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Enhanced Transcriptional Strength of HIV-1 Subtype C Minimizes Gene Expression Noise and Confers Stability to the Viral Latent State. J Virol 2023; 97:e0137622. [PMID: 36533949 PMCID: PMC9888270 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01376-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Stochastic fluctuations in gene expression emanating from the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR), amplified by the Tat positive feedback circuit, determine the choice between viral infection fates: active transcription (ON) or transcriptional silence (OFF). The emergence of several transcription factor binding site (TFBS) variant strains in HIV-1 subtype C (HIV-1C), especially those containing the duplication of the NF-κB motif, mandates the evaluation of the effect of enhanced transcriptional strength on gene expression noise and its influence on viral fate selection switch. Using a panel of subgenomic LTR-variant strains containing different copy numbers of the NF-κB motif (ranging from 0 to 4), we used flow cytometry, mRNA quantification, and pharmacological perturbations to demonstrate an inverse correlation between promoter strength and gene expression noise in Jurkat T cells and primary CD4+ T cells. The inverse correlation is consistent in clonal cell populations at constant intracellular concentrations of Tat and when NF-κB levels were regulated pharmacologically. Further, we show that strong LTRs containing at least two copies of the NF-κB motif in the enhancer establish a more stable latent state and demonstrate more rapid latency reversal than weak LTRs containing fewer motifs. We also demonstrate a cooperative binding of NF-κB to the motif cluster in HIV-1C LTRs containing two, three, or four NF-κB motifs (Hill coefficient [H] = 2.61, 3.56, and 3.75, respectively). The present work alludes to a possible evolution of the HIV-1C LTR toward gaining transcriptional strength associated with attenuated gene expression noise with implications for viral latency. IMPORTANCE Over the past two consecutive decades, HIV-1 subtype C (HIV-1C) has been undergoing directional evolution toward augmenting the transcriptional strength of the long terminal repeat (LTR) by adding more copies of the existing transcription factor binding site (TFBS) by sequence duplication. Additionally, the duplicated elements are genetically diverse, suggesting broader-range signal receptivity by variant LTRs. The HIV-1 promoter is inherently noisy, and the stochastic fluctuations in gene expression of variant LTRs may influence the active transcription (ON)/transcriptional silence (OFF) latency decisions. The evolving NF-κB motif variations of HIV-1C offer a powerful opportunity to examine how the transcriptional strength of the LTR might influence gene expression noise. Our work here shows that the augmented transcriptional strength of the HIV-1C LTR leads to concomitantly reduced gene expression noise, consequently leading to stabler latency maintenance and rapid latency reversal. The present work offers a novel lead toward appreciating the molecular mechanisms governing HIV-1 latency.
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Abstract
Allostery is a pervasive principle to regulate protein function. Growing evidence suggests that also DNA is capable of transmitting allosteric signals. Yet, whether and how DNA-mediated allostery plays a regulatory role in gene expression remained unclear. Here, we show that DNA indeed transmits allosteric signals over long distances to boost the binding cooperativity of transcription factors. Phenotype switching in Bacillus subtilis requires an all-or-none promoter binding of multiple ComK proteins. We use single-molecule FRET to demonstrate that ComK-binding at one promoter site increases affinity at a distant site. Cryo-EM structures of the complex between ComK and its promoter demonstrate that this coupling is due to mechanical forces that alter DNA curvature. Modifications of the spacer between sites tune cooperativity and show how to control allostery, which allows a fine-tuning of the dynamic properties of genetic circuits. Most insights on DNA-mediated allostery upon transcription factor (TF) binding were either based on artificial promoters or found to be short-ranged. Here authors use single-molecule FRET and cryo-EM to show that Bacillus subtilis bacteria utilize long-range allostery in a stochastic and reversible phenotype switch.
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Coordinated transcriptional regulation by thyroid hormone and glucocorticoid interaction in adult mouse hippocampus-derived neuronal cells. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0220378. [PMID: 31348800 PMCID: PMC6660079 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0220378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The hippocampus is a well-known target of thyroid hormone (TH; e.g., 3,5,3’-triiodothyronine—T3) and glucocorticoid (GC; e.g., corticosterone—CORT) action. Despite evidence that TH and GC play critical roles in neural development and function, few studies have identified genes and patterns of gene regulation influenced by the interaction of these hormones at a genome-wide scale. In this study we investigated gene regulation by T3, CORT, and T3 + CORT in the mouse hippocampus-derived cell line HT-22. We treated cells with T3, CORT, or T3 + CORT for 4 hr before cell harvest and RNA isolation for microarray analysis. We identified 9 genes regulated by T3, 432 genes by CORT, and 412 genes by T3 + CORT. Among the 432 CORT-regulated genes, there were 203 genes that exhibited an altered CORT response in the presence of T3, suggesting that T3 plays a significant role in modulating CORT-regulated genes. We also found 80 genes synergistically induced, and 73 genes synergistically repressed by T3 + CORT treatment. We performed in silico analysis using publicly available mouse neuronal chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequencing datasets and identified a considerable number of synergistically regulated genes with TH receptor and GC receptor peaks mapping within 1 kb of chromatin marks indicative of hormone-responsive enhancer regions. Functional annotation clustering of synergistically regulated genes reveal the relevance of proteasomal-dependent degradation, neuroprotective effect of growth hormones, and neuroinflammatory responses as key pathways to how TH and GC may coordinately influence learning and memory. Taken together, our transcriptome data represents a promising exploratory dataset for further study of common molecular mechanisms behind synergistic TH and GC gene regulation, and identify specific genes and their role in processes mediated by cross-talk between the thyroid and stress axes in a mammalian hippocampal model system.
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Weingarten-Gabbay S, Nir R, Lubliner S, Sharon E, Kalma Y, Weinberger A, Segal E. Systematic interrogation of human promoters. Genome Res 2019; 29:171-183. [PMID: 30622120 PMCID: PMC6360817 DOI: 10.1101/gr.236075.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Despite much research, our understanding of the architecture and cis-regulatory elements of human promoters is still lacking. Here, we devised a high-throughput assay to quantify the activity of approximately 15,000 fully designed sequences that we integrated and expressed from a fixed location within the human genome. We used this method to investigate thousands of native promoters and preinitiation complex (PIC) binding regions followed by in-depth characterization of the sequence motifs underlying promoter activity, including core promoter elements and TF binding sites. We find that core promoters drive transcription mostly unidirectionally and that sequences originating from promoters exhibit stronger activity than those originating from enhancers. By testing multiple synthetic configurations of core promoter elements, we dissect the motifs that positively and negatively regulate transcription as well as the effect of their combinations and distances, including a 10-bp periodicity in the optimal distance between the TATA and the initiator. By comprehensively screening 133 TF binding sites, we find that in contrast to core promoters, TF binding sites maintain similar activity levels in both orientations, supporting a model by which divergent transcription is driven by two distinct unidirectional core promoters sharing bidirectional TF binding sites. Finally, we find a striking agreement between the effect of binding site multiplicity of individual TFs in our assay and their tendency to appear in homotypic clusters throughout the genome. Overall, our study systematically assays the elements that drive expression in core and proximal promoter regions and sheds light on organization principles of regulatory regions in the human genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shira Weingarten-Gabbay
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Ronit Nir
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Shai Lubliner
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Eilon Sharon
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Yael Kalma
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Adina Weinberger
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Eran Segal
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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5
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Mehrotra R, Loake G, Mehrotra S. Promoter choice: Selection vs. rejection. GENE REPORTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.genrep.2018.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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6
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Vockley CM, D'Ippolito AM, McDowell IC, Majoros WH, Safi A, Song L, Crawford GE, Reddy TE. Direct GR Binding Sites Potentiate Clusters of TF Binding across the Human Genome. Cell 2016; 166:1269-1281.e19. [PMID: 27565349 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.07.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) binds the human genome at >10,000 sites but only regulates the expression of hundreds of genes. To determine the functional effect of each site, we measured the glucocorticoid (GC) responsive activity of nearly all GR binding sites (GBSs) captured using chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) in A549 cells. 13% of GBSs assayed had GC-induced activity. The responsive sites were defined by direct GR binding via a GC response element (GRE) and exclusively increased reporter-gene expression. Meanwhile, most GBSs lacked GC-induced reporter activity. The non-responsive sites had epigenetic features of steady-state enhancers and clustered around direct GBSs. Together, our data support a model in which clusters of GBSs observed with ChIP-seq reflect interactions between direct and tethered GBSs over tens of kilobases. We further show that those interactions can synergistically modulate the activity of direct GBSs and may therefore play a major role in driving gene activation in response to GCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M Vockley
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA; Center for Genomic & Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Anthony M D'Ippolito
- Center for Genomic & Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA; University Program in Genetics & Genomics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Ian C McDowell
- Center for Genomic & Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA; Program in Computational Biology & Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - William H Majoros
- Center for Genomic & Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA; Program in Computational Biology & Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Alexias Safi
- Center for Genomic & Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA; Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Lingyun Song
- Center for Genomic & Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA; Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Gregory E Crawford
- Center for Genomic & Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA; Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Timothy E Reddy
