectively). We tested for the platelet activating effects of the peptides, as well as their abilities to inhibit activation. Bioactivity testing revealed a number of peptides that modulated platelet function, including those derived from α-actinin (ACTN1) and syndecan (SDC4), binding to vinculin and syntenin respectively. Both chimeric peptide experiments and peptide combination experiments failed to identify strong effects, perhaps characterizing the adhesome as relatively robust against within-adhesome synergistic perturbation. We investigated in more detail peptides targeting vinculin. Combined experimental and computational evidence suggested a model in which the positively charged tat-derived cell penetrating part of the peptide contributes to bioactivity via stabilizing charge interactions with a region of the ACTN1 negatively charged surface. We conclude that some interactions in the integrin adhesome appear to be capable of modulation by short peptides, and may aid in the identification and characterization of target sites within the complex that may be useful for therapeutic modulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin T. O’Brien
- School of Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Kalyan Golla
- Molecular and Cellular Therapeutics, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Tilen Kranjc
- Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- School of Biology and Environment Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Darragh O’Donovan
- Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Seamus Allen
- Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Patricia Maguire
- Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jeremy C. Simpson
- Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- School of Biology and Environment Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - David O’Connell
- Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Niamh Moran
- Molecular and Cellular Therapeutics, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Denis C. Shields
- School of Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Curcio M, Salazar IL, Mele M, Canzoniero LMT, Duarte CB. Calpains and neuronal damage in the ischemic brain: The swiss knife in synaptic injury. Prog Neurobiol 2016; 143:1-35. [PMID: 27283248 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The excessive extracellular accumulation of glutamate in the ischemic brain leads to an overactivation of glutamate receptors with consequent excitotoxic neuronal death. Neuronal demise is largely due to a sustained activation of NMDA receptors for glutamate, with a consequent increase in the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration and activation of calcium- dependent mechanisms. Calpains are a group of Ca(2+)-dependent proteases that truncate specific proteins, and some of the cleavage products remain in the cell, although with a distinct function. Numerous studies have shown pre- and post-synaptic effects of calpains on glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses, targeting membrane- associated proteins as well as intracellular proteins. The resulting changes in the presynaptic proteome alter neurotransmitter release, while the cleavage of postsynaptic proteins affects directly or indirectly the activity of neurotransmitter receptors and downstream mechanisms. These alterations also disturb the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission in the brain, with an impact in neuronal demise. In this review we discuss the evidence pointing to a role for calpains in the dysregulation of excitatory and inhibitory synapses in brain ischemia, at the pre- and post-synaptic levels, as well as the functional consequences. Although targeting calpain-dependent mechanisms may constitute a good therapeutic approach for stroke, specific strategies should be developed to avoid non-specific effects given the important regulatory role played by these proteases under normal physiological conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michele Curcio
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ivan L Salazar
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Doctoral Programme in Experimental Biology and Biomedicine, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra (IIIUC), 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Miranda Mele
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | | | - Carlos B Duarte
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Seremwe M, Schnellmann RG, Bollag WB. Calpain-10 Activity Underlies Angiotensin II-Induced Aldosterone Production in an Adrenal Glomerulosa Cell Model. Endocrinology 2015; 156:2138-49. [PMID: 25836666 PMCID: PMC4430612 DOI: 10.1210/en.2014-1866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Aldosterone is a steroid hormone important in the regulation of blood pressure. Aberrant production of aldosterone results in the development and progression of diseases including hypertension and congestive heart failure; therefore, a complete understanding of aldosterone production is important for developing more effective treatments. Angiotensin II (AngII) regulates steroidogenesis, in part through its ability to increase intracellular calcium levels. Calcium can activate calpains, proteases classified as typical or atypical based on the presence or absence of penta-EF-hands, which are involved in various cellular responses. We hypothesized that calpain, in particular calpain-10, is activated by AngII in adrenal glomerulosa cells and underlies aldosterone production. Our studies showed that pan-calpain inhibitors reduced AngII-induced aldosterone production in 2 adrenal glomerulosa cell models, primary bovine zona glomerulosa and human adrenocortical carcinoma (HAC15) cells, as well as CYP11B2 expression in