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Tossounian MA, Zhao Y, Yu BYK, Markey SA, Malanchuk O, Zhu Y, Cain A, Gout I. Low-molecular-weight thiol transferases in redox regulation and antioxidant defence. Redox Biol 2024; 71:103094. [PMID: 38479221 PMCID: PMC10950700 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2024.103094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Low-molecular-weight (LMW) thiols are produced in all living cells in different forms and concentrations. Glutathione (GSH), coenzyme A (CoA), bacillithiol (BSH), mycothiol (MSH), ergothioneine (ET) and trypanothione T(SH)2 are the main LMW thiols in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. LMW thiols serve as electron donors for thiol-dependent enzymes in redox-mediated metabolic and signaling processes, protect cellular macromolecules from oxidative and xenobiotic stress, and participate in the reduction of oxidative modifications. The level and function of LMW thiols, their oxidized disulfides and mixed disulfide conjugates in cells and tissues is tightly controlled by dedicated oxidoreductases, such as peroxiredoxins, glutaredoxins, disulfide reductases and LMW thiol transferases. This review provides the first summary of the current knowledge of structural and functional diversity of transferases for LMW thiols, including GSH, BSH, MSH and T(SH)2. Their role in maintaining redox homeostasis in single-cell and multicellular organisms is discussed, focusing in particular on the conjugation of specific thiols to exogenous and endogenous electrophiles, or oxidized protein substrates. Advances in the development of new research tools, analytical methodologies, and genetic models for the analysis of known LMW thiol transferases will expand our knowledge and understanding of their function in cell growth and survival under oxidative stress, nutrient deprivation, and during the detoxification of xenobiotics and harmful metabolites. The antioxidant function of CoA has been recently discovered and the breakthrough in defining the identity and functional characteristics of CoA S-transferase(s) is soon expected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria-Armineh Tossounian
- Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Yuhan Zhao
- Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Bess Yi Kun Yu
- Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Samuel A Markey
- Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Oksana Malanchuk
- Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom; Department of Cell Signaling, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Kyiv, 143, Ukraine
| | - Yuejia Zhu
- Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Amanda Cain
- Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Ivan Gout
- Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom; Department of Cell Signaling, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Kyiv, 143, Ukraine.
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Park H, Kim HS, Abassi S, Bui QTN, Ki JS. Two novel glutathione S-transferase (GST) genes in the toxic marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum and their transcriptional responses to environmental contaminants. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 915:169983. [PMID: 38215848 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.169983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
The present study identified two novel glutathione S-transferase (GST) genes from the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum and examined their molecular characteristics and transcriptional responses to algicides and environmental contaminants. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that both ApGSTs are cytosolic, belonging to the chi-like class (ApGST1) and an undefined class (ApGST2). The overall expression of ApGSTs showed similar patterns depending on the exposed contaminants, while they were differently regulated by polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB). Copper treatments (CuCl2 and CuSO4) did not significantly induce the expression of ApGSTs. The highest up-regulations of ApGST1 and ApGST2 were under 6-h treatments of 0.10 and 0.50 mg L-1 NaOCl. Interestingly, only ApGST1 increased significantly after 0.10, 0.50, and 1.00 mg L-1 of PCB exposure (6 h). Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased considerably under NaOCl; however, it was not significantly higher in the PCB-treated cells. GST activity was increased by NaOCl and PCB treatments, but only PCB caused apoptosis. These results suggest that GSTs are involved in the first line of phase II detoxification, protecting dinoflagellate cells against oxidative damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunjun Park
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Han-Sol Kim
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sofia Abassi
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Quynh Thi Nhu Bui
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jang-Seu Ki
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul, South Korea; Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul, South Korea.
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Rosalia Rani, Simarani K, Alias Z. Functional Role of Beta Class Glutathione Transferases and Its Biotechnological Potential (Review). BIOL BULL+ 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s106235902214014x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Hou H, Mengting Z, Duan L, Zhao Y, Zhang Z, Yao M, Zhou B, Zhang H, Hermanowicz SW. Removal performance and biodegradation mechanism of sulfonamides antibiotic contained wastewater by IFAS-MBR bioreactor. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.120572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Abassi S, Wang H, Kim H, Ki JS. Molecular cloning and oxidative-stress responses of a novel Phi class glutathione S-transferase (GSTF) gene in the freshwater algae Closterium ehrenbergii. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2022; 37:789-801. [PMID: 34927801 DOI: 10.1002/tox.23443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) belong to a family of enzymes involved in diverse biological processes, including detoxification and protection against oxidative damage. Here, we determined the full-length sequence (915 bp) of a novel Phi class cytosolic glutathione S-transferase (GSTF) gene from the green algae Closterium ehrenbergii. We examined the gene structure and expression patterns in response to metals and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). It was significantly upregulated by metals, but responded differently to EDCs. The highest up-regulation of CeGSTF was registered under 0.1 mg/L CuCl2 and 0.01 mg/L CuSO4 treatments. In a 72-h course experiment with treatment of 0.1 mg/L CuCl2 , CeGSTF was dramatically induced at 6 h, and then gradually decreased with increasing exposure time. This was consistent with the increase in both GST activity and ROS production in copper-treated cells. These results suggest that CeGSTF may be involved in detoxification mechanisms associated with oxidative stress in green algae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Abassi
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul, South Korea
- Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Typical Environmental Pollution and Health Hazards, School of Public Health, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Hansol Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jang-Seu Ki
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul, South Korea
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Zhang J, Chi Y, Li S, Gu X, Ye Y. Cloning, homology modeling, heterologous expression and bioinformatic analysis of Ure2pA glutathione S-transferase gene from white rot fungus Trametes gibbosa. BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2021.1997157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhang
- Department of Forest Protection, School of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, P.R. China
| | - Yujie Chi
- Department of Forest Protection, School of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, P.R. China
| | - Shuxuan Li
- Department of Forest Protection, School of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, P.R. China
| | - Xinzhi Gu
- Department of Forest Protection, School of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, P.R. China
| | - Yi Ye
- Department of Forest Protection, School of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, P.R. China
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7
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Roe C, Williamson CHD, Vazquez AJ, Kyger K, Valentine M, Bowers JR, Phillips PD, Harrison V, Driebe E, Engelthaler DM, Sahl JW. Bacterial Genome Wide Association Studies (bGWAS) and Transcriptomics Identifies Cryptic Antimicrobial Resistance Mechanisms in Acinetobacter baumannii. Front Public Health 2020; 8:451. [PMID: 33014966 PMCID: PMC7493718 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the nosocomial pathogen, Acinetobacter baumannii, is becoming a serious public health threat. While some mechanisms of AMR have been reported, understanding novel mechanisms of resistance is critical for identifying emerging resistance. One of the first steps in identifying novel AMR mechanisms is performing genotype/phenotype association studies; however, performing these studies is complicated by the plastic nature of the A. baumannii pan-genome. In this study, we compared the antibiograms of 12 antimicrobials associated with multiple drug families for 84 A. baumannii isolates, many isolated in Arizona, USA. in silico screening of these genomes for known AMR mechanisms failed to identify clear correlations for most drugs. We then performed a bacterial genome wide association study (bGWAS) looking for associations between all possible 21-mers; this approach generally failed to identify mechanisms that explained the resistance phenotype. In order to decrease the genomic noise associated with population stratification, we compared four phylogenetically-related pairs of isolates with differing susceptibility profiles. RNA-Sequencing (RNA-Seq) was performed on paired isolates and differentially-expressed genes were identified. In these isolate pairs, five different potential mechanisms were identified, highlighting the difficulty of broad AMR surveillance in this species. To verify and validate differential expression, amplicon sequencing was performed. These results suggest that a diagnostic platform based on gene expression rather than genomics alone may be beneficial in certain surveillance efforts. The implementation of such advanced diagnostics coupled with increased AMR surveillance will potentially improve A. baumannii infection treatment and patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandler Roe
- Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
| | | | | | - Kristen Kyger
- Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
| | - Michael Valentine
- Translational Genomics Research Institute, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
| | - Jolene R. Bowers
- Translational Genomics Research Institute, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
| | | | - Veronica Harrison
- Translational Genomics Research Institute, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
| | - Elizabeth Driebe
- Translational Genomics Research Institute, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
| | | | - Jason W. Sahl
- Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
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8
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Protective role of the freshwater rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus glutathione S-transferase zeta 3 recombinant protein in response to Hg and Cd. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2020; 243-244:110435. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2020.110435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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9