- Center for Genomic & Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA; Department of Biostatistics & Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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7
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Buffry AD, Mendes CC, McGregor AP. The Functionality and Evolution of Eukaryotic Transcriptional Enhancers. ADVANCES IN GENETICS 2016; 96:143-206. [PMID: 27968730 DOI: 10.1016/bs.adgen.2016.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Enhancers regulate precise spatial and temporal patterns of gene expression in eukaryotes and, moreover, evolutionary changes in these modular cis-regulatory elements may represent the predominant genetic basis for phenotypic evolution. Here, we review approaches to identify and functionally analyze enhancers and their transcription factor binding sites, including assay for transposable-accessible chromatin-sequencing (ATAC-Seq) and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9, respectively. We also explore enhancer functionality, including how transcription factor binding sites combine to regulate transcription, as well as research on shadow and super enhancers, and how enhancers can act over great distances and even in trans. Finally, we discuss recent theoretical and empirical data on how transcription factor binding sites and enhancers evolve. This includes how the function of enhancers is maintained despite the turnover of transcription factor binding sites as well as reviewing studies where mutations in enhancers have been shown to underlie morphological change.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Buffry
- Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - C C Mendes
- Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - A P McGregor
- Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
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8
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Musayev FN, Zarate-Perez F, Bishop C, Burgner JW, Escalante CR. Structural Insights into the Assembly of the Adeno-associated Virus Type 2 Rep68 Protein on the Integration Site AAVS1. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:27487-99. [PMID: 26370092 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.669960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Adeno-associated virus (AAV) is the only eukaryotic virus with the property of establishing latency by integrating site-specifically into the human genome. The integration site known as AAVS1 is located in chromosome 19 and contains multiple GCTC repeats that are recognized by the AAV non-structural Rep proteins. These proteins are multifunctional, with an N-terminal origin-binding domain (OBD) and a helicase domain joined together by a short linker. As a first step to understand the process of site-specific integration, we proceeded to characterize the recognition and assembly of Rep68 onto the AAVS1 site. We first determined the x-ray structure of AAV-2 Rep68 OBD in complex with the AAVS1 DNA site. Specificity is achieved through the interaction of a glycine-rich loop that binds the major groove and an α-helix that interacts with a downstream minor groove on the same face of the DNA. Although the structure shows a complex with three OBD molecules bound to the AAVS1 site, we show by using analytical centrifugation and electron microscopy that the full-length Rep68 forms a heptameric complex. Moreover, we determined that a minimum of two direct repeats is required to form a stable complex and to melt DNA. Finally, we show that although the individual domains bind DNA poorly, complex assembly requires oligomerization and cooperation between its OBD, helicase, and the linker domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faik N Musayev
- From the Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, and
| | - Francisco Zarate-Perez
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298
| | - Clayton Bishop
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298
| | - John W Burgner
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298
| | - Carlos R Escalante
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298
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Suryamohan K, Halfon MS. Identifying transcriptional cis-regulatory modules in animal genomes. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2015; 4:59-84. [PMID: 25704908 PMCID: PMC4339228 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Revised: 11/04/2014] [Accepted: 11/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Gene expression is regulated through the activity of transcription factors (TFs) and chromatin-modifying proteins acting on specific DNA sequences, referred to as cis-regulatory elements. These include promoters, located at the transcription initiation sites of genes, and a variety of distal cis-regulatory modules (CRMs), the most common of which are transcriptional enhancers. Because regulated gene expression is fundamental to cell differentiation and acquisition of new cell fates, identifying, characterizing, and understanding the mechanisms of action of CRMs is critical for understanding development. CRM discovery has historically been challenging, as CRMs can be located far from the genes they regulate, have few readily identifiable sequence characteristics, and for many years were not amenable to high-throughput discovery methods. However, the recent availability of complete genome sequences and the development of next-generation sequencing methods have led to an explosion of both computational and empirical methods for CRM discovery in model and nonmodel organisms alike. Experimentally, CRMs can be identified through chromatin immunoprecipitation directed against TFs or histone post-translational modifications, identification of nucleosome-depleted 'open' chromatin regions, or sequencing-based high-throughput functional screening. Computational methods include comparative genomics, clustering of known or predicted TF-binding sites, and supervised machine-learning approaches trained on known CRMs. All of these methods have proven effective for CRM discovery, but each has its own considerations and limitations, and each is subject to a greater or lesser number of false-positive identifications. Experimental confirmation of predictions is essential, although shortcomings in current methods suggest that additional means of validation need to be developed. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website. CONFLICT OF INTEREST The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kushal Suryamohan
- Department of Biochemistry, University at Buffalo-State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
- NY State Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Sciences, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
| | - Marc S. Halfon
- Department of Biochemistry, University at Buffalo-State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo-State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University at Buffalo-State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
- NY State Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Sciences, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Department and Program in Cancer Genetics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY 14263, USA
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10
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Ezer D, Zabet NR, Adryan B. Homotypic clusters of transcription factor binding sites: A model system for understanding the physical mechanics of gene expression. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2014; 10:63-9. [PMID: 25349675 PMCID: PMC4204428 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2014.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The organization of binding sites in cis-regulatory elements (CREs) can influence gene expression through a combination of physical mechanisms, ranging from direct interactions between TF molecules to DNA looping and transient chromatin interactions. The study of simple and common building blocks in promoters and other CREs allows us to dissect how all of these mechanisms work together. Many adjacent TF binding sites for the same TF species form homotypic clusters, and these CRE architecture building blocks serve as a prime candidate for understanding interacting transcriptional mechanisms. Homotypic clusters are prevalent in both bacterial and eukaryotic genomes, and are present in both promoters as well as more distal enhancer/silencer elements. Here, we review previous theoretical and experimental studies that show how the complexity (number of binding sites) and spatial organization (distance between sites and overall distance from transcription start sites) of homotypic clusters influence gene expression. In particular, we describe how homotypic clusters modulate the temporal dynamics of TF binding, a mechanism that can affect gene expression, but which has not yet been sufficiently characterized. We propose further experiments on homotypic clusters that would be useful in developing mechanistic models of gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daphne Ezer
- Cambridge Systems Biology Centre, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QR, UK
| | - Nicolae Radu Zabet
- Cambridge Systems Biology Centre, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QR, UK
| | - Boris Adryan
- Cambridge Systems Biology Centre, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QR, UK
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11
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Application of experimentally verified transcription factor binding sites models for computational analysis of ChIP-Seq data. BMC Genomics 2014; 15:80. [PMID: 24472686 PMCID: PMC4234207 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-80] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/25/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background ChIP-Seq is widely used to detect genomic segments bound by transcription factors (TF), either directly at DNA binding sites (BSs) or indirectly via other proteins. Currently, there are many software tools implementing different approaches to identify TFBSs within ChIP-Seq peaks. However, their use for the interpretation of ChIP-Seq data is usually complicated by the absence of direct experimental verification, making it difficult both to set a threshold to avoid recognition of too many false-positive BSs, and to compare the actual performance of different models. Results Using ChIP-Seq data for FoxA2 binding loci in mouse adult liver and human HepG2 cells we compared FoxA binding-site predictions for four computational models of two fundamental classes: pattern matching based on existing training set of experimentally confirmed TFBSs (oPWM and SiteGA) and de novo motif discovery (ChIPMunk and diChIPMunk). To properly select prediction thresholds for the models, we experimentally evaluated affinity of 64 predicted FoxA BSs using EMSA that allows safely distinguishing sequences able to bind TF. As a result we identified thousands of reliable FoxA BSs within ChIP-Seq loci from mouse liver and human HepG2 cells. It was found that the performance of conventional position weight matrix (PWM) models was inferior with the highest false positive rate. On the contrary, the best recognition efficiency was achieved by the combination of SiteGA & diChIPMunk/ChIPMunk models, properly identifying FoxA BSs in up to 90% of loci for both mouse and human ChIP-Seq datasets. Conclusions The experimental study of TF binding to oligonucleotides corresponding to predicted sites increases the reliability of computational methods for TFBS-recognition in ChIP-Seq data analysis. Regarding ChIP-Seq data interpretation, basic PWMs have inferior TFBS recognition quality compared to the more sophisticated SiteGA and de novo motif discovery methods. A combination of models from different principles allowed identification of proper TFBSs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-80) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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12