the HAC15 cells. Although AngII induced calpain activation in these cells, typical calpain inhibitors had no effect on AngII-elicited aldosterone production, suggesting a lack of involvement of classical calpains in this process. However, an inhibitor of the atypical calpain, calpain-10, decreased AngII-induced aldosterone production. Consistent with this result, small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown of calpain-10 inhibited aldosterone production and CYP11B2 expression, whereas adenovirus-mediated overexpression of calpain-10 resulted in increased AngII-induced aldosterone production. Our results indicate that AngII-induced activation of calpain-10 in glomerulosa cells underlies aldosterone production and identify calpain-10 or its downstream pathways as potential targets for the development of drug therapies for the treatment of hypertension.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mutsa Seremwe
- Charlie Norwood Veterans Administration Medical Center (W.B.B.), Augusta, Georgia 30904; Department of Physiology (M.S., W.B.B.) and Section of Dermatology (W.B.B.), Department of Medicine, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, Georgia 30912; and Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences (R.G.S.), Medical University of South Carolina, and Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center (R.G.S.), Charleston, South Carolina 29425
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
White-Schenk D, Shi R, Leary JF. Nanomedicine strategies for treatment of secondary spinal cord injury. Int J Nanomedicine 2015; 10:923-38. [PMID: 25673988 PMCID: PMC4321603 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s75686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurological injury, such as spinal cord injury, has a secondary injury associated with it. The secondary injury results from the biological cascade after the primary injury and affects previous uninjured, healthy tissue. Therefore, the mitigation of such a cascade would benefit patients suffering a primary injury and allow the body to recover more quickly. Unfortunately, the delivery of effective therapeutics is quite limited. Due to the inefficient delivery of therapeutic drugs, nanoparticles have become a major field of exploration for medical applications. Based on their material properties, they can help treat disease by delivering drugs to specific tissues, enhancing detection methods, or a mixture of both. Incorporating nanomedicine into the treatment of neuronal injury and disease would likely push nanomedicine into a new light. This review highlights the various pathological issues involved in secondary spinal cord injury, current treatment options, and the improvements that could be made using a nanomedical approach.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Désirée White-Schenk
- Interdisciplinary Biomedical Sciences Program, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA ; Birck Nanotechnology Center, Discovery Park, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Riyi Shi
- Interdisciplinary Biomedical Sciences Program, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA ; Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA ; Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Lynn School of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - James F Leary
- Interdisciplinary Biomedical Sciences Program, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA ; Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA ; Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Lynn School of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA ; Birck Nanotechnology Center, Discovery Park, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Davoli E, Sclip A, Cecchi M, Cimini S, Carrà A, Salmona M, Borsello T. Determination of tissue levels of a neuroprotectant drug: the cell permeable JNK inhibitor peptide. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2014; 70:55-61. [PMID: 24814549 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2014.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cell permeable peptides (CPPs) represent a novel tool for the delivery of bioactive molecules into scarcely accessible organs, such as the brain. CPPs have been successfully used in pre-clinical studies for a variety of diseases, ranging from cancer to neurological disorders. However, the mechanisms by which CPPs cross biological membranes, as well as their pharmacokinetic properties, have been poorly explored due to the lack of specific and sensitive analytical methods. METHODS In this paper we describe a protocol to quantitatively determine the amount of CPPs in in vitro and in vivo experimental models. To this end we selected the peptide D-JNKI1 that was shown to prevent neurodegeneration in both acute and chronic degenerative disorders. This method allows an accurate quantitative analysis of D-JNKI1 in both neuronal lysates and tissue homogenates using mass spectrometry and stable isotope dilution approach. RESULTS We found that D-JNKI1 crosses cellular membranes with fast kinetics, through an active and passive mechanism. After acute intraperitoneal (ip) administration of D-JNKI1 in mice, the peptide was found in the main organs with particular regard to the liver and kidney. Interestingly, D-JNKI1 crosses the blood brain barrier (BBB) and reaches the brain, where it remains for one week. DISCUSSION The challenge lies in developing the clinical application of therapeutic cell permeable peptides. Discerning pharmacokinetic properties is a high priority to produce a powerful therapeutic strategy. Overall, our data shed light on the pharmacokinetic properties of D-JNKI1 and supports its powerful neuroprotective effect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Davoli