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Vallejos-Vidal E, Reyes-Cerpa S, Rivas-Pardo JA, Maisey K, Yáñez JM, Valenzuela H, Cea PA, Castro-Fernandez V, Tort L, Sandino AM, Imarai M, Reyes-López FE. Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP) Mining and Their Effect on the Tridimensional Protein Structure Prediction in a Set of Immunity-Related Expressed Sequence Tags (EST) in Atlantic Salmon ( Salmo salar). Front Genet 2020; 10:1406. [PMID: 32174954 PMCID: PMC7056891 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2019.01406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are single genetic code variations considered one of the most common forms of nucleotide modifications. Such SNPs can be located in genes associated to immune response and, therefore, they may have direct implications over the phenotype of susceptibility to infections affecting the productive sector. In this study, a set of immune-related genes (cc motif chemokine 19 precursor [ccl19], integrin β2 (itβ2, also named cd18), glutathione transferase omega-1 [gsto-1], heat shock 70 KDa protein [hsp70], major histocompatibility complex class I [mhc-I]) were analyzed to identify SNPs by data mining. These genes were chosen based on their previously reported expression on infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV)-infected Atlantic salmon phenotype. The available EST sequences for these genes were obtained from the Unigene database. Twenty-eight SNPs were found in the genes evaluated and identified most of them as transition base changes. The effect of the SNPs located on the 5’-untranslated region (UTR) or 3’-UTR upon transcription factor binding sites and alternative splicing regulatory motifs was assessed and ranked with a low-medium predicted FASTSNP score risk. Synonymous SNPs were found on itβ2 (c.2275G > A), gsto-1 (c.558G > A), and hsp70 (c.1950C > T) with low FASTSNP predicted score risk. The difference in the relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU) value between the variant codons and the wild-type codon (ΔRSCU) showed one negative (hsp70 c.1950C > T) and two positive ΔRSCU values (itβ2 c.2275G > A; gsto-1 c.558G > A), suggesting that these synonymous SNPs (sSNPs) may be associated to differences in the local rate of elongation. Nonsynonymous SNPs (nsSNPs) in the gsto-1 translatable gene region were ranked, using SIFT and POLYPHEN web-tools, with the second highest (c.205A > G; c484T > C) and the highest (c.499T > C; c.769A > C) predicted score risk possible. Using homology modeling to predict the effect of these nonsynonymous SNPs, the most relevant nucleotide changes for gsto-1 were observed for the nsSNPs c.205A > G, c484T > C, and c.769A > C. Molecular dynamics was assessed to analyze if these GSTO-1 variants have significant differences in their conformational dynamics, suggesting these SNPs could have allosteric effects modulating its catalysis. Altogether, these results suggest that candidate SNPs identified may play a crucial potential role in the immune response of Atlantic salmon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Vallejos-Vidal
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sebastián Reyes-Cerpa
- Centro de Genómica y Bioinformática, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile.,Escuela de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jaime Andrés Rivas-Pardo
- Centro de Genómica y Bioinformática, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile.,Escuela de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | - Kevin Maisey
- Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - José M Yáñez
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Hector Valenzuela
- Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Pablo A Cea
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Lluis Tort
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ana M Sandino
- Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mónica Imarai
- Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Felipe E Reyes-López
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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Brangulis K, Akopjana I, Petrovskis I, Kazaks A, Zelencova D, Jekabsons A, Jaudzems K, Tars K. BBE31 from the Lyme disease agent Borrelia burgdorferi, known to play an important role in successful colonization of the mammalian host, shows the ability to bind glutathione. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2019; 1864:129499. [PMID: 31785327 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2019.129499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Lyme disease is a tick-borne infection caused by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex spirochetes. The spirochete is located in the gut of the tick; as the infected tick starts the blood meal, the spirochete must travel through the hemolymph to the salivary glands, where it can spread to and infect the new host organism. In this study, we determined the crystal structures of the key outer surface protein BBE31 from B. burgdorferi and its orthologous protein BSE31 (BSPA14S_RS05060 gene product) from B. spielmanii. BBE31 is known to be important for the transfer of B. burgdorferi from the gut to the hemolymph in the tick after a tick bite. While BBE31 exerts its function by interacting with the Ixodes scapularis tick gut protein TRE31, structural and mass spectrometry data revealed that BBE31 has a glutathione (GSH) covalently attached to Cys142 suggesting that the protein may have acquired some additional functions in contrast to its orthologous protein BSE31, which lacks any interactions with GSH. In the current study, in addition to analyzing the potential reasons for GSH binding, the three-dimensional structure of BBE31 provides new insights into the molecular details of the transmission process as the protein plays an important role in the initial phase before the spirochete is physically transferred to the new host. This knowledge will be potentially used for the development of new strategies to fight against Lyme disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalvis Brangulis
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, Ratsupites 1 k-1, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia; Riga Stradins University, Department of Human Physiology and Biochemistry, Dzirciema 16, LV-1007 Riga, Latvia.
| | - Inara Akopjana
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, Ratsupites 1 k-1, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia
| | - Ivars Petrovskis
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, Ratsupites 1 k-1, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia
| | - Andris Kazaks
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, Ratsupites 1 k-1, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia
| | - Diana Zelencova
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia
| | - Atis Jekabsons
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia
| | - Kristaps Jaudzems
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; University of Latvia, Faculty of Chemistry, Jelgavas 1, LV-1004 Riga, Latvia
| | - Kaspars Tars
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, Ratsupites 1 k-1, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia; University of Latvia, Faculty of Biology, Jelgavas 1, LV-1004 Riga, Latvia
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Si M, Che C, Li G, Li X, Gong Z, Liu J, Yang G, Chen C. Characterization of Xi-class mycothiol S-transferase from Corynebacterium glutamicum and its protective effects in oxidative stress. Microb Cell Fact 2019; 18:182. [PMID: 31655587 PMCID: PMC6815410 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-019-1232-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Oxidative stress caused by inevitable hostile conditions during fermentative process was the most serious threat to the survival of the well-known industrial microorganism Corynebacterium glutamicum. To survive, C. glutamicum developed several antioxidant defenses including millimolar concentrations of mycothiol (MSH) and protective enzymes. Glutathione (GSH) S-transferases (GSTs) with essentially defensive role in oxidative stress have been well defined in numerous microorganisms, while their physiological and biochemical functions remained elusive in C. glutamicum thus far. Results In the present study, we described protein NCgl1216 belonging to a novel MSH S-transferase Xi class (MstX), considered as the equivalent of GST Xi class (GSTX). MstX had a characteristic conserved catalytic motif (Cys-Pro-Trp-Ala, C-P-W-A). MstX was active as thiol transferase, dehydroascorbate reductase, mycothiolyl-hydroquinone reductase and MSH peroxidase, while it showed null activity toward canonical GSTs substrate as 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) and GST Omega’s specific substance glutathionyl-acetophenones, indicating MstX had some biochemical characteristics related with mycoredoxin (Mrx). Site-directed mutagenesis showed that, among the two cysteine residues of the molecule, only the residue at position 67 was required for the activity. Moreover, the residues adjacent to the active Cys67 were also important for activity. These results indicated that the thiol transferase of MstX operated through a monothiol mechanism. In addition, we found MstX played important role in various stress resistance. The lack of C. glutamicum mstX gene resulted in significant growth inhibition and increased sensitivity under adverse stress condition. The mstX expression was induced by stress. Conclusion Corynebacterium glutamicum MstX might be critically involved in response to oxidative conditions, thereby giving new insight in how C. glutamicum survived oxidative stressful conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiru Si
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, 273165, Shandong, China
| | - Chengchuan Che
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, 273165, Shandong, China
| | - Guanxi Li
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, 273165, Shandong, China
| | - Xiaona Li
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, 273165, Shandong, China
| | - Zhijin Gong
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, 273165, Shandong, China
| | - Jinfeng Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, 273165, Shandong, China
| | - Ge Yang
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, 273165, Shandong, China.
| | - Can Chen
- College of Life Science and Agronomy, Zhoukou Normal University, Zhoukou, 466001, Henan, China.
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Park JC, Lee MC, Yoon DS, Han J, Park HG, Hwang UK, Lee JS. Genome-wide identification and expression of the entire 52 glutathione S-transferase (GST) subfamily genes in the Cu 2+-exposed marine copepods Tigriopus japonicus and Paracyclopina nana. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2019; 209:56-69. [PMID: 30735907 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2019.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the entire glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), the major phase II detoxification enzyme, were identified in two marine copepod species Tigriopus japonicus and Paracyclopina nana. The genome-wide identification of GSTs in T. japonicus and P. nana resulted in 32 and 20 GSTs in total, respectively. Among the identified GSTs, two specific classes of GSTs, specifically sigma and delta/epsilon GSTs were the dominant form of cytosolic GSTs in T. japonicus, while delta/epsilon and mu classes were dominant cytosolic GSTs in P. nana. In addition, Membrane-Associated Proteins in Eicosanoid and Glutathione metabolism (MAPEG) family were found in relatively higher proportion compared to other classes. Moreover, sigma, delta/epsilon, and microsomal GSTs have shown to expand through tandem duplication. To validate the detoxification function of the identified GSTs, both copepods were exposed to copper (Cu2+) and the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and GST activity were measured. With integration of phylogenetic analysis and xenobiotic-mediated GST mRNA expression patterns along with previous enzymatic activities, the functional divergence among species-specific GST genes was clearly observed. This study covers full identification of GST classes in two marine copepod species and their important role in marine environmental ecotoxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Chul Park
- Department of Biological Science, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Min-Chul Lee
- Department of Biological Science, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Deok-Seo Yoon
- Department of Biological Science, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Jeonghoon Han
- Department of Biological Science, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Heum Gi Park
- Department of Marine Resource Development, College of Life Sciences, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung 25457, South Korea
| | - Un-Ki Hwang
- Marine Ecological Risk Assessment Center, West Sea Fisheries Research Institute, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Incheon 46083, South Korea
| | - Jae-Seong Lee
- Department of Biological Science, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea.