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Weingarten-Gabbay S, Segal E. The grammar of transcriptional regulation. Hum Genet 2014; 133:701-11. [PMID: 24390306 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-013-1413-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2013] [Accepted: 12/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Eukaryotes employ combinatorial strategies to generate a variety of expression patterns from a relatively small set of regulatory DNA elements. As in any other language, deciphering the mapping between DNA and expression requires an understanding of the set of rules that govern basic principles in transcriptional regulation, the functional elements involved, and the ways in which they combine to orchestrate a transcriptional output. Here, we review the current understanding of various grammatical rules, including the effect on expression of the number of transcription factor binding sites, their location, orientation, affinity and activity; co-association with different factors; and intrinsic nucleosome organization. We review different methods that are used to study the grammar of transcription regulation, highlight gaps in current understanding, and discuss how recent technological advances may be utilized to bridge them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shira Weingarten-Gabbay
- Department of Computer Science, Applied Mathematics and Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100, Rehovot, Israel,
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Diermeier SD, Németh A, Rehli M, Grummt I, Längst G. Chromatin-specific regulation of mammalian rDNA transcription by clustered TTF-I binding sites. PLoS Genet 2013; 9:e1003786. [PMID: 24068958 PMCID: PMC3772059 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2013] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Enhancers and promoters often contain multiple binding sites for the same transcription factor, suggesting that homotypic clustering of binding sites may serve a role in transcription regulation. Here we show that clustering of binding sites for the transcription termination factor TTF-I downstream of the pre-rRNA coding region specifies transcription termination, increases the efficiency of transcription initiation and affects the three-dimensional structure of rRNA genes. On chromatin templates, but not on free rDNA, clustered binding sites promote cooperative binding of TTF-I, loading TTF-I to the downstream terminators before it binds to the rDNA promoter. Interaction of TTF-I with target sites upstream and downstream of the rDNA transcription unit connects these distal DNA elements by forming a chromatin loop between the rDNA promoter and the terminators. The results imply that clustered binding sites increase the binding affinity of transcription factors in chromatin, thus influencing the timing and strength of DNA-dependent processes. The sequence-specific binding of proteins to regulatory regions controls gene expression. Binding sites for transcription factors are rather short and present several million times in large genomes. However, only a small number of these binding sites are functionally important. How proteins can discriminate and select their functional regions is not clear, to date. Regulatory loci like gene promoters and enhancers commonly comprise multiple binding sites for either one factor or a combination of several DNA binding proteins, allowing efficient factor recruitment. We studied the cluster of TTF-I binding sites downstream of the rRNA gene and identified that cooperative binding to the multimeric termination sites in combination with low-affinity binding of TTF-I to individual sites upstream of the gene serves multiple regulatory functions. Packaging of the clustered sites into chromatin is a prerequisite for high-affinity binding, coordinated activation of transcription and the formation of a chromatin loop between the promoter and the terminator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah D. Diermeier
- Biochemistry Centre Regensburg (BCR), University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Attila Németh
- Biochemistry Centre Regensburg (BCR), University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Michael Rehli
- Department of Hematology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ingrid Grummt
- Molecular Biology of the Cell II, German Cancer Research Centre (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Gernot Längst
- Biochemistry Centre Regensburg (BCR), University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Jakubauskiene E, Janaviciute V, Peciuliene I, Söderkvist P, Kanopka A. G/A polymorphism in intronic sequence affects the processing of MAO-B gene in patients with Parkinson disease. FEBS Lett 2012; 586:3698-704. [PMID: 22974659 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2012.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2012] [Revised: 08/16/2012] [Accepted: 08/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) plays an important role in the metabolism of neuroactive and vasoactive amines in the central nervous system and peripheral tissues. Increased levels of MAO-B mRNA and enzymatic activity have been reported in platelets from patients with Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, however the triggers of enhanced mRNA levels are unknown. Our results demonstrate for the first time that G/A dimorphism in intron 13 sequence creates splicing enhancer thus stimulating intron 13 removal efficiency. The increased MAO-B protein levels might serve as a surrogate marker for - Parkinson disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Egle Jakubauskiene
- Department of Immunology and Cell Biology, Vilnius University, Institute of Biotechnology, LT-02241 Vilnius, Lithuania
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15
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van Loo KMJ, Schaub C, Pernhorst K, Yaari Y, Beck H, Schoch S, Becker AJ. Transcriptional regulation of T-type calcium channel CaV3.2: bi-directionality by early growth response 1 (Egr1) and repressor element 1 (RE-1) protein-silencing transcription factor (REST). J Biol Chem 2012; 287:15489-501. [PMID: 22431737 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.310763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The pore-forming Ca(2+) channel subunit Ca(V)3.2 mediates a low voltage-activated (T-type) Ca(2+) current (I(CaT)) that contributes pivotally to neuronal and cardiac pacemaker activity. Despite the importance of tightly regulated Ca(V)3.2 levels, the mechanisms regulating its transcriptional dynamics are not well understood. Here, we have identified two key factors that up- and down-regulate the expression of the gene encoding Ca(V)3.2 (Cacna1h). First, we determined the promoter region and observed several stimulatory and inhibitory clusters. Furthermore, we found binding sites for the transcription factor early growth response 1 (Egr1/Zif268/Krox-24) to be highly overrepresented within the Ca(V)3.2 promoter region. mRNA expression analyses and dual-luciferase promoter assays revealed that the Ca(V)3.2 promoter was strongly activated by Egr1 overexpression in vitro and in vivo. Subsequent chromatin immunoprecipitation assays in NG108-15 cells and mouse hippocampi confirmed specific Egr1 binding to the Ca(V)3.2 promoter. Congruently, whole-cell I(CaT) values were significantly larger after Egr1 overexpression. Intriguingly, Egr1-induced activation of the Ca(V)3.2 promoter was effectively counteracted by the repressor element 1-silencing transcription factor (REST). Thus, Egr1 and REST can bi-directionally regulate Ca(V)3.2 promoter activity and mRNA expression and, hence, the size of I(CaT). This mechanism has critical implications for the regulation of neuronal and cardiac Ca(2+) homeostasis under physiological conditions and in episodic disorders such as arrhythmias and epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen M J van Loo
- Department of Neuropathology, University of Bonn Medical Center, D-53105 Bonn, Germany.
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16
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Ma L, Tan Z, Teng Y, Hoersch S, Horvitz HR. In vivo effects on intron retention and exon skipping by the U2AF large subunit and SF1/BBP in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2011; 17:2201-2211. [PMID: 22033331 PMCID: PMC3222132 DOI: 10.1261/rna.027458.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Accepted: 09/27/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The in vivo analysis of the roles of splicing factors in regulating alternative splicing in animals remains a challenge. Using a microarray-based screen, we identified a Caenorhabditis elegans gene, tos-1, that exhibited three of the four major types of alternative splicing: intron retention, exon skipping, and, in the presence of U2AF large subunit mutations, the use of alternative 3' splice sites. Mutations in the splicing factors U2AF large subunit and SF1/BBP altered the splicing of tos-1. 3' splice sites of the retained intron or before the skipped exon regulate the splicing pattern of tos-1. Our study provides in vivo evidence that intron retention and exon skipping can be regulated largely by the identities of 3' splice sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410078, China
| | - Zhiping Tan
- Center for Clinical Gene Diagnosis and Therapy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Yanling Teng
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410078, China
| | - Sebastian Hoersch
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - H. Robert Horvitz
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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He X, Duque TSPC, Sinha S. Evolutionary origins of transcription factor binding site clusters. Mol Biol Evol 2011; 29:1059-70. [PMID: 22075113 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msr277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Empirical studies have revealed that regulatory DNA sequences such as enhancers or promoters often harbor multiple binding sites for the same transcription factor. Such "homotypic site clustering" has been hypothesized as arising out of functional requirements of the sequences. Here, we propose an alternative explanation of this phenomenon that multisite enhancers are common because they are favored by evolutionary sampling of the genotype-phenotype landscape. To test this hypothesis, we developed a new computational framework specialized for population genetic simulations of enhancer evolution. It uses a thermodynamics-based model of enhancer function, integrating information from strong as well as weak binding sites, to determine the strength of selection. Using this framework, we found that even when simpler genotypes exist for a desired strength of regulation, relatively complex genotypes (enhancers with more sites) are more readily reached by the simulated evolutionary process. We show that there are more ways to "build" a fit genotype with many weak sites than with a few strong sites, and this is why evolution finds complex genotypes more often. Our claims are consistent with an empirical analysis of binding site content in enhancers characterized in Drosophila melanogaster and their orthologs in other Drosophila species. We also characterized a subtle but significant difference between genotypes likely to be sampled by evolution and equally fit genotypes one would obtain by uniform sampling of the fitness landscape, that is, an "evolutionary signature" in enhancer sequences. Finally, we investigated potential effects of other factors, such as rugged fitness landscapes, short local duplications, and noise characteristics of enhancers, on the emergence of homotypic site clustering. Homotypic site clustering is an important contributor to the complexity and function of cis-regulatory sequences. This work provides a simple null hypothesis for its origin, against which alternative adaptationist explanations may be evaluated, and cautions against "evolutionary mirages" present in common features of genomic sequence. The quantitative framework we develop here can be used more generally to understand how mechanisms of enhancer action influence their composition and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin He
- Department of Biochemistry, University of California at San Francisco, CA, USA
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18
