College students' self-reported reasons for playing drinking games

Investigating the Relation between Anxiety Sensitivity and Substance Use: What Are the Roles of Social Anxiety and Outcome Expectancies?

Objective: Research on the association between anxiety sensitivity (AS) and substance use is mixed, with some studies showing a positive association and others showing no association. Other relevant variables, such as social anxiety and outcome expectancies, may help us understand how and for whom AS is linked to substance use. This study tested (a) the associations between AS and alcohol use, cannabis use, and drinking games and pregaming behaviors among young adults, and (b) the mediating role of social anxiety and moderating role of outcome expectancies in these associations. Method: Participants (N = 199, 69% women) were young adults (19 to 25 years) who completed a 30-minute online self-report questionnaire on their substance use. Results: Results revealed significant negative associations between AS and drinking game and pregaming participation. AS was not directly associated with other substance use outcomes. The association between AS and hazardous cannabis use was moderated by relaxation and tension reduction expectancies, but outcome expectancies did not moderate any of the other associations between AS and substance use outcomes. Social anxiety mediated the associations between AS and hazardous cannabis use and both drinking game and pregaming participation. Conclusions: Findings highlight the complex association between AS and different substance use outcomes. Outcome expectancies and social anxiety may help explain how AS is associated with hazardous cannabis use and drinking game/pregaming participation, respectively. More effective interventions can be developed by understanding the relation between AS and substance use.

Drinking games among university students in five countries: Participation rates, game type, contexts, and motives to play

Most published studies, regarding students' participation in drinking games (DGs), originate from the United States of America (USA). This study extends research to the United Kingdom (UK) and countries of mainland Europe. University students from five countries completed an anonymous online questionnaire which included measures of the frequency of DG participation, along with types, contexts and motives for participation. Responses are compared by the gender, and country of domicile of the participants. The study is based on the results of the questionnaire administered to 306 Social Work students from five universities/countries of which 72.2% are females, with a mean age of 22.6 years. This included students in Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, the UK and the USA. A high proportion of students, irrespective of gender, or country of domicile, stated that they participated in DGs. To 'meet people' and 'to get drunk' are the most important reasons stated for DG participation. Less benign motives, to 'control others' or 'get other people drunk', are reported as 'not important'. The most common types of DGs were consumption and team DGs. The pre-partying involved in DGs and associated consequences show important targets in alcohol harm minimization interventions. Harm minimization/public health messages regarding safer drinking need to recognize that younger students often feel they are immortal and do not fully appreciate risks and adverse effects of DGs and drink to have fun and be sociable.

Validation of a Seven-Factor Structure for the Motives for Playing Drinking Games Measure

Playing drinking games can be characterized as a high-risk drinking activity because games are typically designed to promote heavy alcohol consumption. While research suggests that young adults are motivated to play drinking games for a variety of reasons (e.g., for thrills/fun, for the competition), the Motives for Playing Drinking Games measure has received limited empirical attention. We examined the psychometric properties of this measure with a confirmation sample of young adults recruited from Amazon's MTurk ( N = 1,809, ages 18-25 years, 47% men; 41% not currently enrolled in college) and a validation sample of college students ( N = 671; ages 18-23 years; 26% men). Contrary to the 8-factor model obtained by Johnson and Sheets in a study published in 2004, examination of the factor structure with our confirmation sample yielded a revised 7-factor model that was invariant across race/ethnicity and college student status. This model was also validated with the college student sample. In the confirmation sample, enhancement/thrills and sexual pursuit motives for playing drinking games were positively associated with gaming frequency/consumption and negative gaming consequences. Furthermore, conformity motives for playing drinking games were positively associated with negative gaming consequences, while competition motives were positively associated with gaming frequency. These findings have significant implications for research and prevention/intervention efforts.

Drinking Motives and Willingness to Drink Alcohol in Peer Drinking Contexts

Drinking motives are important proximal predictors of alcohol consumption in adolescents and emerging adults (EAs). Despite the importance of peer context on alcohol use decision-making, research on drinking motives is commonly divorced from the contexts where such decisions are made. Behavioral willingness (BW), or openness to engaging in a given behavior, is a contextually dependent aspect of nondeliberative decision-making for youth. As BW and drinking motives are proximal predictors of alcohol use, it was hypothesized that they would interact in the prediction of later drinking. Eighty-seven EAs reported their BW in simulated drinking contexts, drinking motives, and alcohol consumption upon entering college as well as drinking patterns 8 months later. Context-specific BW potentiated coping motives' impact on increased alcohol consumption and potentially hazardous drinking at the end of participants' first year. These findings support the importance of BW and context in understanding motivation's role in drinking behavior for EAs.

