Protein phosphatase 5 in signal transduction

In silico analysis of the HSP90 chaperone system from the African trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei

African trypanosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei (T. brucei) and spread by the tsetse fly in sub-Saharan Africa. The trypanosome relies on heat shock proteins for survival in the insect vector and mammalian host. Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) plays a crucial role in the stress response at the cellular level. Inhibition of its interactions with chaperones and co-chaperones is being explored as a potential therapeutic target for numerous diseases. This study provides an in silico overview of HSP90 and its co-chaperones in both T. brucei brucei and T. brucei gambiense in relation to human and other trypanosomal species, including non-parasitic Bodo saltans and the insect infecting Crithidia fasciculata. A structural analysis of T. brucei HSP90 revealed differences in the orientation of the linker and C-terminal domain in comparison to human HSP90. Phylogenetic analysis displayed the T. brucei HSP90 proteins clustering into three distinct groups based on subcellular localizations, namely, cytosol, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum. Syntenic analysis of cytosolic HSP90 genes revealed that T. b. brucei encoded for 10 tandem copies, while T. b. gambiense encoded for three tandem copies; Leishmania major (L. major) had the highest gene copy number with 17 tandem copies. The updated information on HSP90 from recently published proteomics on T. brucei was examined for different life cycle stages and subcellular localizations. The results show a difference between T. b. brucei and T. b. gambiense with T. b. brucei encoding a total of twelve putative HSP90 genes, while T. b. gambiense encodes five HSP90 genes. Eighteen putative co-chaperones were identified with one notable absence being cell division cycle 37 (Cdc37). These results provide an updated framework on approaching HSP90 and its interactions as drug targets in the African trypanosome.

Global distribution of treatment resistance gene markers for leishmaniasis

Background

Pentavalent antimonials (Sb(V)) such as meglumine antimoniate (Glucantime®) and sodium stibogluconate (Pentostam®) are used as first‐line treatments for leishmaniasis, either alone or in combination with second‐line drugs such as amphotericin B (Amp B), miltefosine (MIL), methotrexate (MTX), or cryotherapy. Therapeutic aspects of these drugs are now challenged because of clinical resistance worldwide.

Methods

We reviewedthe recent original studies were assessed by searching in electronic databases such as Scopus, Pubmed, Embase, and Web of Science.

Results

Studies on molecular biomarkers involved in drug resistance are essential for monitoring the disease. We reviewed genes and mechanisms of resistance to leishmaniasis, and the geographical distribution of these biomarkers in each country has also been thoroughly investigated.

Conclusion

Due to the emergence of resistant genes mainly in anthroponotic Leishmania species such as L. donovani and L. tropica, as the causative agents of ACL and AVL, respectively, selection of an appropriate treatment modality is essential. Physicians should be aware of the presence of such resistance for the selection of proper treatment modalities in endemic countries.

Sodium cantharidate induces Apoptosis in breast cancer cells by regulating energy metabolism via the protein phosphatase 5-p53 axis

Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death in women worldwide, and despite multiple chemotherapeutic approaches, effective treatment strategies for advanced metastatic breast cancer are still lacking. Metabolic reprogramming is essential for tumor cell growth and propagation, and most cancers, including breast cancer, are accompanied by abnormalities in energy metabolism. Here, we confirmed that sodium cantharidate inhibited cell viability using the Cell Counting Kit-8, clonogenic assay, and Transwell assay. The cell cycle and apoptosis assays indicated that sodium cantharidate induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in breast cancer cells. Additionally, proteomic assays, western blots, and metabolic assays revealed that sodium cantharidate converted the metabolic phenotype of breast cancer cells from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation. Furthermore, bioinformatics analysis identified possible roles for p53 with respect to the effects of sodium cantharidate on breast cancer cells. Western blot, docking, and phosphatase assays revealed that the regulation of p53 activity by sodium cantharidate was related to its inhibition of protein phosphatase 5 activity. Moreover, sodium cantharidate significantly inhibited tumor growth in tumor-bearing nude mice. In summary, our study provides evidence for the use of sodium cantharidate as an effective and new therapeutic candidate for the treatment of human breast cancer in clinical trials.

Targeting protein phosphatase PP2A for cancer therapy: development of allosteric pharmaceutical agents

Tumor initiation is driven by oncogenes that activate signaling networks for cell proliferation and survival involving protein phosphorylation. Protein kinases in these pathways have proven to be effective targets for pharmaceutical inhibitors that have progressed to the clinic to treat various cancers. Here, we offer a narrative about the development of small molecule modulators of the protein Ser/Thr phosphatase 2A (PP2A) to reduce the activation of cell proliferation and survival pathways. These novel drugs promote the assembly of select heterotrimeric forms of PP2A that act to limit cell proliferation. We discuss the potential for the near-term translation of this approach to the clinic for cancer and other human diseases.