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Xu J, Dou T, Liu C, Fu M, Huang Y, Gu S, Zhou Y, Xie Y. The evolution of alternative splicing exons in vascular endothelial growth factor A. Gene 2011; 487:143-50. [PMID: 21782909 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2011.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2011] [Revised: 06/12/2011] [Accepted: 06/18/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The C-terminus alternative splicing in VEGFA (vascular endothelial growth factor A) is known for its impact on physiological and pathological angiogenesis. Based on our prediction and RT-PCR verification, we identified anti-angiogenic VEGFA165b isoforms in mouse and rabbit for the first time. We also found that the relative expression level of VEGFA165b isoform had been increasing from rodents to human, and exon8b may have experienced a minor-to-major form exon conversion, possibly correlated with its gain-of-function. It is suggested that introduction of alternative splicing exons (esp. exon6 and exon8b) made important contributions to the transcriptional diversity of VEGFA and played a crucial role in the evolution of its regulatory mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxi Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Institute of Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Gotea V, Visel A, Westlund JM, Nobrega MA, Pennacchio LA, Ovcharenko I. Homotypic clusters of transcription factor binding sites are a key component of human promoters and enhancers. Genome Res 2010; 20:565-77. [PMID: 20363979 DOI: 10.1101/gr.104471.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Clustering of multiple transcription factor binding sites (TFBSs) for the same transcription factor (TF) is a common feature of cis-regulatory modules in invertebrate animals, but the occurrence of such homotypic clusters of TFBSs (HCTs) in the human genome has remained largely unknown. To explore whether HCTs are also common in human and other vertebrates, we used known binding motifs for vertebrate TFs and a hidden Markov model-based approach to detect HCTs in the human, mouse, chicken, and fugu genomes, and examined their association with cis-regulatory modules. We found that evolutionarily conserved HCTs occupy nearly 2% of the human genome, with experimental evidence for individual TFs supporting their binding to predicted HCTs. More than half of the promoters of human genes contain HCTs, with a distribution around the transcription start site in agreement with the experimental data from the ENCODE project. In addition, almost half of the 487 experimentally validated developmental enhancers contain them as well--a number more than 25-fold larger than expected by chance. We also found evidence of negative selection acting on TFBSs within HCTs, as the conservation of TFBSs is stronger than the conservation of sequences separating them. The important role of HCTs as components of developmental enhancers is additionally supported by a strong correlation between HCTs and the binding of the enhancer-associated coactivator protein Ep300 (also known as p300). Experimental validation of HCT-containing elements in both zebrafish and mouse suggest that HCTs could be used to predict both the presence of enhancers and their tissue specificity, and are thus a feature that can be effectively used in deciphering the gene regulatory code. In conclusion, our results indicate that HCTs are a pervasive feature of human cis-regulatory modules and suggest that they play an important role in gene regulation in the human and other vertebrate genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valer Gotea
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20894, USA
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20
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Ma L, Horvitz HR. Mutations in the Caenorhabditis elegans U2AF large subunit UAF-1 alter the choice of a 3' splice site in vivo. PLoS Genet 2009; 5:e1000708. [PMID: 19893607 PMCID: PMC2762039 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2009] [Accepted: 10/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The removal of introns from eukaryotic RNA transcripts requires the activities of five multi-component ribonucleoprotein complexes and numerous associated proteins. The lack of mutations affecting splicing factors essential for animal survival has limited the study of the in vivo regulation of splicing. From a screen for suppressors of the Caenorhabditis elegans unc-93(e1500) rubberband Unc phenotype, we identified mutations in genes that encode the C. elegans orthologs of two splicing factors, the U2AF large subunit (UAF-1) and SF1/BBP (SFA-1). The uaf-1(n4588) mutation resulted in temperature-sensitive lethality and caused the unc-93 RNA transcript to be spliced using a cryptic 3′ splice site generated by the unc-93(e1500) missense mutation. The sfa-1(n4562) mutation did not cause the utilization of this cryptic 3′ splice site. We isolated four uaf-1(n4588) intragenic suppressors that restored the viability of uaf-1 mutants at 25°C. These suppressors differentially affected the recognition of the cryptic 3′ splice site and implicated a small region of UAF-1 between the U2AF small subunit-interaction domain and the first RNA recognition motif in affecting the choice of 3′ splice site. We constructed a reporter for unc-93 splicing and using site-directed mutagenesis found that the position of the cryptic splice site affects its recognition. We also identified nucleotides of the endogenous 3′ splice site important for recognition by wild-type UAF-1. Our genetic and molecular analyses suggested that the phenotypic suppression of the unc-93(e1500) Unc phenotype by uaf-1(n4588) and sfa-1(n4562) was likely caused by altered splicing of an unknown gene. Our observations provide in vivo evidence that UAF-1 can act in regulating 3′ splice-site choice and establish a system that can be used to investigate the in vivo regulation of RNA splicing in C. elegans. Eukaryotic genes contain intervening intronic sequences that must be removed from pre-mRNA transcripts by RNA splicing to generate functional messenger RNAs. While studying genes that encode and control a presumptive muscle potassium channel complex in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, we found that mutations in two splicing factors, the U2AF large subunit and SF1/BBP suppress the rubberband Unc phenotype caused by a rare missense mutation in the gene unc-93. Mutations affecting the U2AF large subunit caused the recognition of a cryptic 3′ splice site generated by the unc-93 mutation, providing in vivo evidence that the U2AF large subunit can affect splice-site selection. By contrast, an SF1/BBP mutation that suppressed the rubberband Unc phenotype did not cause splicing using this cryptic 3′ splice site. Our genetic studies identified a region of the U2AF large subunit important for its effect on 3′ splice-site choice. Our mutagenesis analysis of in vivo transgene splicing identified a positional effect on weak 3′ splice site selection and nucleotides of the endogenous 3′ splice site important for recognition. The system we have defined should facilitate future in vivo analyses of pre–mRNA splicing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Ma
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - H. Robert Horvitz
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
The SR proteins are not only involved in pre-mRNA splicing but in mRNA export and the initiation of translation. Summary The processing of pre-mRNAs is a fundamental step required for the expression of most metazoan genes. Members of the family of serine/arginine (SR)-rich proteins are critical components of the machineries carrying out these essential processing events, highlighting their importance in maintaining efficient gene expression. SR proteins are characterized by their ability to interact simultaneously with RNA and other protein components via an RNA recognition motif (RRM) and through a domain rich in arginine and serine residues, the RS domain. Their functional roles in gene expression are surprisingly diverse, ranging from their classical involvement in constitutive and alternative pre-mRNA splicing to various post-splicing activities, including mRNA nuclear export, nonsense-mediated decay, and mRNA translation. These activities point up the importance of SR proteins during the regulation of mRNA metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Shepard
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-4025, USA
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22
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Nowak DG, Woolard J, Amin EM, Konopatskaya O, Saleem MA, Churchill AJ, Ladomery MR, Harper SJ, Bates DO. Expression of pro- and anti-angiogenic isoforms of VEGF is differentially regulated by splicing and growth factors. J Cell Sci 2009; 121:3487-95. [PMID: 18843117 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.016410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 249] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA; hereafter referred to as VEGF) is a key regulator of physiological and pathological angiogenesis. Two families of VEGF isoforms are generated by alternate splice-site selection in the terminal exon. Proximal splice-site selection (PSS) in exon 8 results in pro-angiogenic VEGFxxx isoforms (xxx is the number of amino acids), whereas distal splice-site selection (DSS) results in anti-angiogenic VEGFxxxb isoforms. To investigate control of PSS and DSS, we investigated the regulation of isoform expression by extracellular growth factor administration and intracellular splicing factors. In primary epithelial cells VEGFxxxb formed the majority of VEGF isoforms (74%). IGF1, and TNFalpha treatment favoured PSS (increasing VEGFxxx) whereas TGFbeta1 favoured DSS, increasing VEGFxxxb levels. TGFbeta1 induced DSS selection was prevented by inhibition of p38 MAPK and the Clk/sty (CDC-like kinase, CLK1) splicing factor kinase family, but not ERK1/2. Clk phosphorylates SR protein splicing factors ASF/SF2, SRp40 and SRp55. To determine whether SR splicing factors alter VEGF splicing, they were overexpressed in epithelial cells, and VEGF isoform production assessed. ASF/SF2, and SRp40 both favoured PSS, whereas SRp55 upregulated VEGFxxxb (DSS) isoforms relative to VEGFxxx. SRp55 knockdown reduced expression of VEGF165b. Moreover, SRp55 bound to a 35 nucleotide region of the 3'UTR immediately downstream of the stop codon in exon 8b. These results identify regulation of splicing by growth and splice factors as a key event in determining the relative pro-versus anti-angiogenic expression of VEGF isoforms, and suggest that p38 MAPK-Clk/sty kinases are responsible for the TGFbeta1-induced DSS selection, and identify SRp55 as a key regulatory splice factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawid G Nowak
- Microvascular Research Laboratories, Bristol Heart Institute, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Bristol, Southwell Street, Bristol BS2 8EJ, UK
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23
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Genetic and genomewide analysis of simultaneous mutations in acetylated and methylated lysine residues in histone H3 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics 2008; 181:461-72. [PMID: 19087956 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.108.098897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Acetylated and methylated lysine residues in histone H3 play important roles in regulating yeast gene expression and other cellular processes. Previous studies have suggested that histone H3 acetylated and methylated lysine residues may functionally interact through interdependent pathways to regulate gene transcription. A common genetic test for functional interdependence is to characterize the phenotype of a double mutant. Using this strategy, we tested the genetic interaction between histone H3 mutant alleles that simultaneously eliminate acetylated or methylated lysine residues. Our results indicate that mutation of histone H3 acetylated lysine residues alleviates growth phenotypes exhibited by the H3 methylated lysine mutant. In contrast, histone H3 acetylated and methylated lysine mutants display largely independent effects on yeast gene expression. Intriguingly, these expression changes are preferentially associated with chromosomal regions in which histone H3 lysine residues are hypoacetylated and hypomethylated. Finally, we show that the acetylated and methylated lysine mutants have strikingly different effects on the binding of Sir4 to yeast telomeres, suggesting that histone H3 acetylated lysine residues regulate yeast silencing through a mechanism independent of SIR binding.