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13
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Schwartz M, Perrot T, Deroy A, Roret T, Morel‐Rouhier M, Mulliert G, Gelhaye E, Favier F, Didierjean C. Trametes versicolor
glutathione transferase Xi 3, a dual Cys‐GST with catalytic specificities of both Xi and Omega classes. FEBS Lett 2018; 592:3163-3172. [DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Theoharaki C, Chronopoulou E, Vlachakis D, Ataya FS, Giannopoulos P, Maurikou S, Skopelitou K, Papageorgiou AC, Labrou NE. Delineation of the functional and structural properties of the glutathione transferase family from the plant pathogen Erwinia carotovora. Funct Integr Genomics 2018; 19:1-12. [PMID: 29938342 DOI: 10.1007/s10142-018-0618-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Erwinia carotovora, a widespread plant pathogen that causes soft rot disease in many plants, is considered a major threat in agriculture. Bacterial glutathione transferases (GSTs) play important roles in a variety of metabolic pathways and processes, such as the biodegradation of xenobiotics, protection against abiotic stress, and resistance against antimicrobial drugs. The GST family of canonical soluble enzymes from Erwinia carotovora subsp. atroseptica strain SCRI1043 (EcaGSTs) was investigated. Genome analysis showed the presence of six putative canonical cytoplasmic EcaGSTs, which were revealed by phylogenetic analysis to belong to the well-characterized GST classes beta, nu, phi, and zeta. The analysis also revealed the presence of two isoenzymes that were phylogenetically close to the omega class of GSTs, but formed a distinct class. The EcaGSTs were cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli, and their catalytic activity toward different electrophilic substrates was elucidated. The EcaGSTs catalyzed different types of reactions, although all enzymes were particularly active in reactions involving electrophile substitution. Gene and protein expression profiling conducted under normal culture conditions as well as in the presence of the herbicide alachlor and the xenobiotic 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) showed that the isoenzyme EcaGST1, belonging to the omega-like class, was specifically induced at both the protein and mRNA levels. EcaGST1 presumably participates in counteracting the xenobiotic toxicity and/or abiotic stress conditions, and may therefore represent a novel molecular target in the development of new chemical treatments to control soft rot diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Theoharaki
- Laboratory of Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology, School of Food, Biotechnology and Development, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Street, 118 55, Athens, Greece
| | - Evangelia Chronopoulou
- Laboratory of Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology, School of Food, Biotechnology and Development, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Street, 118 55, Athens, Greece
| | - Dimitrios Vlachakis
- Laboratory of Genetics, Department of Biotechnology, School of Food, Biotechnology and Development, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Street, 118 55, Athens, Greece
| | - Farid S Ataya
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia.,Molecular Biology Department, Genetic Engineering Division, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza, P.O. 12622, Egypt
| | - Panagiotis Giannopoulos
- Laboratory of Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology, School of Food, Biotechnology and Development, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Street, 118 55, Athens, Greece
| | - Sofia Maurikou
- Laboratory of Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology, School of Food, Biotechnology and Development, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Street, 118 55, Athens, Greece
| | - Katholiki Skopelitou
- Laboratory of Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology, School of Food, Biotechnology and Development, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Street, 118 55, Athens, Greece
| | - Anastassios C Papageorgiou
- Turku Centre for Biotechnology, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, FI-20521, Turku, Finland
| | - Nikolaos E Labrou
- Laboratory of Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology, School of Food, Biotechnology and Development, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Street, 118 55, Athens, Greece.
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15
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Lariviere PJ, Szwedziak P, Mahone CR, Löwe J, Goley ED. FzlA, an essential regulator of FtsZ filament curvature, controls constriction rate during Caulobacter division. Mol Microbiol 2018; 107:180-197. [PMID: 29119622 PMCID: PMC5760450 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Revised: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
During bacterial division, polymers of the tubulin-like GTPase FtsZ assemble at midcell to form the cytokinetic Z-ring, which coordinates peptidoglycan (PG) remodeling and envelope constriction. Curvature of FtsZ filaments promotes membrane deformation in vitro, but its role in division in vivo remains undefined. Inside cells, FtsZ directs PG insertion at the division plane, though it is unclear how FtsZ structure and dynamics are mechanistically coupled to PG metabolism. Here we study FzlA, a division protein that stabilizes highly curved FtsZ filaments, as a tool for assessing the contribution of FtsZ filament curvature to constriction. We show that in Caulobacter crescentus, FzlA must bind to FtsZ for division to occur and that FzlA-mediated FtsZ curvature is correlated with efficient division. We observed that FzlA influences constriction rate, and that this activity is associated with its ability to bind and curve FtsZ polymers. Further, we found that a slowly constricting fzlA mutant strain develops 'pointy' poles, suggesting that FzlA influences the relative contributions of radial versus longitudinal PG insertion at the septum. These findings implicate FzlA as a critical coordinator of envelope constriction through its interaction with FtsZ and suggest a functional link between FtsZ curvature and efficient constriction in C. crescentus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J. Lariviere
- Department of Biological ChemistryJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMD21205USA
| | - Piotr Szwedziak
- Structural Studies DivisionMRC Laboratory of Molecular BiologyCambridgeCB20QHUK
- Present address:
Institute of Molecular Biology and BiophysicsETH Zürich8093 ZürichSwitzerland
| | - Christopher R. Mahone
- Department of Biological ChemistryJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMD21205USA
| | - Jan Löwe
- Structural Studies DivisionMRC Laboratory of Molecular BiologyCambridgeCB20QHUK
| | - Erin D. Goley
- Department of Biological ChemistryJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMD21205USA
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16
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Electrophoretic pattern of glutathione S-transferase (GST) in antibiotic resistance Gram-positive bacteria from poultry litter. Microb Pathog 2017; 110:285-290. [PMID: 28687323 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2017.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2017] [Revised: 07/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The present study is aimed to assess the role of glutathione S-transferase (GST) in antibiotic resistance among the bacteria isolated from the poultry litter and to identify the effect of GST to reduce the antimicrobial activity of antibiotics. Induction of various antibiotics to Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Micrococcus sp. isolated from the poultry litter showed that the activity of GST was three to four folds higher than those of control. Analysis of the isozyme pattern of GST revealed that variation in the expression may be due to antibiotic resistance. The results concluded that GST might play an important role in the protection against the toxic effect of the antimicrobial agents which leads bacteria to become resistant to antibiotics.
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17
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Chakraborty J, Das S. Molecular perspectives and recent advances in microbial remediation of persistent organic pollutants. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:16883-16903. [PMID: 27234838 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-6887-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Nutrition and pollution stress stimulate genetic adaptation in microorganisms and assist in evolution of diverse metabolic pathways for their survival on several complex organic compounds. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are highly lipophilic in nature and cause adverse effects to the environment and human health by biomagnification through the food chain. Diverse microorganisms, harboring numerous plasmids and catabolic genes, acclimatize to these environmentally unfavorable conditions by gene duplication, mutational drift, hypermutation, and recombination. Genetic aspects of some major POP catabolic genes such as biphenyl dioxygenase (bph), DDT 2,3-dioxygenase, and angular dioxygenase assist in degradation of biphenyl, organochlorine pesticides, and dioxins/furans, respectively. Microbial metagenome constitutes the largest genetic reservoir with miscellaneous enzymatic activities implicated in degradation. To tap the metabolic potential of microorganisms, recent techniques like sequence and function-based screening and substrate-induced gene expression are proficient in tracing out novel catabolic genes from the entire metagenome for utilization in enhanced biodegradation. The major endeavor of today's scientific world is to characterize the exact genetic mechanisms of microbes for bioremediation of these toxic compounds by excavating into the uncultured plethora. This review entails the effect of POPs on the environment and involvement of microbial catabolic genes for their removal with the advanced techniques of bioremediation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaya Chakraborty
- Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology and Ecology (LEnME), Department of Life Science, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, 769 008, Odisha, India
| | - Surajit Das
- Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology and Ecology (LEnME), Department of Life Science, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, 769 008, Odisha, India.