The role of PP5 and PP2C in cardiac health and disease

Protein phosphatases are important, for example, as functional antagonists of β-adrenergic stimulation of the mammalian heart. While β-adrenergic stimulations increase the phosphorylation state of regulatory proteins and therefore force of contraction in the heart, these phosphorylations are reversed and thus force is reduced by the activity of protein phosphatases. In this context the role of PP5 and PP2C is starting to unravel. They do not belong to the same family of phosphatases with regard to sequence homology, many similarities with regard to location, activation by lipids and putative substrates have been worked out over the years. We also suggest which pathways for regulation of PP5 and/or PP2C described in other tissues and not yet in the heart might be useful to look for in cardiac tissue. Both phosphatases might play a role in signal transduction of sarcolemmal receptors in the heart. Expression of PP5 and PP2C can be increased by extracellular stimuli in the heart. Because PP5 is overexpressed in failing animal and human hearts, and because overexpression of PP5 or PP2C leads to cardiac hypertrophy and KO of PP5 leads to cardiac hypotrophy, one might argue for a role of PP5 and PP2C in heart failure. Because PP5 and PP2C can reduce, at least in vitro, the phosphorylation state of proteins thought to be relevant for cardiac arrhythmias, a role of these phosphatases for cardiac arrhythmias is also probable. Thus, PP5 and PP2C might be druggable targets to treat important cardiac diseases like heart failure, cardiac hypertrophy and cardiac arrhythmias.

Biogenetic cantharidin is a promising leading compound to manage insecticide resistance of Mythimna separata (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Cantharidin (CTD) is a natural toxin with effective toxicity to lepidopteran pests. Nevertheless, little information is available on whether pests develop resistance to CTD. After being exposed to CTD (50 mg/L to 90 mg/L) or 10 generations, the resistance ratio of laboratory selected cantharidin-resistant Mythimna separata (Cantharidin-SEL) strain was only elevated 1.95-fold. Meanwhile, the developmental time for M. separata was prolonged (delayed1.65 in males and 1.84 days in females). The reported CTD target, the serine/threonine phosphatases (PSPs), have not been shown significant activity variation during the whole process of CTD-treatment. The activity of detoxification enzymes (cytochrome monooxygenase P450, glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and carboxylesterase) were affected by CTD selection, but this change was not mathematically significant. More importantly, no obvious cross-resistance with other commonly used insecticides was observed in the M. separata population treated with CTD for 10 generations (resistance ratios were all lower 2.5). Overall, M. separata is unlikely to produce target-site insensitivity resistance, metabolic resistance to CTD. Meanwhile, cantharidin-SEL is not prone to develop cross-resistance with other insecticides. These results indicate that CTD is a promising biogenetic lead compound which can be applied in the resistance management on M. separata.

Overexpression of protein phosphatase 5 in the mouse heart: Reduced contractility but increased stress tolerance - Two sides of the same coin?

The pathophysiological mechanisms of sepsis-induced cardiac dysfunction are largely unknown. The Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is expressed in cardiac myocytes and is involved in bacterial endotoxin-mediated inflammatory disorders. TLR4 signaling leads to activation of the nuclear factor kappa B followed by increased expression of cytokines. Several protein phosphatases including PP2Cβ, PP2A or PP1 are known to act as regulators of this signaling pathway. Here, we examined the role of PP5 for the inflammatory response to the bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide in the heart using a transgenic mouse model with cardiac myocyte directed overexpression of PP5. In these transgenic mice, basal cardiac contractility was reduced, in vivo as well as in vitro, but LPS-induced cardiac dysfunction was less pronounced compared to wild type mice. Quantitative RT-PCR suggested an attenuated NF-κB signaling in the heart and cardiac expression of heat shock protein 25 (HSP25) was increased in PP5 transgenic mice. From our data we assume that PP5 increases stress tolerance of cardiac myocytes by downregulation of NF-κB signaling and upregulation of HSP25 expression.

Interactions of cantharidin-like inhibitors with human protein phosphatase-5 in a Mg2+ system: molecular dynamics and quantum calculations

The serine/threonine protein phosphatase type 5 (PP5) is a promising target for designing new antitumor drugs. This enzyme is a member of the PPP phosphatases gene family, which catalyzes a dephosphorylation reaction: a regulatory process in the signal transduction pathway that controls various biological processes. The aim of this work is to study and compare the inhibition of PP5 by ten cantharidin-like inhibitors in order to bring about contributions relevant to the better comprehension of their inhibitory activity. In this theoretical investigation, we used molecular dynamics techniques to understand the role of key interactions that occur in the protein active site; QM calculations were employed to study the interaction mode of these inhibitors in the enzyme. In addition, atoms in molecules (AIM) calculations were carried out to characterize the chemical bonds among the atoms involved and investigate the orbital interactions with their respective energy values. The obtained results suggest that the Arg275, Asn303, His304, His352, Arg400, His427, Glu428, Val429, Tyr451, and Phe446 residues favorably contribute to the interactions between inhibitors and PP5. However, the Asp271 and Asp244 amino acid residues do not favor such interactions for some inhibitors. Through the QM calculations, we can suggest that the reactional energy of the coordination mechanism of these inhibitors in the PP5 active site is quite important and is responsible for the inhibitory activity. The AIM technique employed in this work was essential to get a better comprehension of the transition states acquired from the mechanism simulation. This work offers insights of how cantharidin-like inhibitors interact with human PP5, potentially allowing the design of more specific and even less cytotoxic drugs for cancer treatments. Graphical Abstract Interactions of cantharidin-like inhibitors with human protein phosphatase-5 in a Mg²⁺ system.