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24
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Zhang X, Merkler KA, McLean MP. Characterization of regulatory intronic and exonic sequences involved in alternative splicing of scavenger receptor class B gene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 372:173-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2008] [Accepted: 05/02/2008] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Mid-frequency DFNA8/12 hearing loss caused by a synonymous TECTA mutation that affects an exonic splice enhancer. Eur J Hum Genet 2008; 16:1430-6. [PMID: 18575463 DOI: 10.1038/ejhg.2008.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Autosomal dominant hearing loss is highly heterogeneous. Hearing impairment mainly involves the mid-frequencies (500-2000 Hz) in only a low percentage of the cases. In a Dutch family with autosomal dominant mid-frequency/flat hearing loss, genome-wide SNP analysis combined with fine mapping using microsatellite markers mapped the defect to the DFNA8/12 locus, with a maximum two-point LOD score of 3.52. All exons and intron-exon boundaries of the TECTA gene, of which mutations are causative for DFNA8/12, were sequenced. Only one heterozygous synonymous change in exon 16 (c.5331G>A; p.L1777L) was found to segregate with the hearing loss. This change was predicted to cause the loss of an exonic splice enhancer (ESE). RT-PCR using primers flanking exon 16 revealed, besides the expected PCR product from the wild-type allele, a smaller fragment only in the affected individual, representing part of an aberrant TECTA transcript lacking exon 16. The aberrant splicing is predicted to result in a deletion of 37 amino acids (p.S1758Y/G1759_N1795del) in alpha-tectorin. Subsequently, the same mutation was detected in two out of 36 individuals with a comparable phenotype. Owing to the position of the protein deletion just N-terminal of the zona pellucida (ZP) domain of alpha-tectorin, it is likely that the deletion of 37 amino acids may affect the proteolytic processing, structure and/or function of this domain, which results in a clinical phenotype comparable to that of missense mutations in the ZP domain. In addition, this is the first report of a synonymous mutation that affects an ESE and causes hereditary hearing loss.
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26
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Asang C, Hauber I, Schaal H. Insights into the selective activation of alternatively used splice acceptors by the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 bidirectional splicing enhancer. Nucleic Acids Res 2008; 36:1450-63. [PMID: 18203748 PMCID: PMC2275126 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkm1147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The guanosine-adenosine-rich exonic splicing enhancer (GAR ESE) identified in exon 5 of the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) pre-mRNA activates either an enhancer-dependent 5′ splice site (ss) or 3′ ss in 1-intron reporter constructs in the presence of the SR proteins SF2/ASF2 and SRp40. Characterizing the mode of action of the GAR ESE inside the internal HIV-1 exon 5 we found that this enhancer fulfils a dual splicing regulatory function (i) by synergistically mediating exon recognition through its individual SR protein-binding sites and (ii) by conferring 3′ ss selectivity within the 3′ ss cluster preceding exon 5. Both functions depend upon the GAR ESE, U1 snRNP binding at the downstream 5′ ss D4 and the E42 sequence located between these elements. Therefore, a network of cross-exon interactions appears to regulate splicing of the alternative exons 4a and 5. As the GAR ESE-mediated activation of the upstream 3′ ss cluster also is essential for the processing of intron-containing vpu/env-mRNAs during intermediate viral gene expression, the GAR enhancer substantially contributes to the regulation of viral replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinna Asang
- Institut für Virologie, Universitätsklinikum Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, D-40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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27
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Sridharan V, Singh R. A conditional role of U2AF in splicing of introns with unconventional polypyrimidine tracts. Mol Cell Biol 2007; 27:7334-44. [PMID: 17709389 PMCID: PMC2168890 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00627-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recognition of polypyrimidine (Py) tracts typically present between the branch point and the 3' splice site by the large subunit of the essential splicing factor U2AF is a key early step in pre-mRNA splicing. Diverse intronic sequence arrangements exist, however, including 3' splice sites lacking recognizable Py tracts, which raises the question of how general the requirement for U2AF is for various intron architectures. Our analysis of fission yeast introns in vivo has unexpectedly revealed that whereas introns lacking Py tracts altogether remain dependent on both subunits of U2AF, introns with long Py tracts, unconventionally positioned upstream of branch points, are unaffected by U2AF inactivation. Nevertheless, mutation of these Py tracts causes strong dependence on the large subunit U2AF59. We also find that Py tract diversity influences the requirement for the conserved C-terminal domain of U2AF59 (RNA recognition motif 3), which has been implicated in protein-protein interactions with other splicing factors. Together, these results suggest that in addition to Py tract binding by U2AF, supplementary mechanisms of U2AF recruitment and 3' splice site identification exist to accommodate diverse intron architectures, which have gone unappreciated in biochemical studies of model pre-mRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinod Sridharan
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
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28
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Hastings ML, Allemand E, Duelli DM, Myers MP, Krainer AR. Control of pre-mRNA splicing by the general splicing factors PUF60 and U2AF(65). PLoS One 2007; 2:e538. [PMID: 17579712 PMCID: PMC1888729 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2007] [Accepted: 05/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Pre-mRNA splicing is a crucial step in gene expression, and accurate recognition of splice sites is an essential part of this process. Splice sites with weak matches to the consensus sequences are common, though it is not clear how such sites are efficiently utilized. Using an in vitro splicing-complementation approach, we identified PUF60 as a factor that promotes splicing of an intron with a weak 3′ splice-site. PUF60 has homology to U2AF65, a general splicing factor that facilitates 3′ splice-site recognition at the early stages of spliceosome assembly. We demonstrate that PUF60 can functionally substitute for U2AF65in vitro, but splicing is strongly stimulated by the presence of both proteins. Reduction of either PUF60 or U2AF65 in cells alters the splicing pattern of endogenous transcripts, consistent with the idea that regulation of PUF60 and U2AF65 levels can dictate alternative splicing patterns. Our results indicate that recognition of 3′ splice sites involves different U2AF-like molecules, and that modulation of these general splicing factors can have profound effects on splicing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L. Hastings
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, United States of America
| | - Eric Allemand
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, United States of America
| | - Dominik M. Duelli
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, United States of America
| | - Michael P. Myers
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, United States of America
| | - Adrian R. Krainer
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, United States of America
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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29
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Sciabica KS, Hertel KJ. The splicing regulators Tra and Tra2 are unusually potent activators of pre-mRNA splicing. Nucleic Acids Res 2006; 34:6612-20. [PMID: 17135210 PMCID: PMC1747189 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkl984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexual differentiation in Drosophila is regulated through alternative splicing of doublesex. Female-specific splicing is activated through the activity of splicing enhancer complexes assembled on multiple repeat elements. Each of these repeats serves as a binding platform for the cooperative assembly of a heterotrimeric complex consisting of the SR proteins Tra, Tra2 and 9G8. Using quantitative kinetic analyses, we demonstrate that each component of the enhancer complex is capable of recruiting the spliceosome. Surprisingly, Tra, Tra2 and 9G8 are much stronger splicing activators than other SR protein family members and their activation potential is significantly higher than expected from their serine/arginine content. 9G8 activates splicing not only through its RS domains but also through its RNA-binding domain. The RS domains of Tra and Tra2 are required but not sufficient for efficient complex assembly. Thus, the regulated assembly of the dsx enhancer complexes leads to the generation of an extended activation domain to guarantee the ‘all or none’ splicing switch that is required during Drosophila sexual differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Klemens J. Hertel
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +1 949 824 2127; Fax: +1 949 824 8598;
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30
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Noh SJ, Lee K, Paik H, Hur CG. TISA: tissue-specific alternative splicing in human and mouse genes. DNA Res 2006; 13:229-43. [PMID: 17107969 DOI: 10.1093/dnares/dsl011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternative splicing (AS) is a mechanism by which multiple transcripts are produced from a single gene and is thought to be an important mechanism for tissue-specific expression of transcript isoforms. Here, we report a novel graphing method for transcript reconstruction and statistical prediction of tissue-specific AS. We applied three selection steps to generate the splice graph and predict the transcript isoforms: (i) a custom scoring rule for exon/intron sets, (ii) binomial statistics for selecting valid alternative splicing with a frequency of at least 1% for the predominant form and (iii) evaluation of transcript structure. We obtained 97 286 and 66 022 valid transcripts from 26 143 human and 27 741 mouse genes, respectively. In addition, we discovered 33 481 AS events for nine types of AS patterns in human. The statistical significance of tissue specificity for each gene, transcript and AS event was assessed based on EST tissue information, followed by a multiple testing correction procedure. In human, 12 711 genes, 16 016 transcripts and 1035 AS events were predicted to be tissue-specific (false discovery rate <0.01). This information on genes, transcript structures, AS events and their tissue specificities in human and mouse are freely accessible on the TISA website (http://tisa.kribb.re.kr/AGC/).