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Alessandra Sclip
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Matteo Cecchi
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Sara Cimini
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Andrea Carrà
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Mario Salmona
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Tiziana Borsello
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milano, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Hoshino A, Fujioka K, Oku T, Nakamura S, Suga M, Yamaguchi Y, Suzuki K, Yasuhara M, Yamamoto K. Quantum Dots Targeted to the Assigned Organelle in Living Cells. Microbiol Immunol 2013; 48:985-94. [PMID: 15611617 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2004.tb03621.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescent nanocrystal quantum dots (QDs) have the potential to be applied to bioimaging since QDs emit higher and far longer fluorescence than conventional organic probes. Here we show that QDs conjugated with signal peptide obey the order to transport the assigned organelle in living cells. We designed the supermolecule of luminescent QDs conjugated with nuclear- and mitochondria-targeting ligands. When QDs with nuclear-localizing signal peptides were added to the culture media, we can visualize the movements of the QDs being delivered into the nuclear compartment of the cells with 15 min incubation. In addition, mitochondrial signal peptide can also transport QDs to the mitochondria in living cells. In conclusion, these techniques have the possibility that QDs can reveal the transduction of proteins and peptides into specific subcellular compartments as a powerful tool for studying intracellular analysis in vitro and even in vivo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Akiyoshi Hoshino
- Department of Medical Ecology and Informatics, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Conjugation of cell-penetrating peptides leads to identification of anti-HIV peptides from matrix proteins. Bioorg Med Chem 2012; 20:1468-74. [PMID: 22277590 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2011.12.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2011] [Revised: 12/24/2011] [Accepted: 12/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Compounds which inhibit the HIV-1 replication cycle have been found amongst fragment peptides derived from an HIV-1 matrix (MA) protein. Overlapping peptide libraries covering the whole sequence of MA were designed and constructed with the addition of an octa-arginyl group to increase their cell membrane permeability. Imaging experiments with fluorescent-labeled peptides demonstrated these peptides with an octa-arginyl group can penetrate cell membranes. The fusion of an octa-arginyl group was proven to be an efficient way to find active peptides in cells such as HIV-inhibitory peptides.
Collapse
|
10
|
Donkor IO. Calpain inhibitors: a survey of compounds reported in the patent and scientific literature. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2011; 21:601-36. [DOI: 10.1517/13543776.2011.568480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
11
|
Bukowska A, Lendeckel U, Bode-Böger SM, Goette A. Physiologic and Pathophysiologic Role of Calpain: Implications for the Occurrence of Atrial Fibrillation. Cardiovasc Ther 2010; 30:e115-27. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5922.2010.00245.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
|
12
|
Suzuki S, Urano E, Hashimoto C, Tsutsumi H, Nakahara T, Tanaka T, Nakanishi Y, Maddali K, Han Y, Hamatake M, Miyauchi K, Pommier Y, Beutler JA, Sugiura W, Fuji H, Hoshino T, Itotani K, Nomura W, Narumi T, Yamamoto N, Komano JA, Tamamura H. Peptide HIV-1 integrase inhibitors from HIV-1 gene products. J Med Chem 2010; 53:5356-60. [PMID: 20586421 DOI: 10.1021/jm1003528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Anti-HIV peptides with inhibitory activity against HIV-1 integrase (IN) have been found in overlapping peptide libraries derived from HIV-1 gene products. In a strand transfer assay using IN, inhibitory active peptides with certain sequential motifs related to Vpr- and Env-derived peptides were found. The addition of an octa-arginyl group to the inhibitory peptides caused a remarkable inhibition of the strand transfer and 3'-end-processing reactions catalyzed by IN and significant inhibition against HIV replication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shintaro Suzuki
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 2-3-10 Kandasurugadai, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0062, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Synthetic calpain activator boosts neuronal excitability without extra Ca2+. Mol Cell Neurosci 2008; 38:629-36. [PMID: 18599308 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2008.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2007] [Revised: 05/09/2008] [Accepted: 05/15/2008] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Earlier we have shown that an equimolar mixture of calpastatin subdomains A and C (19 amino acids each) strongly activates m-calpain in vitro. In the present work we developed a membrane-permeable activator system, by conjugating an oligo-arginine tail to both peptides. We tested calpain activation as well as synaptic excitability on rat brain slices ex vivo. In hippocampal slices both basic excitability and long-term synaptic efficacy were significantly increased upon treatment with the activator. We propose that the activator peptide conjugates can be used with any mammalian cell, to specifically challenge the calpain system apparently without raising cytoplasmic Ca2+. Such an effector may be a useful tool in dissecting intracellular mechanisms involving the calpain system.