Leishmania phosphatase PP5 is a regulator of HSP83 phosphorylation and essential for parasite pathogenicity

Leishmania parasites are responsible for important neglected diseases in humans and animals, ranging from self-healing cutaneous lesions to fatal visceral manifestations. During the infectious cycle, Leishmania differentiates from the extracellular flagellated promastigote to the intracellular pathogenic amastigote. Parasite differentiation is triggered by changes in environmental cues, mainly pH and temperature. In general, extracellular signals are translated into stage-specific gene expression by a cascade of reversible protein phosphorylation regulated by protein kinases and phosphatases. Though protein kinases have been actively studied as potential anti-parasitic drug targets, our understanding of the biology of protein phosphatases in Leishmania is poor. We have previously reported the principal analysis of a novel protein phosphatase 5 (PP5) in Leishmania species. Here, we assessed the role of PP5 in parasite pathogenicity, where we uncovered, using transgenic PP5 over-expressing and PP5 null-mutant parasites, its importance in metacyclogeneisis, maintaining HSP83 phosphorylation homeostasis and virulence. All together, our results indicate the importance of PP5 in regulating parasite stress and adaptation during differentiation, making this protein an attractive potential target for therapeutic intervention.

Knockdown of serine/threonine protein phosphatase 5 enhances gemcitabine sensitivity by promoting apoptosis in pancreatic cancer cells in vitro

The targeting protein of serine/threonine protein phosphatase 5 (PPP5C) has been reported to be present in various malignancies. However, its functional role in pancreatic cancer (PC) remains unknown. In the present study, the function of PPP5C in PC cells treated with the first-line drug gemcitabine (GEM) was investigated. Short hairpin (sh)RNA targeting PPP5C was constructed to knockdown PPP5C in PANC-1 cells. Cell cycle and apoptosis analyses were performed in order to investigate the mechanisms underlying the effects induced by PPP5C silencing combined with GEM treatment. Western blot analysis was applied to detect the expression of certain key regulators of cell apoptosis in PANC-1 cells treated with GEM. shRNA against PPP5C effectively suppressed the proliferation of PANC-1 cells treated with GEM. Additionally, cell cycle analysis indicated that PPP5C knockdown resulted in a higher number of PANC-1 cells treated with GEM in G₀/G₁ phase arrest. Knockdown of PPP5C increased the expression of associated apoptotic markers, including cleaved caspase 3, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase and phosphorylated (p)-p53. In addition, the combination of treatment with GEM and PPP5C silencing significantly increased the apoptosis of PANC-1 cells by affecting the expression levels of p-c-Jun N-terminal kinases and p-p38. The present study suggests that PPP5C may be a potential target for the treatment of PC and that it may enhance the gemcitabine sensitivity of PC cells.

Reciprocal regulation of PPARγ and RUNX2 activities in marrow mesenchymal stem cells: Fine balance between p38 MAPK and Protein Phosphatase 5

Purpose of review

Post-translational modifications (PTMs), specifically serine phosphorylation, are essential for determination and tuning up an activity of many proteins, including those that are involved in the control of gene transcription. Transcription factors PPARγ2 and RUNX2 are essential for mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) commitment to either adipocyte or osteoblast lineage. This review is summarizing current knowledge how serine phosphorylation PTMs regulate activities of both transcription factors and MSCs lineage commitment.

Recent finding

Both PPARγ2 and RUNX2 transcriptional activities are regulated by similar PTMs, however with an opposite outcome. The same p38 MAPK mediates serine phosphorylation that leads to activation of RUNX2 and inactivation of PPARγ2. The process of protein phosphorylation is balanced with a process of protein dephosphorylation. Protein phosphatase 5 simultaneously dephosphorylates both proteins, which results in activation of PPARγ2 and inactivation of RUNX2.

Summary

This review provides a summary of the "yinyang" fine-tuned mechanism by which p38 MAPK and PP5 regulate MSCs lineage commitment.