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Jae Noh
- Bioinformatics Lab. Plant genomics center KRIBB, 52 Eoeun-dong, Yuseong-gu, Daejon, 305-333 Korea
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31
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Millevoi S, Loulergue C, Dettwiler S, Karaa SZ, Keller W, Antoniou M, Vagner S. An interaction between U2AF 65 and CF I(m) links the splicing and 3' end processing machineries. EMBO J 2006; 25:4854-64. [PMID: 17024186 PMCID: PMC1618107 DOI: 10.1038/sj.emboj.7601331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2006] [Accepted: 07/31/2006] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The protein factor U2 snRNP Auxiliary Factor (U2AF) 65 is an essential component required for splicing and involved in the coupling of splicing and 3' end processing of vertebrate pre-mRNAs. Here we have addressed the mechanisms by which U2AF 65 stimulates pre-mRNA 3' end processing. We identify an arginine/serine-rich region of U2AF 65 that mediates an interaction with an RS-like alternating charge domain of the 59 kDa subunit of the human cleavage factor I (CF I(m)), an essential 3' processing factor that functions at an early step in the recognition of the 3' end processing signal. Tethered functional analysis shows that the U2AF 65/CF I(m) 59 interaction stimulates in vitro 3' end cleavage and polyadenylation. These results therefore uncover a direct role of the U2AF 65/CF I(m) 59 interaction in the functional coordination of splicing and 3' end processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Millevoi
- INSERM U563, Toulouse, France
- Institut Claudius Regaud, Toulouse, France
- Université Toulouse III Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Clarisse Loulergue
- INSERM U563, Toulouse, France
- Institut Claudius Regaud, Toulouse, France
- Université Toulouse III Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
- Nuclear Biology Group, Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, King's College London School of Medicine, Guy's Campus, Guy's Hospital, London, UK
| | - Sabine Dettwiler
- Department of Cell Biology, Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sarah Zeïneb Karaa
- INSERM U563, Toulouse, France
- Université Toulouse III Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Walter Keller
- Department of Cell Biology, Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Michael Antoniou
- Nuclear Biology Group, Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, King's College London School of Medicine, Guy's Campus, Guy's Hospital, London, UK
| | - Stéphan Vagner
- INSERM U563, Toulouse, France
- Institut Claudius Regaud, Toulouse, France
- Université Toulouse III Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
- INSERM U563, Institut Claudius Régaud, 20–24 Rue du Pont St Pierre, Toulouse 31052, France. Tel.: +33 5 67 69 63 11; Fax: +33 5 61 42 46 31; E-mail:
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32
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Abstract
In this issue of Cell, Hallikas et al. (2006) and Wei et al. (2006) describe different ways of identifying direct targets of transcription factors and their corresponding regulatory sequences in the genome. Although still under development, these studies provide an efficient way to decipher regulatory networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank C P Holstege
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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33
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Hagiwara M. Alternative splicing: a new drug target of the post-genome era. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2005; 1754:324-31. [PMID: 16260193 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2005.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2005] [Revised: 09/07/2005] [Accepted: 09/10/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Alternative splicing allows for the creation of multiple distinct mRNA transcripts from a given gene in a multicellular organism. Pre-mRNA splicing is catalyzed by a multi-molecular complex, including serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins, which are highly phosphorylated in living cells, and thought to play crucial roles in spliceosomal formation and in the regulation of alternative splicing. Recently, reports of low molecular compounds, which alter splicing pattern of genes, have been accumulated. A benzothiazole compound TG003, a kinase inhibitor that targets Clk1 and Clk4, suppressed dissociation of nuclear speckles, altered the splicing patterns, and rescued the embryonic defects induced by excessive Clk activity. The emerging inhibitors of the signal transduction pathways regulating pre-mRNA alternative splicing may open the way to therapies against diseases caused by missplicing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masatoshi Hagiwara
- Department of Functional Genomics, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan.
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34
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McAlinden A, Havlioglu N, Liang L, Davies SR, Sandell LJ. Alternative splicing of type II procollagen exon 2 is regulated by the combination of a weak 5' splice site and an adjacent intronic stem-loop cis element. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:32700-11. [PMID: 16076844 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m505940200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternative splicing of the type II procollagen gene (COL2A1) is developmentally regulated during chondrogenesis. Chondroprogenitor cells produce the type IIA procollagen isoform by splicing (including) exon 2 during pre-mRNA processing, whereas differentiated chondrocytes synthesize the type IIB procollagen isoform by exon 2 skipping (exclusion). Using a COL2A1 mini-gene and chondrocytes at various stages of differentiation, we identified a non-classical consensus splicing sequence in intron 2 adjacent to the 5' splice site, which is essential in regulating exon 2 splicing. RNA mapping confirmed this region contains secondary structure in the form of a stem-loop. Mutational analysis identified three cis elements within the conserved double-stranded stem region that are functional only in the context of the natural weak 5' splice site of exon 2; they are 1) a uridine-rich enhancer element in all cell types tested except differentiated chondrocytes; 2) an adenine-rich silencer element, and 3) an enhancer cis element functional in the context of secondary structure. This is the first report identifying key cis elements in the COL2A1 gene that modulate the cell type-specific alternative splicing switch of exon 2 during cartilage development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey McAlinden
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri 63110, USA.
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35
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Webb CJ, Romfo CM, van Heeckeren WJ, Wise JA. Exonic splicing enhancers in fission yeast: functional conservation demonstrates an early evolutionary origin. Genes Dev 2005; 19:242-54. [PMID: 15625190 PMCID: PMC545887 DOI: 10.1101/gad.1265905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2004] [Accepted: 11/11/2004] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Discrete sequence elements known as exonic splicing enhancers (ESEs) have been shown to influence both the efficiency of splicing and the profile of mature mRNAs in multicellular eukaryotes. While the existence of ESEs has not been demonstrated previously in unicellular eukaryotes, the factors known to recognize these elements and mediate their communication with the core splicing machinery are conserved and essential in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Here, we provide evidence that ESE function is conserved through evolution by demonstrating that three exonic splicing enhancers derived from vertebrates (chicken ASLV, mouse IgM, and human cTNT) promote splicing of two distinct S. pombe pre-messenger RNAs (pre-mRNAs). Second, as in extracts from mammalian cells, ESE function in S. pombe is compromised by mutations and increased distance from the 3'-splice site. Third, three-hybrid analyses indicate that the essential SR (serine/arginine-rich) protein Srp2p, but not the dispensable Srp1p, binds specifically to both native and heterologous purine-rich elements; thus, Srp2p is the likely mediator of ESE function in fission yeast. Finally, we have identified five natural purine-rich elements from S. pombe that promote splicing of our reporter pre-mRNAs. Taken together, these results provide strong evidence that the genesis of ESE-mediated splicing occurred early in eukaryotic evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Webb
- School of Medicine, Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106-4960, USA
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36
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Evans RD, Jones J, Taylor C, Watt FM. Sequence variation in the I-like domain of the beta1 integrin subunit in human oral squamous cell carcinomas. Cancer Lett 2004; 213:189-94. [PMID: 15327834 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2004.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2004] [Revised: 05/12/2004] [Accepted: 05/15/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We recently identified a heterozygous mutation in the beta1 integrin subunit of a squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) that maps to the I-like domain and activates ligand binding. To investigate the frequency of such mutations we screened 124 human oral SCCs. We identified six single nucleotide changes, all of which were also present in normal tissue, suggestive of polymorphisms. Two were in non-coding intronic sequences. Three were silent changes in exons. One caused a change in amino acid (A239V) that is unlikely to disturb integrin structure. We conclude that mutations in the beta1 I-like domain are uncommon in SCCs. However, population based studies of the polymorphisms we found may reveal an association with SCC development or prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard D Evans
- Keratinocyte Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, 44 Lincoln's Inn Fields, WC2A 3PX, UK
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37
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Jones A. The molecular cell biology of head and neck cancer with clinical applications. Section 1: Fundamental biology and the basis of cancer. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 29:475-91. [PMID: 15373861 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2273.2004.00834.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
This article addresses the subject of the fundamental workings of the cell. The essential mechanisms that underlie life are discussed and explained as succinctly as intelligibility will allow and the basic principles of molecular and cell biology detailed. In preparing this article I have made reference not only to standard works but also to the most recent research. In the article I attempt to provide both the surgical and medical head and neck oncologist with the basic insights into fundamental oncology necessary to understand and treat the clinical conditions that are head and neck cancer. In addition I hope it will facilitate the understanding of the various evolving novel treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Jones
- Faculty of Medicine, The University of Liverpool, Clincal Sciences Centre, University Hospital Aintree, Longmoor Lane, Liverpool L9 7AL, UK.