Collapse
|
14
|
Patel LN, Zaro JL, Shen WC. Cell Penetrating Peptides: Intracellular Pathways and Pharmaceutical Perspectives. Pharm Res 2007; 24:1977-92. [PMID: 17443399 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-007-9303-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 299] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2007] [Accepted: 03/20/2007] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cell penetrating peptides, generally categorized as amphipathic or cationic depending on their sequence, are increasingly drawing attention as a non-invasive delivery technology for macromolecules. Delivery of a diverse set of cargo in terms of size and nature ranging from small molecules to particulate cargo has been attempted using different types of cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) in vitro and in vivo. However, the internalization mechanism of CPPs is an unresolved issue to date, with dramatic changes in view regarding the involvement of endocytosis as a pathway of internalization. A key reason for the lack of consensus on the mechanism can be attributed to the methodology in deciphering the internalization mechanism. In this review, we highlight some of the methodology concerns, focus more on the internalization pathway and also provide a novel perspective about the intracellular processing of CPPs, which is a crucial aspect to consider when selecting a cell penetrating peptide as a drug delivery system. In addition, recent applications of cell penetrating peptides for the delivery of small molecules, peptides, proteins, oligonucleotides, nanoparticles and liposomes have been reviewed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leena N Patel
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Ogawa T, Ono S, Ichikawa T, Arimitsu S, Onoda K, Tokunaga K, Sugiu K, Tomizawa K, Matsui H, Date I. Novel Protein Transduction Method by Using 11R. Stroke 2007; 38:1354-61. [PMID: 17332457 DOI: 10.1161/01.str.0000259887.70358.e0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE A motif of 11 consecutive arginines (11R) is reported to be one of the most effective protein transduction domains for introducing proteins into the cell membrane. We therefore examined the transduction efficiency of 11R in cerebral arteries. METHODS Basilar arteries (BAs) obtained from rats were incubated with either 11R-enhanced green fluorescent protein (11R-EGFP) or EGFP without 11R. After incubation, expression of 11R-EGFP or EGFP in BA serial sections was observed by fluorescence microscope. In an additional in vivo experiment, 11R-EGFP or EGFP was injected into the cisterna magna with or without subarachnoid hemorrhage. The 11R-EGFP or EGFP was injected just after the autologous blood injection, and then the expression of 11R-EGFP or EGFP in BA sections was also observed by fluorescence microscope. RESULTS The 11R-EGFP signal was much stronger than that of EGFP in all layers of the rat BA, in both in vivo and ex vivo experiments. Moreover, the 11R-EGFP was transduced into the BA immediately (2 hours after the injection). Interestingly, 11R-fused fluorescent protein was transduced especially into the tunica media of the BA. CONCLUSIONS The 11R-fused fluorescent protein effectively penetrates into all layers of the rat BA, especially into the tunica media. This is the first study to our knowledge to demonstrate the successful transduction of a protein transduction domain fused protein into the cerebral arteries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomoyuki Ogawa
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shikata-cho, Okayama, Japan.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Dietz GPH, Bähr M. Synthesis of cell-penetrating peptides and their application in neurobiology. Methods Mol Biol 2007; 399:181-198. [PMID: 18309933 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59745-504-6_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Short basic amino acid sequences, often called cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), allow the delivery of proteins and other molecules into cells and across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Although the ability of basic proteins to facilitate such trafficking is known for a long time, only the application of genetic methods and overexpression of fusion proteins in Escherichia coli has lead to a wide application of CPP in many research areas, including signal transduction, cancer, angiogenesis, apoptosis, bone development, cardioprotection, cell cycle, neurobiology, and many others. For the neuroscientist, CPPs are particularly attractive, as a number of articles in the last 5 years have reported their use for neuronal rescue in a number of models for neurodegenerative diseases in vitro and in vivo in rats, mice, or gerbils. Here, we give a detailed description of the protein purification methodology and applications in neuroscience.