Structure-Activity Relationship Studies Using Natural and Synthetic Okadaic Acid/Dinophysistoxin Toxins

Okadaic acid (OA) and the closely related dinophysistoxins (DTXs) are algal toxins that accumulate in shellfish and are known serine/threonine protein phosphatase (ser/thr PP) inhibitors. Phosphatases are important modulators of enzyme activity and cell signaling pathways. However, the interactions between the OA/DTX toxins and phosphatases are not fully understood. This study sought to identify phosphatase targets and characterize their structure–activity relationships (SAR) with these algal toxins using a combination of phosphatase activity and cytotoxicity assays. Preliminary screening of 21 human and yeast phosphatases indicated that only three ser/thr PPs (PP2a, PP1, PP5) were inhibited by physiologically saturating concentrations of DTX2 (200 nM). SAR studies employed naturally-isolated OA, DTX1, and DTX2, which vary in degree and/or position of methylation, in addition to synthetic 2-epi-DTX2. OA/DTX analogs induced cytotoxicity and inhibited PP activity with a relatively conserved order of potency: OA = DTX1 ≥ DTX2 >> 2-epi-DTX. The PPs were also differentially inhibited with sensitivities of PP2a > PP5 > PP1. These findings demonstrate that small variations in OA/DTX toxin structures, particularly at the head region (i.e., C1/C2), result in significant changes in toxicological potency, whereas changes in methylation at C31 and C35 (tail region) only mildly affect potency. In addition to this being the first study to extensively test OA/DTX analogs’ activities towards PP5, these data will be helpful for accurately determining toxic equivalence factors (TEFs), facilitating molecular modeling efforts, and developing highly selective phosphatase inhibitors.

Imbalanced insulin action in chronic over nutrition: Clinical harm, molecular mechanisms, and a way forward

The growing worldwide prevalence of overnutrition and underexertion threatens the gains that we have made against atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and other maladies. Chronic overnutrition causes the atherometabolic syndrome, which is a cluster of seemingly unrelated health problems characterized by increased abdominal girth and body-mass index, high fasting and postprandial concentrations of cholesterol- and triglyceride-rich apoB-lipoproteins (C-TRLs), low plasma HDL levels, impaired regulation of plasma glucose concentrations, hypertension, and a significant risk of developing overt type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In addition, individuals with this syndrome exhibit fatty liver, hypercoagulability, sympathetic overactivity, a gradually rising set-point for body adiposity, a substantially increased risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and--crucially--hyperinsulinemia. Many lines of evidence indicate that each component of the atherometabolic syndrome arises, or is worsened by, pathway-selective insulin resistance and responsiveness (SEIRR). Individuals with SEIRR require compensatory hyperinsulinemia to control plasma glucose levels. The result is overdrive of those pathways that remain insulin-responsive, particularly ERK activation and hepatic de-novo lipogenesis (DNL), while carbohydrate regulation deteriorates. The effects are easily summarized: if hyperinsulinemia does something bad in a tissue or organ, that effect remains responsive in the atherometabolic syndrome and T2DM; and if hyperinsulinemia might do something good, that effect becomes resistant. It is a deadly imbalance in insulin action. From the standpoint of human health, it is the worst possible combination of effects. In this review, we discuss the origins of the atherometabolic syndrome in our historically unprecedented environment that only recently has become full of poorly satiating calories and incessant enticements to sit. Data are examined that indicate the magnitude of daily caloric imbalance that causes obesity. We also cover key aspects of healthy, balanced insulin action in liver, endothelium, brain, and elsewhere. Recent insights into the molecular basis and pathophysiologic harm from SEIRR in these organs are discussed. Importantly, a newly discovered oxide transport chain functions as the master regulator of the balance amongst different limbs of the insulin signaling cascade. This oxide transport chain--abbreviated 'NSAPP' after its five major proteins--fails to function properly during chronic overnutrition, resulting in this harmful pattern of SEIRR. We also review the origins of widespread, chronic overnutrition. Despite its apparent complexity, one factor stands out. A sophisticated junk food industry, aided by subsidies from willing governments, has devoted years of careful effort to promote overeating through the creation of a new class of food and drink that is low- or no-cost to the consumer, convenient, savory, calorically dense, yet weakly satiating. It is past time for the rest of us to overcome these foes of good health and solve this man-made epidemic.

Knockdown of protein phosphatase 5 inhibits ovarian cancer growth in vitro

Ovarian cancer is the most common cause of gynecological cancer-related mortality. Serine/threonine protein phosphatase 5 (PP5, PPP5C) has been recognized to be involved in the regulation of multiple cellular signaling cascades that control diverse cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, proliferation, motility and apoptosis. In this study, to evaluate the functional role of PP5 in ovarian cancer cells, lentivirus-mediated RNA interference (RNAi) was applied to silence PPP5C in the human ovarian cancer cell line CAOV-3. Cell viability was measured by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. Cell colony forming ability was measured by colony formation. Cell cycle progression was determined by propidium iodide staining and flow cytometry. The results demonstrated that lentivirus-mediated RNAi specifically suppressed the expression of PPP5C at the mRNA and protein levels in CAOV-3 cells. Further investigations revealed that PP5 knockdown significantly inhibited the proliferation and colony formation of CAOV-3 cells. Moreover, the cell cycle of CAOV-3 cells was arrested at the G0/G1 phase following PP5 knockdown. This study highlights the crucial role of PP5 in promoting ovarian cancer cell proliferation, and provides a foundation for further study into the clinical potential of lentiviral-mediated delivery of PP5 RNAi therapy for the treatment of ovarian cancer.