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18
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Helmich KE, Pereira JH, Gall DL, Heins RA, McAndrew RP, Bingman C, Deng K, Holland KC, Noguera DR, Simmons BA, Sale KL, Ralph J, Donohue TJ, Adams PD, Phillips GN. Structural Basis of Stereospecificity in the Bacterial Enzymatic Cleavage of β-Aryl Ether Bonds in Lignin. J Biol Chem 2015; 291:5234-46. [PMID: 26637355 PMCID: PMC4777856 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.694307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Lignin is a combinatorial polymer comprising monoaromatic units that are linked via covalent bonds. Although lignin is a potential source of valuable aromatic chemicals, its recalcitrance to chemical or biological digestion presents major obstacles to both the production of second-generation biofuels and the generation of valuable coproducts from lignin's monoaromatic units. Degradation of lignin has been relatively well characterized in fungi, but it is less well understood in bacteria. A catabolic pathway for the enzymatic breakdown of aromatic oligomers linked via β-aryl ether bonds typically found in lignin has been reported in the bacterium Sphingobium sp. SYK-6. Here, we present x-ray crystal structures and biochemical characterization of the glutathione-dependent β-etherases, LigE and LigF, from this pathway. The crystal structures show that both enzymes belong to the canonical two-domain fold and glutathione binding site architecture of the glutathione S-transferase family. Mutagenesis of the conserved active site serine in both LigE and LigF shows that, whereas the enzymatic activity is reduced, this amino acid side chain is not absolutely essential for catalysis. The results include descriptions of cofactor binding sites, substrate binding sites, and catalytic mechanisms. Because β-aryl ether bonds account for 50–70% of all interunit linkages in lignin, understanding the mechanism of enzymatic β-aryl ether cleavage has significant potential for informing ongoing studies on the valorization of lignin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate E Helmich
- From the Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, the United States Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726
| | - Jose Henrique Pereira
- the Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, California 94608, the Physical Biosciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720
| | - Daniel L Gall
- the United States Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726, the Departments of Civil and Environmental Engineering and
| | - Richard A Heins
- the Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, California 94608, the Biological and Engineering Sciences Center, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California 94551
| | - Ryan P McAndrew
- the Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, California 94608, the Physical Biosciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720
| | - Craig Bingman
- From the Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706
| | - Kai Deng
- the Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, California 94608, the Biological and Engineering Sciences Center, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California 94551
| | - Keefe C Holland
- the Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, California 94608, the Biological and Engineering Sciences Center, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California 94551
| | - Daniel R Noguera
- the United States Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726, the Departments of Civil and Environmental Engineering and
| | - Blake A Simmons
- the Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, California 94608, the Biological and Engineering Sciences Center, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California 94551
| | - Kenneth L Sale
- the Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, California 94608, the Biological and Engineering Sciences Center, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California 94551
| | - John Ralph
- From the Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, the United States Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726
| | - Timothy J Donohue
- the United States Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726, Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706,
| | - Paul D Adams
- the Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, California 94608, the Physical Biosciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, the Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, and
| | - George N Phillips
- the Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77251
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19
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Roret T, Thuillier A, Favier F, Gelhaye E, Didierjean C, Morel-Rouhier M. Evolutionary divergence of Ure2pA glutathione transferases in wood degrading fungi. Fungal Genet Biol 2015; 83:103-112. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2015.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Revised: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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20
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Aksoy M, Ozaslan MS, Kufrevioglu OI. Purification of glutathione S-transferase from Van Lake fish (Chalcalburnus tarichii Pallas) muscle and investigation of some metal ions effect on enzyme activity. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2015; 31:546-50. [DOI: 10.3109/14756366.2015.1046063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mine Aksoy
- Department of Chemistry, Science Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - M. Serhat Ozaslan
- Department of Chemistry, Science Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey
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21
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Pandey T, Singh SK, Chhetri G, Tripathi T, Singh AK. Characterization of a Highly pH Stable Chi-Class Glutathione S-Transferase from Synechocystis PCC 6803. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0126811. [PMID: 25965384 PMCID: PMC4429112 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0126811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are multifunctional enzymes present in virtually all organisms. Besides having an essential role in cellular detoxification, they also perform various other functions, including responses in stress conditions and signaling. GSTs are highly studied in plants and animals; however, the knowledge regarding GSTs in cyanobacteria seems rudimentary. In this study, we report the characterization of a highly pH stable GST from the model cyanobacterium- Synechocystis PCC 6803. The gene sll0067 was expressed in Escherichia coli (E. coli), and the protein was purified to homogeneity. The expressed protein exists as a homo-dimer, which is composed of about 20 kDa subunit. The results of the steady-state enzyme kinetics displayed protein’s glutathione conjugation activity towards its class specific substrate- isothiocyanate, having the maximal activity with phenethyl isothiocyanate. Contrary to the poor catalytic activity and low specificity towards standard GST substrates such as 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene by bacterial GSTs, PmGST B1-1 from Proteus mirabilis, and E. coli GST, sll0067 has broad substrate degradation capability like most of the mammalian GST. Moreover, we have shown that cyanobacterial GST sll0067 is catalytically efficient compared to the best mammalian enzymes. The structural stability of GST was studied as a function of pH. The fluorescence and CD spectroscopy in combination with size exclusion chromatography showed a highly stable nature of the protein over a broad pH range from 2.0 to 11.0. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first GST with such a wide range of pH related structural stability. Furthermore, the presence of conserved Proline-53, structural motifs such as N-capping box and hydrophobic staple further aid in the stability and proper folding of cyanobacterial GST- sll0067.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tripti Pandey
- Molecular and Structural Biophysics Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, India
| | - Sudhir Kumar Singh
- Molecular and Structural Biophysics Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, India
| | - Gaurav Chhetri
- Molecular and Structural Biophysics Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, India
| | - Timir Tripathi
- Molecular and Structural Biophysics Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, India
- * E-mail: (TT); (AKS)
| | - Arvind Kumar Singh
- Molecular and Structural Biophysics Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, India
- * E-mail: (TT); (AKS)
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22
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Glutathionyl-hydroquinone reductases from poplar are plastidial proteins that deglutathionylate both reduced and oxidized glutathionylated quinones. FEBS Lett 2014; 589:37-44. [PMID: 25455804 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2014.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Revised: 11/04/2014] [Accepted: 11/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Glutathionyl-hydroquinone reductases (GHRs) catalyze the deglutathionylation of quinones via a catalytic cysteine. The two GHR genes in the Populus trichocarpa genome, Pt-GHR1 and Pt-GHR2, are primarily expressed in reproductive organs. Both proteins are localized in plastids. More specifically, Pt-GHR2 localizes in nucleoids. At the structural level, Pt-GHR1 adopts a typical GHR fold, with a dimerization interface comparable to that of the bacterial and fungal GHR counterparts. Pt-GHR1 catalyzes the deglutathionylation of both reduced and oxidized glutathionylated quinones, but the enzyme is more catalytically efficient with the reduced forms.