Do brief motivational interventions reduce drinking game frequency in mandated students? An analysis of data from two randomized controlled trials

College students frequently engage in drinking games (DGs) and experience a variety of consequences as a result. It is currently unknown whether brief motivational interventions (BMIs) that provide feedback on DG participation can reduce this high risk behavior. This study examined outcome data from 2 randomized clinical trials to examine whether BMIs facilitate change in DG frequency and how these changes may occur. Mandated college students (Trial 1, N = 198, 46% female; Trial 2, N = 412; 32% female) were randomized to BMI or comparison control conditions. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was used to compare the BMI and comparison groups to determine whether the BMI reduced DG participation over time. Percent change talk (PCT) during the discussion of DG during the session was examined as a predictor of change in DG frequency, and gender was examined as a moderator of treatment effects. Controlling for regular drinking frequency, participants who received a BMI did not significantly reduce their DG frequency relative to the comparison group in either sample, and the BMI was equally ineffective at reducing DG behavior for men and women. DG-related PCT during the BMI was associated with lower DG frequency at the second follow-up in both trials. In Trial 1, PCT during the BMI was associated with less steep increases in DG frequency across the course of all follow-ups. Effects of PCT on DG behavior were not moderated by gender. Findings did not support hypothesized reductions in DG participation following a BMI. Future research should explore whether targeted DG-specific interventions could reduce DG participation and the role of in-session client language in facilitating such change. (PsycINFO Database Record

Sexually Selected Sex Differences in Competitiveness Explain Sex Differences in Changes in Drinking Game Participation

Drinking games are a risk factor for behavioral and health problems among university students. Previous cross-sectional research by Hone, Carter, and McCullough (2013) replicated well-established sex differences in drinking game behaviors (i.e., that men are more active drinking game participants than are women) and university drinking problems more generally. Hone et al. (2013) also found that these male-specific behavioral patterns are attributable in part to the fact that men's generally unrestricted sexual strategies, plus their social competitiveness, motivate them to participate in drinking games to display their fortitude and compete with same-sex rivals. Here, the authors conducted a study to evaluate with greater causal rigor whether sex differences in sexual restrictedness and social competitiveness—and sex differences in motivations for participating in drinking games in particular—are partially responsible for the sex differences in university students' drinking game behaviors and drinking problems. Sex differences in changes in frequency of drinking game participation were partially mediated by competitive motivations for participating in drinking games and by the effects of social competitiveness on competitive drinking game motivation. These findings lend additional support to the proposition that participation in drinking games is motivated in part by their suitability as a venue for sexual competition in university students' day-to-day lives.

Young People in a Wet Culture: Functions and Patterns of Drinking

In this paper we take into consideration data from three qualitative research studies on young people and alcohol carried out in Italy from 1997 to 1999. We analyze these data searching for meanings and functions of alcohol consumption and abuse in youth subcultures in a wet society, with particular attention to the functions of the peer group: drinking socialization, abuse control, gender role and drinking styles. In addition, we analyze whether current research and health-promotion projects mainly underlining the damages caused to young people by drinking are right, or if there are also positive drinking aspects that could be useful in prevention actions.

What's in a game? Future directions for the assessment and treatment of drinking games

This conclusion reviews the critical issues raised by the papers in this Special Issue on Drinking Games, with an eye toward directions for future research and the development of palliative interventions. In particular, this conclusion highlights the significance of individual-level characteristics that are associated with drinking game risk, the social context in which these games take place, and methodological considerations for studying both the individual and the context as they unfold as part of drinking game practices. Given both the ubiquity of these games in North American college drinking life, and the substantial hazards with which these games are associated, interventions that may reduce harmful outcomes are needed but have not yet been developed. Issues relevant to the development of such interventions are considered.