Insights into the key interactions between human protein phosphatase 5 and cantharidin using molecular dynamics and site-directed mutagenesis bioassays

Serine/threonine protein phosphatase 5 (PP5) is a promising novel target for anticancer therapies. This work aims to uncover the key interactions at the atomic level between PP5 and three inhibitors (cantharidin, norcantharidin and endothall). We found that, unlike previous report, Arg 100 contributes less to PP5-inhibitor binding, and the residues His 69, Asn 128, His 129, Arg 225, His 252 and Arg 250 are of importance to PP5-inhibitor binding. The hydrophobic interactions established between the residues Val 254, Phe 271 and Tyr 276, especially Glu 253, are very important to enhance the inhibitive interaction. We suggested that, to increase the inhibitory activity, the interactions of inhibitor with three negatively charged unfavorable interaction residues, Asp 99, Glu 130 and Asp 213, should be avoided. However, the interactions of inhibitor with favorable interaction residue Arg 250 could enhance the inhibitory activity. The Manganese ion 2 (MN2) unfavorably contribute to the total interaction free energies. The coordination between MN2 and chemical group of inhibitor should be eliminated. This work provides insight into how cantharidin and its analogs bind to PP5c at the atomic level and will facilitate modification of cantharidin-like chemicals to rationally develop more specific and less cytotoxic anti-cancer drugs.

Decreased adipogenesis and adipose tissue in mice with inactivated protein phosphatase 5

White adipose tissue levels are decreased and preadipoctye differentiation to adipocytes is retarded in mice with inactivated protein phosphatase 5. Increased phosphate in the glucocorticoid receptor mediates this phenotype by altering expression of several proteins in the pathway of adipogenesis.

CK2-dependent inhibitory phosphorylation is relieved by Ppt1 phosphatase for the ethanol stress-specific activation of Hsf1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Ethanol, the major fermentation product of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has long been known as an inducer of heat shock response, but the underlying mechanisms by which ethanol activates heat shock transcription factor (HSF) are not well understood. We demonstrate that CK2-dependent phosphorylation on S608 is an ethanol stress-specific repression mechanism of Hsf1, which does not affect the basal or heat-induced activity of Hsf1. This repression is relieved by dephosphorylation by Ppt1 which directly interacts with Hsf1 via its tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domain. In response to ethanol stress, PPT1 deletion and CK2 overexpression exert synergistic inhibitory effects on Hsf1 activation, whereas Hsf1(S608A) mutant shows enhanced activation. Therefore, regulation of the Hsf1 S608 phosphorylation status by reciprocal actions of CK2 and Ppt1 might play an important role to determine Hsf1 sensitivity towards ethanol stress.

Catalytic activity of a novel serine/threonine protein phosphatase PP5 from Leishmania major

Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania. Our knowledge of protein phosphatases (PPs) and their implication in signaling events is very limited. Here we report the expression, characterization and mutagenesis analysis of a novel protein phosphatase 5 (PP5) in Leishmania major. Recombinant PP5 is a bona fide phosphatase and is enzymatically active. Site-directed mutagenesis revealed auto-inhibitory roles of the N-terminal region. This is a rational first approach to understand the role of PP5 in the biology of the parasite better as well as its potential future applicability to anti-parasitic intervention.

Protein phosphatases in pancreatic islets

The prevalence of diabetes is increasing rapidly worldwide. A cardinal feature of most forms of diabetes is the lack of insulin-producing capability, due to the loss of insulin-producing β-cells, impaired glucose-sensitive insulin secretion from the β-cell, or a combination thereof, the reasons for which largely remain elusive. Reversible phosphorylation is an important and versatile mechanism for regulating the biological activity of many intracellular proteins, which, in turn, controls a variety of cellular functions. For instance, significant changes in protein kinase activities and in protein phosphorylation patterns occur subsequent to the stimulation of insulin release by glucose. Therefore, the molecular mechanisms regulating the phosphorylation of proteins involved in the insulin secretory process by the β-cell have been extensively investigated. However, far less is known about the role and regulation of protein dephosphorylation by various protein phosphatases. Herein, we review extant data implicating serine/threonine and tyrosine phosphatases in various aspects of healthy and diabetic islet biology, ranging from control of hormonal stimulus-secretion coupling to mitogenesis and apoptosis.