Collapse
|
17
|
Abstract
Over the last 15 years, many publications described the use of peptide sequences that have been dubbed cell penetrating peptides (CPP), Trojan Horse peptides, protein transduction domains, or membrane-translocating sequences. These mostly positively charged domains bring attached cargo across biological membranes. One of the reasons for the interest in CPP is their potential as delivery tools to enhance the pharmacodynamics of drugs otherwise poorly bioavailable. In particular, the neuroscientist aiming to deliver a protein or other compound into the brain for analytical or therapeutic reasons is faced with the challenge that few drugs cross the blood-brain barrier. CPP are valuable tools to overcome the plasma membrane or the blood-brain barrier in basic research, and in relevant models of neural disease, and will hopefully help to increase the precious few treatments or even cures for people with diseases of the brain and nervous system. Here, we review applications in neuroscience and recent insights into the mechanism of CPP-mediated trafficking.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gunnar P H Dietz
- Neurologische Universitätsklinik, Waldweg 33, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
| | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Wu HY, Yuen EY, Lu YF, Matsushita M, Matsui H, Yan Z, Tomizawa K. Regulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors by calpain in cortical neurons. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:21588-93. [PMID: 15790561 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m501603200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor is a cation channel highly permeable to calcium and plays critical roles in governing normal and pathologic functions in neurons. Calcium entry through NMDA receptors (NMDARs) can lead to the activation of the Ca2+-dependent protease, calpain. Here we investigated the involvement of calpain in regulation of NMDAR channel function. After prolonged (5-min) treatment with NMDA or glutamate, the whole-cell NMDAR-mediated current was significantly reduced in both acutely dissociated and cultured cortical pyramidal neurons. The down-regulation of NMDAR current was blocked by bath application of selective calpain inhibitors. Intracellular injection of a specific calpain inhibitory peptide also eliminated the down-regulation of NMDAR current induced by prolonged NMDA treatment. In contrast, dynamin inhibitory peptide had no effect on the depression of NMDAR current, suggesting the lack of involvement of dynamin/clathrin-mediated NMDAR internalization in this process. Immunoblotting analysis showed that the NR2A and NR2B subunits of NMDARs were markedly degraded in cultured cortical neurons treated with glutamate, and the degradation of NR2 subunits was prevented by calpain inhibitors. Taken together, our results suggest that prolonged activation of NMDARs in neurons activates calpain, and activated calpain in turn down-regulates the function of NMDARs, which provides a neuroprotective mechanism against NMDAR overstimulation accompanying ischemia and stroke.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Yan Wu
- Department of Physiology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine and Dentistry, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Kumashiro S, Lu YF, Tomizawa K, Matsushita M, Wei FY, Matsui H. Regulation of synaptic vesicle recycling by calcineurin in different vesicle pools. Neurosci Res 2005; 51:435-43. [PMID: 15740806 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2004.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2004] [Revised: 12/21/2004] [Accepted: 12/21/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The synaptic vesicles keep recycling by the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis to maintain the normal synaptic transmission. The synaptic vesicles are classified as the readily releasable pool (RRP) and the reserve pool (RP). In the endocytosis process, calcineurin (CaN), a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein phosphatase, has been shown to play important roles. However, it is unclear about its roles in different vesicle pools. Here, we investigated the role of CaN in the regulation of vesicle recycling in the RRP and RP. Vesicle recycling was monitored by using fluorescent dyes FM1-43 and FM4-64 in the primary cultures of hippocampal neurons. Inhibition of CaN by FK506 and cyclosporin A suppressed the endocytosis in the RP, but not in the RRP. Inhibition of CaN also restrained the exocytic process triggered by 10 Hz stimulation, but had no effect on 3-5 Hz stimulation-induced exocytosis. FK506 also reduced the total vesicle pool size in the synaptic terminals. A synthesized CaN inhibitory peptide showed the similar effects as FK506 and cyclosporin A. These results revealed a novel mechanism that CaN plays critical roles in the distinct vesicle recycling processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susumu Kumashiro
- Department of Physiology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine and Dentistry, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Dietz GPH, Bähr M. Delivery of bioactive molecules into the cell: the Trojan horse approach. Mol Cell Neurosci 2005; 27:85-131. [PMID: 15485768 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2004.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 358] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2003] [Revised: 02/17/2004] [Accepted: 03/16/2004] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, vast amounts of data on the mechanisms of neural de- and regeneration have accumulated. However, only in disproportionally few cases has this led to efficient therapies for human patients. Part of the problem is to deliver cell death-averting genes or gene products across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and cellular membranes. The discovery of Antennapedia (Antp)-mediated transduction of heterologous proteins into cells in 1992 and other "Trojan horse peptides" raised hopes that often-frustrating attempts to deliver proteins would now be history. The demonstration that proteins fused to the Tat protein transduction domain (PTD) are capable of crossing the BBB may revolutionize molecular research and neurobiological therapy. However, it was only recently that PTD-mediated delivery of proteins with therapeutic potential has been achieved in models of neural degeneration in nerve trauma and ischemia. Several groups have published the first positive results using protein transduction domains for the delivery of therapeutic proteins in relevant animal models of human neurological disorders. Here, we give an extensive review of peptide-mediated protein transduction from its early beginnings to new advances, discuss their application, with particular focus on a critical evaluation of the limitations of the method, as well as alternative approaches. Besides applications in neurobiology, a large number of reports using PTD in other systems are included as well. Because each protein requires an individual purification scheme that yields sufficient quantities of soluble, transducible material, the neurobiologist will benefit from the experiences of other researchers in the growing field of protein transduction.