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23
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Lallement PA, Brouwer B, Keech O, Hecker A, Rouhier N. The still mysterious roles of cysteine-containing glutathione transferases in plants. Front Pharmacol 2014; 5:192. [PMID: 25191271 PMCID: PMC4138524 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2014.00192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 07/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutathione transferases (GSTs) represent a widespread multigenic enzyme family able to modify a broad range of molecules. These notably include secondary metabolites and exogenous substrates often referred to as xenobiotics, usually for their detoxification, subsequent transport or export. To achieve this, these enzymes can bind non-substrate ligands (ligandin function) and/or catalyze the conjugation of glutathione onto the targeted molecules, the latter activity being exhibited by GSTs having a serine or a tyrosine as catalytic residues. Besides, other GST members possess a catalytic cysteine residue, a substitution that radically changes enzyme properties. Instead of promoting GSH-conjugation reactions, cysteine-containing GSTs (Cys-GSTs) are able to perform deglutathionylation reactions similarly to glutaredoxins but the targets are usually different since glutaredoxin substrates are mostly oxidized proteins and Cys-GST substrates are metabolites. The Cys-GSTs are found in most organisms and form several classes. While Beta and Omega GSTs and chloride intracellular channel proteins (CLICs) are not found in plants, these organisms possess microsomal ProstaGlandin E-Synthase type 2, glutathionyl hydroquinone reductases, Lambda, Iota and Hemerythrin GSTs and dehydroascorbate reductases (DHARs); the four last classes being restricted to the green lineage. In plants, whereas the role of DHARs is clearly associated to the reduction of dehydroascorbate to ascorbate, the physiological roles of other Cys-GSTs remain largely unknown. In this context, a genomic and phylogenetic analysis of Cys-GSTs in photosynthetic organisms provides an updated classification that is discussed in the light of the recent literature about the functional and structural properties of Cys-GSTs. Considering the antioxidant potencies of phenolic compounds and more generally of secondary metabolites, the connection of GSTs with secondary metabolism may be interesting from a pharmacological perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Alexandre Lallement
- UMR1136, Interactions Arbres - Microorganismes, Université de Lorraine Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France ; UMR1136, Interactions Arbres - Microorganismes, INRA Champenoux, France
| | - Bastiaan Brouwer
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå University Umeå, Sweden
| | - Olivier Keech
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå University Umeå, Sweden
| | - Arnaud Hecker
- UMR1136, Interactions Arbres - Microorganismes, Université de Lorraine Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France ; UMR1136, Interactions Arbres - Microorganismes, INRA Champenoux, France
| | - Nicolas Rouhier
- UMR1136, Interactions Arbres - Microorganismes, Université de Lorraine Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France ; UMR1136, Interactions Arbres - Microorganismes, INRA Champenoux, France
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24
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Ye J, Nadar SV, Li J, Rosen BP. Structure of Escherichia coli Grx2 in complex with glutathione: a dual-function hybrid of glutaredoxin and glutathione S-transferase. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA. SECTION D, BIOLOGICAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 2014; 70:1907-13. [PMID: 25004967 PMCID: PMC4984262 DOI: 10.1107/s1399004714009250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The structure of glutaredoxin 2 (Grx2) from Escherichia coli co-crystallized with glutathione (GSH) was solved at 1.60 Å resolution. The structure of a mutant with the active-site residues Cys9 and Cys12 changed to serine crystallized in the absence of glutathione was solved to 2.4 Å resolution. Grx2 has an N-terminal domain characteristic of glutaredoxins, and the overall structure is congruent with the structure of glutathione S-transferases (GSTs). Purified Grx2 exhibited GST activity. Grx2, which is the physiological electron donor for arsenate reduction by E. coli ArsC, was docked with ArsC. The docked structure could be fitted with GSH bridging the active sites of the two proteins. It is proposed that Grx2 is a novel Grx/GST hybrid that functions in two steps of the ArsC catalytic cycle: as a GST it catalyzes glutathionylation of the ArsC-As(V) intermediate and as a glutaredoxin it catalyzes deglutathionylation of the ArsC-As(III)-SG intermediate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Ye
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, People's Republic of China
| | - S Venkadesh Nadar
- Department of Cellular Biology and Pharmacology, Florida International University, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Jiaojiao Li
- Department of Cellular Biology and Pharmacology, Florida International University, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Barry P Rosen
- Department of Cellular Biology and Pharmacology, Florida International University, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Miami, FL 33199, USA
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25
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Yang Q, Liu YJ, Zeng QY. Biochemical functions of the glutathione transferase supergene family of Larix kaempferi. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2014; 77:99-107. [PMID: 24583343 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2014.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2013] [Accepted: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione transferases (GSTs), which are ubiquitous in plants, play a major role in the detoxification of xenobiotics and oxidative stress metabolism. Due to their role in herbicide detoxification, previous studies of plant GSTs have mainly focused on agricultural plants. In contrast, functional information regarding gymnosperm GSTs is scarce. In this study, we cloned 27 full-length GST genes from the deciduous conifer Larix kaempferi, which is widely distributed across the cooler regions of the northern hemisphere. As with the angiosperm GST gene family, Larix GSTs are divided into eight classes, and tau class GSTs are the most numerous. Compared to the other seven classes of GSTs, Larix tau GST genes show substantially more variation in their expression patterns. The purified Larix GST proteins showed different substrate specificities, substrate activities, and kinetic characteristics. The pH and temperature profiles of purified Larix GST proteins showed broad optimum pH and temperature ranges for enzymatic activity, suggesting that Larix GSTs have evolutionary adaptations to various adverse environments. Taken together, this study provides comprehensive insight into the gymnosperm GST gene family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yan-Jing Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Qing-Yin Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China.
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26
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Zhang W, Yin K, Li B, Chen L. A glutathione S-transferase from Proteus mirabilis involved in heavy metal resistance and its potential application in removal of Hg²⁺. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2013; 261:646-652. [PMID: 23995561 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Revised: 07/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are a family of multifunctional proteins playing important roles in detoxification of harmful physiological and xenobiotic compounds in organisms. In our study, a gene encoding a GST from Proteus mirabilis strain V7, gstPm-4, was cloned and conditionally expressed in Escherichia coli strain BL21(DE3). The purified GstPm-4 protein, with an estimated molecular mass of approximately 23kDa, was able to conjugate 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene and bind to the GSH-affinity matrix. Real-time reverse transcriptase PCR suggested that mRNA level of gstPm-4 was increased in the presence of CdCl2, CuCl2, HgCl2 and PbCl2, respectively. Correspondingly, overexpression of gstPm-4 in the genetically engineered bacterium Top10/pLacpGst exhibited higher heavy metal resistance compared to the control Top10/pLacP3. Another genetically engineered bacterium Top10/pBATGst, in which the DNA encoding GstPm-4 protein was fused with the DNA encoding Pfa1-based auto surface display system, was built. Top10/pBATGst could constitutively express the chimeric GstPm-4 and anchor it onto the cell surface subsequently. Almost 100% of the Hg(2+) within the range of 0.1-100 nM was adsorbed by Top10/pBATGst, and 80% of the bounded Hg(2+) could be desorbed from bacterial cells when pH was adjusted to 6.0. Thus, Top10/pBATGst can be potentially used for efficient treatment of Hg(2+)-contaminated aquatic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Zone Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research (YIC), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Coastal Zone Environmental Processes, YICCAS, Yantai, Shandong 264003, PR China
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27
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Structural insights into omega-class glutathione transferases: a snapshot of enzyme reduction and identification of a non-catalytic ligandin site. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60324. [PMID: 23593192 PMCID: PMC3621891 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutathione transferases (GSTs) are dimeric enzymes containing one active-site per monomer. The omega-class GSTs (hGSTO1-1 and hGSTO2-2 in humans) are homodimeric and carry out a range of reactions including the glutathione-dependant reduction of a range of compounds and the reduction of S-(phenacyl)glutathiones to acetophenones. Both types of reaction result in the formation of a mixed-disulfide of the enzyme with glutathione through the catalytic cysteine (C32). Recycling of the enzyme utilizes a second glutathione molecule and results in oxidized glutathione (GSSG) release. The crystal structure of an active-site mutant (C32A) of the hGSTO1-1 isozyme in complex with GSSG provides a snapshot of the enzyme in the process of regeneration. GSSG occupies both the G (GSH-binding) and H (hydrophobic-binding) sites and causes re-arrangement of some H-site residues. In the same structure we demonstrate the existence of a novel “ligandin” binding site deep within in the dimer interface of this enzyme, containing S-(4-nitrophenacyl)glutathione, an isozyme-specific substrate for hGSTO1-1. The ligandin site, conserved in Omega class GSTs from a range of species, is hydrophobic in nature and may represent the binding location for tocopherol esters that are uncompetitive hGSTO1-1 inhibitors.
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28
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Ruzza P, Calderan A. Glutathione Transferase (GST)-Activated Prodrugs. Pharmaceutics 2013; 5:220-31. [PMID: 24300447 PMCID: PMC3834953 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics5020220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2013] [Revised: 03/21/2013] [Accepted: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutathione transferase (formerly GST) catalyzes the inactivation of various electrophile-producing anticancer agents via conjugation to the tripeptide glutathione. Moreover, several data link the overexpression of some GSTs, in particular GSTP1-1, to both natural and acquired resistance to various structurally unrelated anticancer drugs. Tumor overexpression of these proteins has provided a rationale for the search of GST inhibitors and GST activated cytotoxic prodrugs. In the present review we discuss the current structural and pharmacological knowledge of GST-activated cytotoxic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Ruzza
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry of CNR, Padova Unit, Via Marzolo 1, Padova 35131, Italy.
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29
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Fahey RC. Glutathione analogs in prokaryotes. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2012; 1830:3182-98. [PMID: 23075826 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2012] [Revised: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 10/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oxygen is both essential and toxic to all forms of aerobic life and the chemical versatility and reactivity of thiols play a key role in both aspects. Cysteine thiol groups have key catalytic functions in enzymes but are readily damaged by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Low-molecular-weight thiols provide protective buffers against the hazards of ROS toxicity. Glutathione is the small protective thiol in nearly all eukaryotes but in prokaryotes the situation is far more complex. SCOPE OF REVIEW This review provides an introduction to the diversity of low-molecular-weight thiol protective systems in bacteria. The topics covered include the limitations of cysteine as a protector, the multiple origins and distribution of glutathione biosynthesis, mycothiol biosynthesis and function in Actinobacteria, recent discoveries involving bacillithiol found in Firmicutes, new insights on the biosynthesis and distribution of ergothioneine, and the potential protective roles played by coenzyme A and other thiols. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS Bacteria have evolved a diverse collection of low-molecular-weight protective thiols to deal with oxygen toxicity and environmental challenges. Our understanding of how many of these thiols are produced and utilized is still at an early stage. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Extensive diversity existed among prokaryotes prior to evolution of the cyanobacteria and the development of an oxidizing atmosphere. Bacteria that managed to adapt to life under oxygen evolved, or acquired, the ability to produce a variety of small thiols for protection against the hazards of aerobic metabolism. Many pathogenic prokaryotes depend upon novel thiol protection systems that may provide targets for new antibacterial agents. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Cellular functions of glutathione.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert C Fahey
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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30
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A glutathione transferase from Agrobacterium tumefaciens reveals a novel class of bacterial GST superfamily. PLoS One 2012; 7:e34263. [PMID: 22496785 PMCID: PMC3319563 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2012] [Accepted: 02/24/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In the present work, we report a novel class of glutathione transferases (GSTs) originated from the pathogenic soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens C58, with structural and catalytic properties not observed previously in prokaryotic and eukaryotic GST isoenzymes. A GST-like sequence from A. tumefaciens C58 (Atu3701) with low similarity to other characterized GST family of enzymes was identified. Phylogenetic analysis showed that it belongs to a distinct GST class not previously described and restricted only in soil bacteria, called the Eta class (H). This enzyme (designated as AtuGSTH1-1) was cloned and expressed in E. coli and its structural and catalytic properties were investigated. Functional analysis showed that AtuGSTH1-1 exhibits significant transferase activity against the common substrates aryl halides, as well as very high peroxidase activity towards organic hydroperoxides. The crystal structure of AtuGSTH1-1 was determined at 1.4 Å resolution in complex with S-(p-nitrobenzyl)-glutathione (Nb-GSH). Although AtuGSTH1-1 adopts the canonical GST fold, sequence and structural characteristics distinct from previously characterized GSTs were identified. The absence of the classic catalytic essential residues (Tyr, Ser, Cys) distinguishes AtuGSTH1-1 from all other cytosolic GSTs of known structure and function. Site-directed mutagenesis showed that instead of the classic catalytic residues, an Arg residue (Arg34), an electron-sharing network, and a bridge of a network of water molecules may form the basis of the catalytic mechanism. Comparative sequence analysis, structural information, and site-directed mutagenesis in combination with kinetic analysis showed that Phe22, Ser25, and Arg187 are additional important residues for the enzyme's catalytic efficiency and specificity.