PAPP5 is involved in the tetrapyrrole mediated plastid signalling during chloroplast development

The initiation of chloroplast development in the light is dependent on nuclear encoded components. The nuclear genes encoding key components in the photosynthetic machinery are regulated by signals originating in the plastids. These plastid signals play an essential role in the regulation of photosynthesis associated nuclear genes (PhANGs) when proplastids develop into chloroplasts. One of the plastid signals is linked to the tetrapyrrole biosynthesis and accumulation of the intermediates the Mg-ProtoIX and its methyl ester Mg-ProtoIX-ME. Phytochrome-Associated Protein Phosphatase 5 (PAPP5) was isolated in a previous study as a putative Mg-ProtoIX interacting protein. In order to elucidate if there is a biological link between PAPP5 and the tetrapyrrole mediated signal we generated double mutants between the Arabidopsis papp5 and the crd mutants. The crd mutant over-accumulates Mg-ProtoIX and Mg-ProtoIX-ME and the tetrapyrrole accumulation triggers retrograde signalling. The crd mutant exhibits repression of PhANG expression, altered chloroplast morphology and a pale phenotype. However, in the papp5crd double mutant, the crd phenotype is restored and papp5crd accumulated wild type levels of chlorophyll, developed proper chloroplasts and showed normal induction of PhANG expression in response to light. Tetrapyrrole feeding experiments showed that PAPP5 is required to respond correctly to accumulation of tetrapyrroles in the cell and that PAPP5 is most likely a component in the plastid signalling pathway down stream of the tetrapyrrole Mg-ProtoIX/Mg-ProtoIX-ME. Inhibition of phosphatase activity phenocopied the papp5crd phenotype in the crd single mutant demonstrating that PAPP5 phosphatase activity is essential to mediate the retrograde signal and to suppress PhANG expression in the crd mutant. Thus, our results suggest that PAPP5 receives an inbalance in the tetrapyrrole biosynthesis through the accumulation of Mg-ProtoIX and acts as a negative regulator of PhANG expression during chloroplast biogenesis and development.

A novel serine/threonine protein phosphatase type 5 from second-generation merozoite of Eimeria tenella is associated with diclazuril-induced apoptosis

Screening the anticoccidial drug targets is very important for developing novel drugs and revealing the molecular basis of drug resistance in coccidia. Due to high effectivity and safety, diclazuril was used widely in the poultry industry. To assess the roles of the serine/threonine protein phosphatase type 5 of second-generation merozoites in Eimeria tenella (EtPP5) in the anticoccidial activity of diclazuril against chicken coccidiosis, EtPP5 was cloned using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and rapid amplification of cDNA ends. Ultrastructural changes in second-generation merozoites and mRNA expression level of EtPP5 were monitored by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and quantitative real-time PCR, respectively. The results showed that the full length of the cloned EtPP5 cDNA (2,495 bp) encompassed a 1,647-bp open reading frame encoding a polypeptide of 548 residues with an estimated molecular mass of 60.82 kDa and a theoretical isoelectric point of 5.89. Molecular analysis of EtPP5 reveals the presence of a C-terminal phosphatase domain and an extended N-terminal tetratricopeptide repeat motif, a typical feature of protein phosphatases. The cDNA sequence has been submitted to the GenBank database with accession number JX987508. EtPP5 shared 89% homology with the published sequence of a PP5 ortholog of Toxoplasma gondii at the amino acid level (GenBank XP_002364442.1). TEM observed that diclazuril induced ultrastructural changes in second-generation merozoites. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed that compared with the control group, the level of EtPP5 mRNA expression was significantly downregulated by 51.4% by diclazuril treatment. The high similarity of EtPP5 to previously described PP5 of other organisms, as well as its downregulated expression and connection with apoptosis in the second-generation merozoites induced by diclazuril, suggests that it could act an important role in understanding the signaling mechanism underlining the diclazuril-induced merozoites apoptosis.

Identification of odor-processing genes in the emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis

Background

Insects rely on olfaction to locate food, mates, and suitable oviposition sites for successful completion of their life cycle. Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (emerald ash borer) is a serious invasive insect pest that has killed tens of millions of North American ash (Fraxinus spp) trees and threatens the very existence of the genus Fraxinus. Adult A. planipennis are attracted to host volatiles and conspecifics; however, to date no molecular knowledge exists on olfaction in A. planipennis. Hence, we undertook an antennae-specific transcriptomic study to identify the repertoire of odor processing genes involved in A. planipennis olfaction.

Methodology and Principal Findings

We acquired 139,085 Roche/454 GS FLX transcriptomic reads that were assembled into 30,615 high quality expressed sequence tags (ESTs), including 3,249 isotigs and 27,366 non-isotigs (contigs and singletons). Intriguingly, the majority of the A. planipennis antennal transcripts (59.72%) did not show similarity with sequences deposited in the non-redundant database of GenBank, potentially representing novel genes. Functional annotation and KEGG analysis revealed pathways associated with signaling and detoxification. Several odor processing genes (9 odorant binding proteins, 2 odorant receptors, 1 sensory neuron membrane protein and 134 odorant/xenobiotic degradation enzymes, including cytochrome P450s, glutathione-S-transferases; esterases, etc.) putatively involved in olfaction processes were identified. Quantitative PCR of candidate genes in male and female A. planipennis in different developmental stages revealed developmental- and sex-biased expression patterns.