"Seems I'm not alone at being alone:" contributing factors and interventions for drinking games in the college setting

Alcohol use among college students is prevalent and sometimes takes the form of drinking games, in which players are required to drink in accordance with a set of pre-defined rules. Drinking games are typically associated with elevated alcohol consumption and risk to the individual. This perspective piece considers the potential role of social anxiety in motivating participation in drinking games, perceived norms surrounding drinking games (including ways they are portrayed and discussed in popular media), and the role of competitiveness. Implications for skills training-based prevention and intervention efforts are discussed.

Social anxiety and drinking refusal self-efficacy moderate the relationship between drinking game participation and alcohol-related consequences

BACKGROUND

Participation in drinking games is associated with excessive drinking and alcohol risks. Despite the growing literature documenting the ubiquity and consequences of drinking games, limited research has examined the influence of psychosocial factors on the experience of negative consequences as the result of drinking game participation.

OBJECTIVES

The current event-level study examined the relationships among drinking game participation, social anxiety, drinking refusal self-efficacy (DRSE) and alcohol-related consequences in a sample of college students.

METHODS

Participants (n = 976) reported on their most recent drinking occasion in the past month in which they did not preparty.

RESULTS

After controlling for sex, age, and typical drinking, higher levels of social anxiety, lower levels of DRSE, and playing drinking games predicted greater alcohol-related consequences. Moreover, two-way interactions (Social Anxiety × Drinking Games, DRSE × Drinking Games) demonstrated that social anxiety and DRSE each moderated the relationship between drinking game participation and alcohol-related consequences. Participation in drinking games resulted in more alcohol problems for students with high social anxiety, but not low social anxiety. Students with low DRSE experienced high levels of consequences regardless of whether they participated in drinking games; however, drinking game participation was associated with more consequences for students confident in their ability to resist drinking.

CONCLUSION

Findings highlight the important role that social anxiety and DRSE play in drinking game-related risk, and hence provide valuable implications for screening at-risk students and designing targeted harm reduction interventions that address social anxiety and drink refusal in the context of drinking games.

Drinking Games as a Venue for Sexual Competition

Based on sexual selection theory, we hypothesized that sex differences in mating effort and social competitiveness—and subsequent sex differences in sexual and competitive motivations for participating in drinking games—are responsible for the well-documented sex differences in college students' drinking game behaviors. Participants in a cross-sectional study were 351 women and 336 men aged 17 to 26. In a mediation model, we tested sex differences in mating effort, social competitiveness, sexual and competitive motivations for participating in drinking games, drinking game behaviors, and alcohol-related problems. Men participated in drinking games more frequently, consumed more alcohol while participating in drinking games, and experienced more problems associated with drinking. These sex differences appeared to be partially mediated by mating effort, social competitiveness, and sexual and competitive motivations for participating in drinking games. Drinking games are a major venue in which college students engage in heavy episodic drinking, which is a risk factor for college students' behavioral and health problems. Thus, the functional perspective we used to analyze them here may help to inform public health and university interventions and enable better identification of at-risk students.

Pastime in a pub: observations of young adults' activities and alcohol consumption

Alcohol consumption typically takes place in a time-out situation, which can be spent by engaging in several leisure time activities. Usually, conversation is the dominant pastime in a bar, but this may take place during other activities, like watching TV or playing games. These activities may inhibit drinking because of the physical difficulties of drinking and being active at the same time. Findings of an observational study on drinking in young adults (N=238) in a bar lab will be discussed. In the present study, we followed the ad-lib drinking of peer groups (7-9 persons) during 1-h periods. The results suggest that (1) selection of activities is not related to initial drinking level or personality characteristics; (2) active pastime is related to slower drinking than passive pastime (in males); (3) male problem drinkers appear to compensate for the "lost" amount of drinking after an active phase; and (4) involvement in active pastime is not related to total alcohol consumption. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Drinking game participation among college students: gender and ethnic implications

Participation in drinking games by college students has recently sparked research attention. While previous research indicates that women play drinking games at lower frequencies than men, the current study reveals that college women may be playing games at rates similar to college men. In a sample of 105 coed college students, participants completed a 3-month Timeline Followback recording every drinking event and quantity consumed. They then were prompted to identify which drinking events involved drinking games and how much alcohol was consumed during game playing. Both men and women engaged in drinking games at similar rates and consumed more drinks on game playing days than on non-game drinking days. However, drinking game participation was related to alcohol-related consequences in women only. Further, while Caucasian participants played drinking games more often than non-Caucasian participants, an association between game participation and alcohol-related consequences emerged in non-Caucasian participants.