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31
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Allocati N, Federici L, Masulli M, Di Ilio C. Distribution of glutathione transferases in Gram-positive bacteria and Archaea. Biochimie 2011; 94:588-96. [PMID: 21945597 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2011.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione transferases (GSTs) have been widely studied in Gram-negative bacteria and the structure and function of several representatives have been elucidated. Conversely, limited information is available about the occurrence, classification and functional features of GSTs both in Gram-positive bacteria and in Archaea. An analysis of 305 fully-sequenced Gram-positive genomes highlights the presence of 49 putative GST genes in the genera of both Firmicutes and Actinobacteria phyla. We also performed an analysis on 81 complete genomes of the Archaea domain. Eleven hits were found in the Halobacteriaceae family of the Euryarchaeota phylum and only one in the Crenarchaeota phylum. A comparison of the identified sequences with well-characterized GSTs belonging to both Gram-negative and eukaryotic GSTs sheds light on their putative function and the evolutionary relationships within the large GST superfamily. This analysis suggests that the identified sequences mainly cluster in the new Xi class, while Beta class GSTs, widely distributed in Gram-negative bacteria, are under-represented in Gram-positive bacteria and absent in Archaea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nerino Allocati
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università G. d'Annunzio, Via dei Vestini 31, I-66013 Chieti, Italy
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32
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Overlapping protective roles for glutathione transferase gene family members in chemical and oxidative stress response in Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Funct Integr Genomics 2011; 12:157-72. [PMID: 21909786 DOI: 10.1007/s10142-011-0248-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Revised: 08/06/2011] [Accepted: 08/16/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
In the present work, we describe the characterisation of the glutathione transferase (GST) gene family from Agrobacterium tumefaciens C58. A genome survey revealed the presence of eight GST-like proteins in A. tumefaciens (AtuGSTs). Comparison by multiple sequence alignment generated a dendrogram revealing the phylogenetic relationships of AtuGSTs-like proteins. The beta and theta classes identified in other bacterial species are represented by five members in A. tumefaciens C58. In addition, there are three "orphan" sequences that do not fit into any previously recognised GST classes. The eight GST-like genes were cloned, expressed in Escherichia coli and their substrate specificity was determined towards 17 different substrates. The results showed that AtuGSTs catalyse a broad range of reactions, with different members of the family exhibiting quite varied substrate specificity. The 3D structures of AtuGSTs were predicted using molecular modelling. The use of comparative sequence and structural analysis of the AtuGST isoenzymes allowed us to identify local sequence and structural characteristics between different GST isoenzymes and classes. Gene expression profiling was conducted under normal culture conditions as well as under abiotic stress conditions (addition of xenobiotics, osmotic stress and cold and heat shock) to induce and monitor early stress-response mechanisms. The results reveal the constitutive expression of GSTs in A. tumefaciens and a modulation of GST activity after treatments, indicating that AtuGSTs presumably participate in a wide range of functions, many of which are important in counteracting stress conditions. These functions may be relevant to maintaining cellular homeostasis as well as in the direct detoxification of toxic compounds.
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33
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Structure-guided activity restoration of the silkworm glutathione transferase Omega GSTO3-3. J Mol Biol 2011; 412:204-11. [PMID: 21816159 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2011.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2011] [Revised: 07/11/2011] [Accepted: 07/12/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione transferases (GSTs) are ubiquitous detoxification enzymes that conjugate hydrophobic xenobiotics with reduced glutathione. The silkworm Bombyx mori encodes four isoforms of GST Omega (GSTO), featured with a catalytic cysteine, except that bmGSTO3-3 has an asparagine substitution of this catalytic residue. Here, we determined the 2.20-Å crystal structure of bmGSTO3-3, which shares a typical GST overall structure. However, the extended C-terminal segment that exists in all the four bmGSTOs occupies the G-site of bmGSTO3-3 and makes it unworkable, as shown by the activity assays. Upon mutation of Asn29 to Cys and truncation of the C-terminal segment, the in vitro GST activity of bmGSTO3-3 could be restored. These findings provided structural insights into the activity regulation of GSTOs.
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34
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Shroads AL, Langaee T, Coats BS, Kurtz TL, Bullock JR, Weithorn D, Gong Y, Wagner DA, Ostrov DA, Johnson JA, Stacpoole PW. Human polymorphisms in the glutathione transferase zeta 1/maleylacetoacetate isomerase gene influence the toxicokinetics of dichloroacetate. J Clin Pharmacol 2011; 52:837-49. [PMID: 21642471 DOI: 10.1177/0091270011405664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Dichloroacetate (DCA), a chemical relevant to environmental science and allopathic medicine, is dehalogenated by the bifunctional enzyme glutathione transferase zeta (GSTz1)/maleylacetoacetate isomerase (MAAI), the penultimate enzyme in the phenylalanine/tyrosine catabolic pathway. The authors postulated that polymorphisms in GSTz1/MAAI modify the toxicokinetics of DCA. GSTz1/MAAI haplotype significantly affected the kinetics and biotransformation of 1,2-¹³C-DCA when it was administered at either environmentally (µg/kg/d) or clinically (mg/kg/d) relevant doses. GSTz1/MAAI haplotype also influenced the urinary accumulation of potentially toxic tyrosine metabolites. Atomic modeling revealed that GSTz1/MAAI variants associated with the slowest rates of DCA metabolism induced structural changes in the enzyme homodimer, predicting protein instability or abnormal protein-protein interactions. Knowledge of the GSTz1/MAAI haplotype can be used prospectively to identify individuals at potential risk of DCA's adverse side effects from environmental or clinical exposure or who may exhibit aberrant amino acid metabolism in response to dietary protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert L Shroads
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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35
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Wouters MA, Iismaa S, Fan SW, Haworth NL. Thiol-based redox signalling: rust never sleeps. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2011; 43:1079-85. [PMID: 21513814 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2011.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2010] [Revised: 03/23/2011] [Accepted: 04/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cysteine residues in proteins are covalently modified under conditions of oxidative and nitrosative stress by oxidation, nitrosation, glutathionylation and disulfide formation. Modifications induce conformational changes in substrate proteins, effecting signal cascades that evoke a biological response. A growing number of structures with modified cysteines are allowing a piecemeal understanding of the mechanistic aspects of these signalling pathways to emerge. Conformational changes upon conjugation of nitric oxide and glutathione are generally small and often accompanied by a local increase in protein disorder. Burial of nitric oxide is also apparent, which may increase the timeframe of signalling. Conformational changes upon disulfide formation/reduction range from the small to the spectacular. They include order/disorder transitions; oxidation of disulfides following expulsion of metals such as Zn; major reorganisation or "morphing" of portions of the polypeptide backbone; and changes in quaternary structure including domain swapping.
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36
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Abstract
The glutathione transferases (GSTs) are one of the most important families of detoxifying enzymes in nature. The classic activity of the GSTs is conjugation of compounds with electrophilic centers to the tripeptide glutathione (GSH), but many other activities are now associated with GSTs, including steroid and leukotriene biosynthesis, peroxide degradation, double-bond cis-trans isomerization, dehydroascorbate reduction, Michael addition, and noncatalytic "ligandin" activity (ligand binding and transport). Since the first GST structure was determined in 1991, there has been an explosion in structural data across GSTs of all three families: the cytosolic GSTs, the mitochondrial GSTs, and the membrane-associated proteins in eicosanoid and glutathione metabolism (MAPEG family). In this review, the major insights into GST structure and function will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Oakley
- School of Chemistry, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia.