Conclusions and Significance

The antennal ESTs derived from A. planipennis constitute a rich molecular resource for the identification of genes potentially involved in the olfaction process of A. planipennis. These findings should help in understanding the processing of antennally-active compounds (e.g. 7-epi-sesquithujene) previously identified in this serious invasive pest.

Response to DNA damage: why do we need to focus on protein phosphatases?

Eukaryotic cells are continuously threatened by unavoidable errors during normal DNA replication or various sources of genotoxic stresses that cause DNA damage or stalled replication. To maintain genomic integrity, cells have developed a coordinated signaling network, known as the DNA damage response (DDR). Following DNA damage, sensor molecules detect the presence of DNA damage and transmit signals to downstream transducer molecules. This in turn conveys the signals to numerous effectors, which initiate a large number of specific biological responses, including transient cell cycle arrest mediated by checkpoints, DNA repair, and apoptosis. It is recently becoming clear that dephosphorylation events are involved in keeping DDR factors inactive during normal cell growth. Moreover, dephosphorylation is required to shut off checkpoint arrest following DNA damage and has been implicated in the activation of the DDR. Spatial and temporal regulation of phosphorylation events is essential for the DDR, and fine-tuning of phosphorylation is partly mediated by protein phosphatases. While the role of kinases in the DDR has been well documented, the complex roles of protein dephosphorylation have only recently begun to be investigated. Therefore, it is important to focus on the role of phosphatases and to determine how their activity is regulated upon DNA damage. In this work, we summarize current knowledge on the involvement of serine/threonine phosphatases, especially the protein phosphatase 1, protein phosphatase 2A, and protein phosphatase Mg²⁺/Mn²⁺-dependent families, in the DDR.

Caveolin-1 interacts with protein phosphatase 5 and modulates its activity in prostate cancer cells

Caveolin-1 is highly expressed in prostate cancer cells, and is implicated in disease progression. Here, we identified protein phosphatase 5 (PP5) as a novel cellular binding partner of caveolin-1 using a pull-down approach in combination with mass spectrometry-based proteomic analyses. In situ proximity ligation assays demonstrated co-localization and physical interaction of caveolin-1 and PP5 in the cytoplasm of PC-3 human prostate cancer cells. Using yeast two-hybrid analysis, we found that caveolin-1 interacted with the catalytic domain of PP5. We also found that PP5 activity was elevated about 1.7-fold in the presence of 2 μM caveolin-1, and that the scaffolding domain of caveolin-1 is required for this activation. Our results suggest that caveolin-1 is a novel physiological activator of PP5.

Tau protein phosphatases in Alzheimer's disease: the leading role of PP2A

Tau phosphorylation is regulated by a balance between tau kinase and phosphatase activities. Disruption of this equilibrium was suggested to be at the origin of abnormal tau phosphorylation and thereby that might contributes to tau aggregation. Thus, understanding the regulation modes of tau dephosphorylation is of high interest in determining the possible causes at the origin of the formation of tau aggregates and to elaborate protection strategies to cope with these lesions in AD. Among the possible and relatively specific interventions that reverse tau phosphorylation is the stimulation of certain tau phosphatases. Here, we reviewed tau protein phosphatases, their physiological roles and regulation, their involvement in tau phosphorylation and the relevance to AD. We also reviewed the most common compounds acting on each tau phosphatase including PP2A.

Serine/threonine protein phosphatase 5 regulates glucose homeostasis in vivo and apoptosis signalling in mouse pancreatic islets and clonal MIN6 cells

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

During the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus, beta cells are often exposed to a high glucose/hyperlipidaemic environment, in which the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are elevated. In turn, ROS can trigger an apoptotic response leading to beta cell death, by activating mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling cascades. Here we test the hypothesis that serine/threonine protein phosphatase 5 (PP5) acts to suppress proapoptotic c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signalling in beta cells.

METHODS

Ppp5c(-/-) and Ppp5c(+/+) mice were subjected to intraperitoneal glucose (IPGTT) or insulin tolerance tests. Pancreatic islets from Ppp5c(-/-) and Ppp5c(+/+) mice or MIN6 cells treated with short-interfering RNA targeting PP5 were exposed to palmitate or H(2)O(2) to activate MAPK signalling. Changes in protein phosphorylation, mRNA expression, apoptosis and insulin secretion were detected by western blot analysis, quantitative RT-PCR or ELISA.

RESULTS

Ppp5c(-/-) mice weighed less and exhibited reduced fasting glycaemia and improved glucose tolerance during IPGTT, but retained normal insulin sensitivity and islet volume. Comparison of MAPK signalling in islets from Ppp5c(-/-) mice and MIN6 cells revealed that the lack of PP5 was associated with enhanced H(2)O(2)-induced phosphorylation of JNK and c-Jun. Cells with reduced PP5 also showed enhanced JNK phosphorylation and apoptosis after palmitate treatment. PP5 suppression in MIN6 cells correlated with hypersecretion of insulin in response to glucose.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

PP5 deficiency in mice is associated with reduced weight gain, lower fasting glycaemia, and improved glucose tolerance during IPGTT. At a molecular level, PP5 helps suppress apoptosis in beta cells by a mechanism that involves regulation of JNK phosphorylation.