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38
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Liang XH, Haritan A, Uliel S, Michaeli S. trans and cis splicing in trypanosomatids: mechanism, factors, and regulation. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2004; 2:830-40. [PMID: 14555465 PMCID: PMC219355 DOI: 10.1128/ec.2.5.830-840.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xue-hai Liang
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, 52900 Israel
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39
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Abstract
Using recently available cDNA and genomic data (Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project; http://www.fruitfly.org), we computed a large sample of 10,057 Drosophila splice sites. An information-theoretic analysis of the nucleotide sequences adjacent to these splice sites showed a strong correlation between the sizes of introns and exons and the levels of information, which is a measure of sequence conservation. The strong correlation permitted us to determine extensive consensus sequences at the donor and acceptor sites of longer introns. These sequences were further refined and extended by examining the information in regions around splice sites that only partially matched the consensus. The correlation between length and information provided the basis for determining alternative consensus arrangements associated with shorter introns, as well as general base-composition preferences that likely promote spliceosome function. We also observed a correlation between information near splice sites and the lengths of nonadjacent introns, indicating that there are long-range effects spanning multiple introns. The ordered partitioning approach used in this analysis may become increasingly useful as large genomic data sets become available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Weir
- Department of Biology, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut 06459, USA.
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40
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McAlinden A, Havlioglu N, Sandell LJ. Regulation of protein diversity by alternative pre-mRNA splicing with specific focus on chondrogenesis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 72:51-68. [PMID: 15054904 DOI: 10.1002/bdrc.20004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Analysis of the human genome has dramatically demonstrated that the majority of protein diversity is generated by alternative splicing of pre-mRNA. This powerful and versatile mechanism controls the synthesis of functionally different protein isoforms that may be required during specific stages of development from a single gene. Consequently, ubiquitous and/or tissue-specific RNA splicing factors that regulate this splicing mechanism provide the basis for defining phenotypic characteristics of cells during differentiation. In this review, we will introduce the basic mechanisms of pre-mRNA alternative splicing, describe how this process is regulated by specific RNA splicing factors, and relate this to various systems of cell differentiation. Chondrogenesis, a well-defined differentiation pathway necessary for skeletogenesis, will be discussed in detail, with focus on some of the alternatively-spliced proteins known to be expressed during cartilage development. We propose a heuristic view that, ultimately, it is the regulation of these RNA splicing factors that determines the differentiation status of a cell. Studying regulation at the level of pre-mRNA alternative splicing will provide invaluable insights into how many developmental mechanisms are controlled, thus enabling us to manipulate a system to select for a specific differentiation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey McAlinden
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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41
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Abstract
Alternative pre-mRNA splicing is a central mode of genetic regulation in higher eukaryotes. Variability in splicing patterns is a major source of protein diversity from the genome. In this review, I describe what is currently known of the molecular mechanisms that control changes in splice site choice. I start with the best-characterized systems from the Drosophila sex determination pathway, and then describe the regulators of other systems about whose mechanisms there is some data. How these regulators are combined into complex systems of tissue-specific splicing is discussed. In conclusion, very recent studies are presented that point to new directions for understanding alternative splicing and its mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas L Black
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095-1662, USA.
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42
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Abstract
In eukaryotes, motifs such as silencers, enhancers and locus control regions act over thousands of base pairs to regulate adjacent genes; insulators limit such effects, and barriers confine repressive heterochromatin to particular chromosomal segments. Recent results show that many of these motifs are nongenic transcription units, and two of them directly contact their targets lying further down the chromosome to loop the intervening DNA: the barriers (scs and scs') flanking the 87A7 heat-shock locus in the fly contact each other, and a locus control region touches the β-globin gene in the mouse. I hypothesize that the act of transcription underlies the function of these regulators; active polymerizing complexes tend to cluster into `factories' and this facilitates molecular contact between the transcribed regulator and its distant (and transcribed) target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter R Cook
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK.
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43
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Dredge BK, Darnell RB. Nova regulates GABA(A) receptor gamma2 alternative splicing via a distal downstream UCAU-rich intronic splicing enhancer. Mol Cell Biol 2003; 23:4687-700. [PMID: 12808107 PMCID: PMC164843 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.23.13.4687-4700.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Nova is a neuron-specific RNA binding protein targeted in patients with the autoimmune disorder paraneoplastic opsoclonus-myoclonus ataxia, which is characterized by failure of inhibition of brainstem and spinal motor systems. Here, we have biochemically confirmed the observation that splicing regulation of the inhibitory GABA(A) receptor gamma2 (GABA(A)Rgamma2) subunit pre-mRNA exon E9 is disrupted in mice lacking Nova-1. To elucidate the mechanism by which Nova-1 regulates GABA(A)Rgamma2 alternative splicing, we systematically screened minigenes derived from the GABA(A)Rgamma2 and human beta-globin genes for their ability to support Nova-dependent splicing in transient transfection assays. These studies demonstrate that Nova-1 acts directly on GABA(A)Rgamma2 pre-mRNA to regulate E9 splicing and identify an intronic region that is necessary and sufficient for Nova-dependent enhancement of exon inclusion, which we term the NISE (Nova-dependent intronic splicing enhancer) element. The NISE element (located 80 nucleotides upstream of the splice acceptor site of the downstream exon E10) is composed of repeats of the sequence YCAY, consistent with previous studies of the mechanism by which Nova binds RNA. Mutation of these repeats abolishes binding of Nova-1 to the RNA in vitro and Nova-dependent splicing regulation in vivo. These data provide a molecular basis for understanding Nova regulation of GABA(A)Rgamma2 alternative splicing and suggest that general dysregulation of Nova's splicing enhancer function may underlie the neurologic defects seen in Nova's absence.
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MESH Headings
- Alternative Splicing
- Animals
- Antigens, Neoplasm
- Base Sequence
- Blotting, Western
- Cell Line
- Collodion/pharmacology
- DNA, Complementary/metabolism
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Enhancer Elements, Genetic
- Exons
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Globins/genetics
- Humans
- Introns
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Models, Genetic
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Mutation
- Nerve Tissue Proteins/genetics
- Neuro-Oncological Ventral Antigen
- Plasmids/metabolism
- Protein Binding
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- RNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- Receptors, GABA-A/genetics
- Receptors, GABA-A/metabolism
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Sequence Homology, Nucleic Acid
- Transfection
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Affiliation(s)
- B Kate Dredge
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10021, USA
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44
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Sazani P, Kole R. Modulation of alternative splicing by antisense oligonucleotides. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR AND SUBCELLULAR BIOLOGY 2003; 31:217-39. [PMID: 12494768 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-09728-1_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P Sazani
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina, CB #7295, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7295, USA
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45
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Abstract
Cis-regulatory modules (CRMs) are transcription regulatory DNA segments (approximately 1 Kb range) that control the expression of developmental genes in higher eukaryotes. We analyzed clustering of known binding motifs for transcription factors (TFs) in over 60 known CRMs from 20 Drosophila developmental genes, and we present evidence that each type of recognition motif forms significant clusters within the regulatory regions regulated by the corresponding TF. We demonstrate how a search with a single binding motif can be applied to explore gene regulatory networks and to discover coregulated genes in the genome. We also discuss the potential of the clustering method in interpreting the differential response of genes to various levels of transcriptional regulators.