Collapse
|
21
|
Abstract
There is emerging evidence to suggest that the unregulated Ca(2+)-mediated proteolysis of essential lens proteins by calpains might be a major contributor to some forms of cataract in both animals and humans. Moreover, recently solved calpain structures have revealed molecular-level details of the activation mechanism used by these proteases, enabling the structure-based design of potent calpain inhibitors with the potential to act as anti-cataract agents. These agents offer the first real hope of an urgently needed alternative to the surgical treatment of at least some forms of cataract and relief from a life-depreciating condition on a global scale.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suman Biswas
- Department of Ophthalmology, Royal Preston Hospital, Preston, PR2 9HT, UK
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Sengoku T, Bondada V, Hassane D, Dubal S, Geddes JW. Tat-calpastatin fusion proteins transduce primary rat cortical neurons but do not inhibit cellular calpain activity. Exp Neurol 2004; 188:161-70. [PMID: 15191812 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2004] [Revised: 03/12/2004] [Accepted: 03/19/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Excessive activation of calpains (calcium-activated neutral proteases) is observed following spinal cord contusion injury, traumatic brain injury, stroke, and in neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease. Calpain inhibition represents an attractive therapeutic target, but current calpain inhibitors possess relatively weak potency, poor specificity, and in many cases, limited cellular and blood-brain barrier permeability. We developed novel calpain inhibitors consisting of the endogenous inhibitor, calpastatin or its inhibitory domain I, fused to the protein transduction domain of the HIV trans-activator (Tat) protein (Tat(47-57)). The Tat-calpastatin fusion proteins were potent calpain inhibitors in a cell-free activity assay, but did not inhibit cellular calpain activity in primary rat cortical neurons when applied exogenously at concentrations up to 5 microM. The fusion proteins were able to transduce neurons, but were localized within endosome-like structures. A similar endosomal uptake was observed for Tat-GFP. Together, the results suggest that endosomal uptake of the Tat-calpastatin prevents its interaction with calpain in other cellular compartments. Endosomal uptake of proteins fused to the Tat protein transduction domain severely limits the applications of this methodology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Sengoku
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, and Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0230, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Wu HY, Tomizawa K, Oda Y, Wei FY, Lu YF, Matsushita M, Li ST, Moriwaki A, Matsui H. Critical Role of Calpain-mediated Cleavage of Calcineurin in Excitotoxic Neurodegeneration. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:4929-40. [PMID: 14627704 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m309767200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcineurin and calpain, a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein phosphatase and a Ca2+-dependent cysteine protease, respectively, mediate neuronal cell death through independent cascades. Here, we report that during neuroexcitotoxicity, calcineurin A (CnA) is directly cleaved by calpain in vitro and in vivo, resulting in the enzyme being converted to an active form. Mass spectrometry identified three cleavage sites in CnA, two of which were constitutively active forms. Overexpression of the cleaved CnA induced caspase activity and neuronal cell death. Calpain inhibitors and membrane-permeable calpastatin peptides not only blocked the cleavage of CnA, but also protected against excitotoxic neuronal cell death in vitro and in vivo. These results indicate that CnA is a crucial target for calpain, and the calpain-mediated activation of CnA triggers excitotoxic neurodegeneration. This study established a molecular link between calpain and calcineurin, thereby demonstrating a new mechanism for proteolytical regulation of calcineurin by calpain in response to certain pathological states.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Yan Wu
- Department of Physiology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine and Dentistry, 2-5-1 Shikata, Okayama, 700-8558 Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|