The Relationship Between Social-Contextual Factors and Alcohol and Polydrug Use Among College Freshmen

This article summarizes results from a survey on social-contextual risk factors and drinking and polydrug use among 317 undergraduate college students. Retrospective alcohol use was a primary predictor for prospective heavy alcohol use and drinking game participation was a primary predictor for prospective alcohol occurrences, while social-contextual factors were primary predictors for prospective drug use. Primary and secondary predictors differed for prospective alcohol severity, alcohol frequency and drug use, suggesting that there are specific risk factors associated with each type of drinking and drug-using pattern. There were also significant differences in monthly over-the-counter medication, prescription medication and drug use among students who participated in drinking games, collegiate sports, and Greek organizations. These results suggest that students who have experimented with alcohol and drug use prior to entering college may be more likely to engage in social and recreational activities where alcohol and drugs are available; therefore college prevention programs should focus on increasing alternative activities to deter alcohol and drug use.

College students' reasons for not drinking and not playing drinking games

Few studies have examined college students' reasons for not drinking, and no studies have addressed their reasons for not playing drinking games. This study developed measures of both constructs using a sample of 147 college students. Principal components analysis identified six Reasons for Not Drinking factors and five Reasons for Not Playing Drinking Games factors. Internal consistency and intercorrelations of the factors were examined. The factors correlated in theoretically meaningful directions with measures of alcohol consumption, alcohol outcome expectancies, reasons for drinking, self-esteem, and personality. Research findings are discussed in regards to their relevance to prevention and treatment strategies among the college population.

Measuring College Students' Motives for Playing Drinking Games

Students may choose to play drinking games not only for reasons related to alcohol consumption but also because of incentives related to other aspects of play (competition, fun, interpersonal dominance, etc.). College students (120 men and 167 women) completed measures of motives for playing (based on T. J. Johnson, S. Hamilton, & V. L. Sheets, 1999) and consequences of playing drinking games. Exploratory principal-components analysis identified 8 reasons for playing. Men and women differed in their endorsement of the factors. Motives for play directly predicted consequences of play independently of alcohol consumption. Specific motives predicted specific types of consequences. In multiple regression analyses, Conformity motives were negatively related to consequences and may represent a form of protective motive.

Self-reported drinking-game participation of incoming college students

Drinking games are associated with excess alcohol use and alcohol-related problems, yet it is unclear whether they are unique to the college environment or whether students come to college familiar with such games. The authors queried 1,252 students attending voluntary summer orientation programs about their experiences with drinking games. A majority (63%) indicated they had played drinking games and viewed them as a means to get drunk quickly and to socialize, control others, or get someone else drunk. Logistic regression analyses revealed that familiarity with drinking situations was associated with a greater likelihood of playing drinking games. Students who reported drinking more frequently and consuming greater quantities of alcohol than others, having lifetime marijuana use, and initiating alcohol consumption between the ages of 14 and 16 years were significantly more likely to have participated in drinking games. These findings demonstrate the importance of considering students' participation in drinking games when campus officials address alcohol use.

College students' self-reported reasons for why drinking games end

Previous research has noted that drinking game participation is associated with increased risk of negative alcohol-related consequences. The current study examined the reasons that students give for how drinking games end and/or why students elect to quit playing. Both men and women identified other people quitting and deciding that they have had enough to drink as the most important single item reasons for quitting play. Principal components analysis using a list of 20 reasons identified six factors, four of which contained overlapping items: Conformity/Boredom; Interpersonal Competition; Sexual Contact; Excessive Consumption; Interpersonal Conflict; and External Circumstances. The factors correlated in a theoretically meaningful fashion with measures of alcohol consumption and consequences and personality. Conformity/Boredom reasons and External Circumstances reasons were least associated with negative alcohol-related consequences. Many students apparently play until they get too drunk or too sick to continue. Understanding how games end may offer clues to designing skills training or other prevention interventions to reduce harm associated with drinking games.