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46
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Zhang G, Simon AE. A multifunctional turnip crinkle virus replication enhancer revealed by in vivo functional SELEX. J Mol Biol 2003; 326:35-48. [PMID: 12547189 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-2836(02)01366-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The motif1-hairpin (M1H), located on (-)-strands of Turnip Crinkle Virus (TCV)-associated satellite RNA C (satC), is a replication enhancer and recombination hotspot. Results of in vivo genetic selection (SELEX: systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment), where 28 bases of the M1H were randomized and then subjected to selection in plants, revealed that most winners contained one to three short motifs, many of which in their (-)-sense orientation are found in TCV and satC (-)-strand promoter elements. Ability to replicate in protoplasts correlated with fitness to accumulate in plants with one significant exception. Winner UC, containing only a seven-base replacement sequence, was the second most fit winner, yet replicated no better than a 28-base random replacement sequence. Fitness of satC containing different M1H replacement sequences could be due to enhanced satC replication or enhanced ability to affect TCV movement, since satC interferes with TCV virion accumulation, which is correlated with enhanced movement to younger tissue. Cells inoculated with TCV and UC accumulated fewer virions when compared to other winners that replicated better in protoplasts but were less fit in plants. UC, and other first and second round winners, contained structures that were on average 33% more stable in their (+)-strand orientation, and most formed hairpins with a A-rich sequence at the base. These results suggest that M1H replacement sequences contribute to the fitness of satC by either containing (-)-strand elements that enhance satRNA replication and/or a (+)-strand hairpin flanked with single-stranded sequence that enhances TCV movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guohua Zhang
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics University of Maryland College Park, College Park, MD 20742, USA
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47
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Hou VC, Lersch R, Gee SL, Ponthier JL, Lo AJ, Wu M, Turck CW, Koury M, Krainer AR, Mayeda A, Conboy JG. Decrease in hnRNP A/B expression during erythropoiesis mediates a pre-mRNA splicing switch. EMBO J 2002; 21:6195-204. [PMID: 12426391 PMCID: PMC137214 DOI: 10.1093/emboj/cdf625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
A physiologically important alternative pre-mRNA splicing switch, involving activation of protein 4.1R exon 16 (E16) splicing, is required for the establishment of proper mechanical integrity of the erythrocyte membrane during erythropoiesis. Here we identify a conserved exonic splicing silencer element (CE(16)) in E16 that interacts with hnRNP A/B proteins and plays a role in repression of E16 splicing during early erythropoiesis. Experiments with model pre-mRNAs showed that CE(16) can repress splicing of upstream introns, and that mutagenesis or replacement of CE(16) can relieve this inhibition. An affinity selection assay with biotinylated CE(16) RNA demonstrated specific binding of hnRNP A/B proteins. Depletion of hnRNP A/B proteins from nuclear extract significantly increased E16 inclusion, while repletion with recombinant hnRNP A/B restored E16 silencing. Most importantly, differentiating mouse erythroblasts exhibited a stage-specific activation of the E16 splicing switch in concert with a dramatic and specific down-regulation of hnRNP A/B protein expression. These findings demonstrate that natural developmental changes in hnRNP A/B proteins can effect physiologically important switches in pre-mRNA splicing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Michael Wu
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Life Sciences Division and
Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, University of California, San Francisco, HHMI, Department of Medicine and Cardiovascular Research Institute, San Francisco, CA 94143, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Veterans Affairs Medical Centers, Nashville, TN 37232, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724 and University of Miami School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Miami, FL 33136, USA Corresponding author e-mail:
| | - Chris W. Turck
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Life Sciences Division and
Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, University of California, San Francisco, HHMI, Department of Medicine and Cardiovascular Research Institute, San Francisco, CA 94143, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Veterans Affairs Medical Centers, Nashville, TN 37232, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724 and University of Miami School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Miami, FL 33136, USA Corresponding author e-mail:
| | - Mark Koury
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Life Sciences Division and
Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, University of California, San Francisco, HHMI, Department of Medicine and Cardiovascular Research Institute, San Francisco, CA 94143, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Veterans Affairs Medical Centers, Nashville, TN 37232, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724 and University of Miami School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Miami, FL 33136, USA Corresponding author e-mail:
| | - Adrian R. Krainer
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Life Sciences Division and
Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, University of California, San Francisco, HHMI, Department of Medicine and Cardiovascular Research Institute, San Francisco, CA 94143, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Veterans Affairs Medical Centers, Nashville, TN 37232, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724 and University of Miami School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Miami, FL 33136, USA Corresponding author e-mail:
| | - Akila Mayeda
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Life Sciences Division and
Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, University of California, San Francisco, HHMI, Department of Medicine and Cardiovascular Research Institute, San Francisco, CA 94143, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Veterans Affairs Medical Centers, Nashville, TN 37232, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724 and University of Miami School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Miami, FL 33136, USA Corresponding author e-mail:
| | - John G. Conboy
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Life Sciences Division and
Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, University of California, San Francisco, HHMI, Department of Medicine and Cardiovascular Research Institute, San Francisco, CA 94143, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Veterans Affairs Medical Centers, Nashville, TN 37232, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724 and University of Miami School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Miami, FL 33136, USA Corresponding author e-mail:
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48
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Ischemia induces a translocation of the splicing factor tra2-beta 1 and changes alternative splicing patterns in the brain. J Neurosci 2002. [PMID: 12122051 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.22-14-05889.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternative splice-site selection is regulated by the relative concentration of individual members of the serine-arginine family of proteins and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins. Most of these proteins accumulate predominantly in the nucleus, and a subset of them shuttles continuously between nucleus and cytosol. We demonstrate that in primary neuronal cultures, a rise in intracellular calcium concentration induced by thapsigargin leads to a translocation of the splicing regulatory protein tra2-beta1 and a consequent change in splice-site selection. To investigate this phenomenon under physiological conditions, we used an ischemia model. Ischemia induced in the brain causes a cytoplasmic accumulation and hyperphosphorylation of tra2-beta1. In addition, several of the proteins binding to tra2-beta1, such as src associated in mitosis 68 and serine/arginine-rich proteins, accumulate in the cytosol. Concomitant with this subcellular relocalization, we observed a change in alternative splice-site usage of the ICH-1 gene. The increased usage of its alternative exons is in agreement with previous studies demonstrating its repression by a high concentration of proteins with serine/arginine-rich domains. Our findings suggest that a change in the calcium concentration associated with ischemia is part of a signaling event, which changes pre-mRNA splicing pathways by causing relocalization of proteins that regulate splice-site selection.
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49
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Miyajima H, Miyaso H, Okumura M, Kurisu J, Imaizumi K. Identification of a cis-acting element for the regulation of SMN exon 7 splicing. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:23271-7. [PMID: 11956196 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m200851200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy results from the loss of functional survival motor neuron (SMN1) alleles. Two nearly identical copies of SMN exist and differ only by a single non-polymorphic C to T transition in exon 7. This transition leads to alteration of exon 7 splicing; that is, SMN1 produces a full-length transcript, whereas SMN2 expresses a low level of full-length transcript and predominantly an isoform lacking exon 7. The truncated transcript of SMN encodes a less stable protein with reduced self-oligomerization activity that fails to compensate for the loss of SMN1. In this paper, we identified a cis-acting element (element 1), which is composed of 45 bp in intron 6 responsible for the regulation of SMN exon 7 splicing. Mutations in element 1 or treatment with antisense oligonucleotides directed toward element 1 caused an increase in exon 7 inclusion. An approximately 33-kDa protein was demonstrated to associate with a pre-mRNA sequence containing both element 1 and the C to T transition in SMN exon 7 but not with the sequence containing mutated element 1, suggesting that the binding of the approximately 33-kDa protein plays crucial roles in the skipping of SMN exon 7 containing the C to T transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Miyajima
- Division of Structural Cellular Biology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST), 8916-5 Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0101, Japan
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Abstract
Different classes of RNA are exported from the nucleus by distinct factors. We demonstrate that U1 snRNA is exported like an mRNA on insertion of a pre-mRNA intron or either sense or antisense mRNA exon sequences. mRNA-specific factors are recruited onto the spliced or elongated U1 RNA whereas U snRNA-specific factors are not, suggesting that an unstructured region of sufficient length in an RNA acts as a dominant determinant of mRNA identity. After export, spliced U1 RNA undergoes cytoplasmic maturation but is not reimported into the nucleus. These data provide insight into mechanisms for discrimination of different classes of nuclear RNA and demonstrate that two RNAs of identical sequence can have distinct cytoplasmic fates depending on their mode of export.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mutsuhito Ohno
- The Institute for Virus Research, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.
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