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37
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Belchik SM, Xun L. S-glutathionyl-(chloro)hydroquinone reductases: a new class of glutathione transferases functioning as oxidoreductases. Drug Metab Rev 2011; 43:307-16. [PMID: 21425927 DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2011.552909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione transferases (GSTs) are best known for transferring glutathione (GSH) to hydrophobic organic compounds, making the conjugates more soluble. However, the omega-class GSTs of animals and the lambda-class GSTs and dehydroascorbate reductases (DHARs) of plants have little or no activity for GSH transfer. Instead, they catalyze GSH-dependent oxidoreductions. The lambda-class GSTs reduce disulfide bonds, the DHARs reduce the disulfide bonds and dehydroascorbate, and the omega-class GSTs can reduce more substrates, including disulfide bonds, dehydroascorbate, and dimethylarsinate. Glutathionyl-(chloro)hydroquinone reductases (GS-HQRs) are the newest class of GSTs that mainly catalyze oxidoreductions. Besides the activities of the other three classes, GS-HQRs also reduce GS-hydroquinones, including GS-trichloro-p-hydroquinone, GS-dichloro-p-hydroquinone, GS-2-hydroxy-p-hydroquinone, and GS-p-hydroquinone. They are conserved and widely distributed in bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and plants, but not in animals. The four classes are phylogenetically more related to each other than to other GSTs, and they share a Cys-Pro motif at the GSH-binding site. Hydroquinones are metabolic intermediates of certain aromatic compounds. They can be auto-oxidized by O(2) to benzoquinones, which spontaneously react with GSH to form GS-hydroquinones via Michael's addition. GS-HQRs are expected to channel GS-hydroquinones, formed spontaneously or enzymatically, back to hydroquinones. When the released hydroquinones are intermediates of metabolic pathways, GS-HQRs play a maintenance role for the pathways. Further, the common presence of GS-HQRs in plants, green algae, cyanobacteria, and halobacteria suggest a beneficial role in the light-using organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara M Belchik
- School of Molecular Biosciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-7520, USA
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38
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Federici L, Masulli M, Di Ilio C, Allocati N. Characterization of the hydrophobic substrate-binding site of the bacterial beta class glutathione transferase from Proteus mirabilis. Protein Eng Des Sel 2010; 23:743-50. [PMID: 20663851 DOI: 10.1093/protein/gzq048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Since their discovery, bacterial glutathione (GSH)transferases have been characterized in terms of their ability to catalyse a variety of different reactions on a large set of toxic molecules of xenobiotic or endobiotic origin. Furthermore the contribution of different residues in the GSH-binding site to GSH activation has been extensively investigated. Little is known, however, about the contribution to catalysis and overall stability of single residues shaping the hydrophobic co-substrate binding site (H-site). Here we tackle this problem by site-directed mutagenesis of residues facing the H-site in the bacterial beta class GSH transferase from Proteus mirabilis. We investigate the behaviour of these mutants under a variety of conditions and analyse their activity against several co-substrates, representative of the different reactions catalyzed by bacterial GSH transferases. Our work shows that mutations at the H-site can be used to modulate activity at the level of the different catalytic mechanisms operating on the chosen substrates, each mutation showing a different fingerprint. This work paves the way for future studies aimed at improving the catalytic properties of beta class GSH transferases against selected substrates for bioremediation purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Federici
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università G. d'Annunzio, Via dei Vestini 31, I-66013 Chieti, Italy
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39
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Mutational study of the role of N-terminal amino acid residues in tetrachlorohydroquinone reductive dehalogenase from Sphingomonas sp. UG30. Res Microbiol 2009; 160:553-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2009.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2009] [Revised: 07/21/2009] [Accepted: 07/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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40
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Federici L, Masulli M, Gianni S, Di Ilio C, Allocati N. A conserved hydrogen-bond network stabilizes the structure of Beta class glutathione S-transferases. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009; 382:525-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2009] [Accepted: 03/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Feil SC, Tang J, Hansen G, Gorman MA, Wiktelius E, Stenberg G, Parker MW. Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of glutathione transferases from cyanobacteria. Acta Crystallogr Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun 2009; 65:475-7. [PMID: 19407380 PMCID: PMC2675588 DOI: 10.1107/s1744309109011634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2009] [Accepted: 03/30/2009] [Indexed: 05/17/2024]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are a group of multifunctional enzymes that are found in animals, plants and microorganisms. Their primary function is to remove toxins derived from exogenous sources or the products of metabolism from the cell. Mammalian GSTs have been extensively studied, in contrast to bacterial GSTs which have received relatively scant attention. A new class of GSTs called Chi has recently been identified in cyanobacteria. Chi GSTs exhibit a high glutathionylation activity towards isothiocyanates, compounds that are normally found in plants. Here, the crystallization of two GSTs are presented: TeGST produced by Thermosynechococcus elongates BP-1 and SeGST from Synechococcus elongates PCC 6301. Both enzymes formed crystals that diffracted to high resolution and appeared to be suitable for further X-ray diffraction studies. The structures of these GSTs may shed further light on the evolution of GST catalytic activity and in particular why these enzymes possess catalytic activity towards plant antimicrobial compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne C Feil
- St Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia.
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42
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Abstract
Bacterial glutathione transferases (GSTs) are part of a superfamily of enzymes that play a key role in cellular detoxification. GSTs are widely distributed in prokaryotes and are grouped into several classes. Bacterial GSTs are implicated in a variety of distinct processes such as the biodegradation of xenobiotics, protection against chemical and oxidative stresses and antimicrobial drug resistance. In addition to their role in detoxification, bacterial GSTs are also involved in a variety of distinct metabolic processes such as the biotransformation of dichloromethane, the degradation of lignin and atrazine, and the reductive dechlorination of pentachlorophenol. This review article summarizes the current status of knowledge regarding the functional and structural properties of bacterial GSTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nerino Allocati
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università G. d'Annunzio, Chieti, Italy.
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43
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Axarli I, Dhavala P, Papageorgiou AC, Labrou NE. Crystallographic and functional characterization of the fluorodifen-inducible glutathione transferase from Glycine max reveals an active site topography suited for diphenylether herbicides and a novel L-site. J Mol Biol 2009; 385:984-1002. [PMID: 19014949 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2008.10.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2008] [Revised: 10/24/2008] [Accepted: 10/29/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione transferases (GSTs) from the tau class (GSTU) are unique to plants and have important roles in stress tolerance and the detoxification of herbicides in crops and weeds. A fluorodifen-induced GST isoezyme (GmGSTU4-4) belonging to the tau class was purified from Glycine max by affinity chromatography. This isoenzyme was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli, and its structural and catalytic properties were investigated. The structure of GmGSTU4-4 was determined at 1.75 A resolution in complex with S-(p-nitrobenzyl)-glutathione (Nb-GSH). The enzyme adopts the canonical GST fold but with a number of functionally important differences. Compared with other plant GSTs, the three-dimensional structure of GmGSTU4-4 primarily shows structural differences in the hydrophobic substrate binding site, the linker segment and the C-terminal region. The X-ray structure identifies key amino acid residues in the hydrophobic binding site (H-site) and provides insights into the substrate specificity and catalytic mechanism of the enzyme. The isoenzyme was highly active in conjugating the diphenylether herbicide fluorodifen. A possible reaction pathway involving the conjugation of glutathione with fluorodifen is described based on site-directed mutagenesis and molecular modeling studies. A serine residue (Ser13) is present in the active site, at a position that would allow it to stabilise the thiolate anion of glutathione and enhance its nucleophilicity. Tyr107 and Arg111 present in the active site are important structural moieties that modulate the catalytic efficiency and specificity of the enzyme, and participate in k(cat) regulation by affecting the rate-limiting step of the catalytic reaction. A hitherto undescribed ligand-binding site (L-site) located in a surface pocket of the enzyme was also found. This site is formed by conserved residues, suggesting it may have an important functional role in the transfer and delivery of bound ligands, presumably to specific protein receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Axarli
- Laboratory of Enzyme Technology, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Street, GR-11855-Athens, Greece
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44
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Characterization of the activity and folding of the glutathione transferase from Escherichia coli and the roles of residues Cys(10) and His(106). Biochem J 2009; 417:55-64. [PMID: 18778244 DOI: 10.1042/bj20071702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
GSTs (glutathione transferases) are an important class of enzymes involved in cellular detoxification. GSTs are found in all classes of organisms and are implicated in resistance towards drugs, pesticides, herbicides and antibiotics. The activity, structure and folding, particularly of eukaryotic GSTs, have therefore been widely studied. The crystal structure of EGST (GST from Escherichia coli) was reported around 10 years ago and it suggested Cys(10) and His(106) as potential catalytic residues. However, the role of these residues in catalysis has not been further investigated, nor have the folding properties of the protein been described. In the present study we investigated the contributions of residues Cys(10) and His(106) to the activity and stability of EGST. We found that EGST shows a complex equilibrium unfolding profile, involving a population of at least two partially folded intermediates, one of which is dimeric. Mutation of residues Cys(10) and His(106) leads to stabilization of the protein and affects the apparent steady-state kinetic parameters for enzyme catalysis. The results suggest that the imidazole ring of His(106) plays an important role in the catalytic mechanism of the enzyme, whereas Cys(10) is involved in binding of the substrate, glutathione. Engineering of the Cys(10) site can be used to increase both the stability and GST activity of EGST. However, in addition to GST activity, we discovered that EGST also possesses thiol:disulfide oxidoreductase activity, for which the residue Cys(10) plays an essential role. Further, tryptophan quenching experiments indicate that a mixed disulfide is formed between the free thiol group of Cys(10) and the substrate, glutathione.
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45
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Hervé C, de Franco PO, Groisillier A, Tonon T, Boyen C. New members of the glutathione transferase family discovered in red and brown algae. Biochem J 2008; 412:535-44. [PMID: 18315526 DOI: 10.1042/bj20071464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2023]
Abstract
The GSTs (glutathione transferases) are involved in the detoxification of a wide variety of hydrophobic substrates. These enzymes have been found in virtually all types of organisms, including plants, animals, nematodes and bacteria. In the present study, we report the molecular and biochemical characterization of algal GSTs. Phylogenetic analysis showed that most of them were distinct from previously described GST classes, but were most closely related to the Sigma class. Profiling of GST genes from the red alga Chondrus crispus and brown alga Laminaria digitata was undertaken after different chemical treatments and showed that they displayed contrasting patterns of transcription. Recombinant algal GST from both species showed transferase activities against the common substrates aryl halides, but also on the alpha,beta-unsaturated carbonyl 4-hydroxynonenal. Also, they exhibit significant peroxidation towards organic hydroperoxides, including oxygenated derivatives of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Among a range of compounds tested, Cibacron Blue was the most efficient inhibitor of algal GSTs identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Hervé
- UPMC Univ. Paris 6, UMR 7139 Végétaux Marins et Biomolécules, Station Biologique, F 29682, Roscoff, France
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Allocati N, Federici L, Masulli M, Favaloro B, Di Ilio C. Cysteine 10 is critical for the activity of Ochrobactrum anthropi glutathione transferase and its mutation to alanine causes the preferential binding of glutathione to the H-site. Proteins 2008; 71:16-23. [PMID: 18076047 DOI: 10.1002/prot.21835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The role of the evolutionarily conserved residue Cys10 in Ochrobactrum anthropi glutathione transferase (OaGST) has been examined by replacing it with an alanine. A double mutant C10A/S11A was also prepared. The effect of the replacements on the coniugating and thiotransferase activities, and on the thermal and chemical stability of the enzyme was analyzed. Our data support the view that in OaGST, in contrast with other beta class GSTs that display significant differences in the glutathione-binding site, Cys10 is a key residue for glutathione coniugating activity. Furthermore, analysis of the OaGST-Cys10Ala structure, crystallized in the presence of glutathione, reveals that this mutation causes a switch between the high-affinity G-site and a low-affinity H-site where hydrophobic cosubstrates bind and where we observe the presence of an unexpected glutathione.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nerino Allocati
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università G. d'Annunzio, Via dei Vestini 31, I-66013 Chieti, Italy.
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47
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Garcia W, Travensolo RF, Rodrigues NC, Muniz JRC, Caruso CS, Lemos EGM, Araujo APU, Carrilho E. Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of a glutathione S-transferase from Xylella fastidiosa. Acta Crystallogr Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun 2008; 64:85-7. [PMID: 18259055 PMCID: PMC2374177 DOI: 10.1107/s174430910706825x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2007] [Accepted: 12/23/2007] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) form a group of multifunctional isoenzymes that catalyze the glutathione-dependent conjugation and reduction reactions involved in the cellular detoxification of xenobiotic and endobiotic compounds. GST from Xylella fastidiosa (xfGST) was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified by conventional affinity chromatography. In this study, the crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of xfGST is described. The purified protein was crystallized by the vapour-diffusion method, producing crystals that belonged to the triclinic space group P1. The unit-cell parameters were a = 47.73, b = 87.73, c = 90.74 A, alpha = 63.45, beta = 80.66, gamma = 94.55 degrees. xfGST crystals diffracted to 2.23 A resolution on a rotating-anode X-ray source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanius Garcia
- Laboratório de Biofísica Molecular ‘Sérgio Mascarenhas’, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Regiane F. Travensolo
- Grupo de Bioanalítica, Microfabricação e Separações, Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Nathalia C. Rodrigues
- Laboratório de Biofísica Molecular ‘Sérgio Mascarenhas’, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Carlos, Brazil
| | - João R. C. Muniz
- Laboratório de Biofísica Molecular ‘Sérgio Mascarenhas’, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Célia S. Caruso
- Grupo de Bioanalítica, Microfabricação e Separações, Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Eliana G. M. Lemos
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Microrganismos e de Plantas, Departamento de Tecnologia, UNESP, Jaboticabal, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula U. Araujo
- Laboratório de Biofísica Molecular ‘Sérgio Mascarenhas’, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Emanuel Carrilho
- Grupo de Bioanalítica, Microfabricação e Separações, Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Carlos, Brazil
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48
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Littler DR, Harrop SJ, Brown LJ, Pankhurst GJ, Mynott AV, Luciani P, Mandyam RA, Mazzanti M, Tanda S, Berryman MA, Breit SN, Curmi PMG. Comparison of vertebrate and invertebrate CLIC proteins: The crystal structures ofCaenorhabditis elegans EXC-4 andDrosophila melanogaster DmCLIC. Proteins 2008; 71:364-78. [DOI: 10.1002/prot.21704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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49
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Cromer BA, Gorman MA, Hansen G, Adams JJ, Coggan M, Littler DR, Brown LJ, Mazzanti M, Breit SN, Curmi PM, Dulhunty AF, Board PG, Parker MW. Structure of the Janus Protein Human CLIC2. J Mol Biol 2007; 374:719-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2007.09.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2007] [Revised: 09/12/2007] [Accepted: 09/12/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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50
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Federici L, Masulli M, Bonivento D, Di Matteo A, Gianni S, Favaloro B, Di Ilio C, Allocati N. Role of Ser11 in the stabilization of the structure of Ochrobactrum anthropi glutathione transferase. Biochem J 2007; 403:267-74. [PMID: 17223798 PMCID: PMC1874244 DOI: 10.1042/bj20061707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
GSTs (glutathione transferases) are a multifunctional group of enzymes, widely distributed and involved in cellular detoxification processes. In the xenobiotic-degrading bacterium Ochrobactrum anthropi, GST is overexpressed in the presence of toxic concentrations of aromatic compounds such as 4-chlorophenol and atrazine. We have determined the crystal structure of the GST from O. anthropi (OaGST) in complex with GSH. Like other bacterial GSTs, OaGST belongs to the Beta class and shows a similar binding pocket for GSH. However, in contrast with the structure of Proteus mirabilis GST, GSH is not covalently bound to Cys10, but is present in the thiolate form. In our investigation of the structural basis for GSH stabilization, we have identified a conserved network of hydrogen-bond interactions, mediated by the presence of a structural water molecule that links Ser11 to Glu198. Partial disruption of this network, by mutagenesis of Ser11 to alanine, increases the K(m) for GSH 15-fold and decreases the catalytic efficiency 4-fold, even though Ser11 is not involved in GSH binding. Thermal- and chemical-induced unfolding studies point to a global effect of the mutation on the stability of the protein and to a central role of these residues in zippering the terminal helix of the C-terminal domain to the starting helix of the N-terminal domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Federici
- *Ce.S.I. (Centro Studi sull'Invecchiamento), Fondazione Università di Chieti “G. d'Annunzio”, Via dei Vestini 31, 66013 Chieti, Italy
- †Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Chieti “G. d'Annunzio”, Via dei Vestini 31, 66013 Chieti, Italy
| | - Michele Masulli
- †Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Chieti “G. d'Annunzio”, Via dei Vestini 31, 66013 Chieti, Italy
| | - Daniele Bonivento
- ‡Dipartimento di Scienze Biochimiche, Università di Roma “La Sapienza”, Piazzale A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Adele Di Matteo
- ‡Dipartimento di Scienze Biochimiche, Università di Roma “La Sapienza”, Piazzale A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Gianni
- §Istituto di Biologia e Patologia Molecolari del Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Università di Roma “La Sapienza”, Piazzale A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Bartolo Favaloro
- *Ce.S.I. (Centro Studi sull'Invecchiamento), Fondazione Università di Chieti “G. d'Annunzio”, Via dei Vestini 31, 66013 Chieti, Italy
- †Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Chieti “G. d'Annunzio”, Via dei Vestini 31, 66013 Chieti, Italy
| | - Carmine Di Ilio
- *Ce.S.I. (Centro Studi sull'Invecchiamento), Fondazione Università di Chieti “G. d'Annunzio”, Via dei Vestini 31, 66013 Chieti, Italy
- †Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Chieti “G. d'Annunzio”, Via dei Vestini 31, 66013 Chieti, Italy
| | - Nerino Allocati
- †Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Chieti “G. d'Annunzio”, Via dei Vestini 31, 66013 Chieti, Italy
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
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