Cytokines alter glucocorticoid receptor phosphorylation in airway cells: role of phosphatases

Corticosteroid insensitivity (CSI) represents a profound challenge in managing patients with asthma. We recently demonstrated that short exposure of airway smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) to proasthmatic cytokines drastically reduced their responsiveness to glucocorticoids (GCs), an effect that was partially mediated via interferon regulatory factor-1, suggesting the involvement of additional mechanisms (Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2008;38:463-472). Although GC receptor (GR) can be phosphorylated at multiple serines in the N-terminal region, the major phosphorylation sites critical for GR transcriptional activity are serines 211 (Ser211) and 226 (Ser226). We tested the novel hypothesis that cytokine-induced CSI in ASMCs is due to an impaired GR phosphorylation. Cells were treated with TNF-α (10 ng/ml) and IFN-γ (500 UI/ml) for 6 hours and/or fluticasone (100 nm) added 2 hours before. GR was constitutively phosphorylated at Ser226 but not at Ser211 residues. Cytokines dramatically suppressed fluticasone-induced phosphorylation of GR on Ser211 but not on Ser226 residues while increasing the expression of Ser/Thr protein phosphatase (PP)5 but not that of PP1 or PP2A. Transfection studies using a reporter construct containing GC responsive elements showed that the specific small interfering RNA-induced mRNA knockdown of PP5, but not that of PP1 or PP2A, partially prevented the cytokine suppressive effects on GR-meditated transactivation activity. Similarly, cytokines failed to inhibit GC-induced GR-Ser211 phosphorylation when expression of PP5 was suppressed. We propose that the novel mechanism that proasthmatic cytokine-induced CSI in ASMCs is due, in part, to PP5-mediated impairment of GR-Ser211 phosphorylation.

S100 proteins modulate protein phosphatase 5 function: a link between CA2+ signal transduction and protein dephosphorylation

PP5 is a unique member of serine/threonine phosphatases comprising a regulatory tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domain and functions in signaling pathways that control many cellular responses. We reported previously that Ca(2+)/S100 proteins directly associate with several TPR-containing proteins and lead to dissociate the interactions of TPR proteins with their client proteins. Here, we identified protein phosphatase 5 (PP5) as a novel target of S100 proteins. In vitro binding studies demonstrated that S100A1, S100A2, S100A6, and S100B proteins specifically interact with PP5-TPR and inhibited the PP5-Hsp90 interaction. In addition, the S100 proteins activate PP5 by using a synthetic phosphopeptide and a physiological protein substrate, Tau. Overexpression of S100A1 in COS-7 cells induced dephosphorylation of Tau. However, S100A1 and permanently active S100P inhibited the apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) and PP5 interaction, resulting the inhibition of dephosphorylation of phospho-ASK1 by PP5. The association of the S100 proteins with PP5 provides a Ca(2+)-dependent regulatory mechanism for the phosphorylation status of intracellular proteins through the regulation of PP5 enzymatic activity or PP5-client protein interaction.

Hsp90: structure and function

Hsp90 is a highly abundant and ubiquitous molecular chaperone which plays an essential role in many cellular processes including cell cycle control, cell survival, hormone and other signalling pathways. It is important for the cell's response to stress and is a key player in maintaining cellular homeostasis. In the last ten years, it has become a major therapeutic target for cancer, and there has also been increasing interest in it as a therapeutic target in neurodegenerative disorders, and in the development of anti-virals and anti-protozoan infections. The focus of this review is the structural and mechanistic studies which have been performed in order to understand how this important chaperone acts on a wide variety of different proteins (its client proteins) and cellular processes. As with many of the other classes of molecular chaperone, Hsp90 has a critical ATPase activity, and ATP binding and hydrolysis known to modulate the conformational dynamics of the protein. It also uses a host of cochaperones which not only regulate the ATPase activity and conformational dynamics but which also mediate interactions with Hsp90 client proteins. The system is also regulated by post-translational modifications including phosphorylation and acetylation. This review discusses all these aspects of Hsp90 structure and function.

Protein phosphatase 5 mediates lipid metabolism through reciprocal control of glucocorticoid receptor and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ)

Glucocorticoid receptor-α (GRα) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) regulate adipogenesis by controlling the balance between lipolysis and lipogenesis. Here, we show that protein phosphatase 5 (PP5), a nuclear receptor co-chaperone, reciprocally modulates the lipometabolic activities of GRα and PPARγ. Wild-type and PP5-deficient (KO) mouse embryonic fibroblast cells were used to show binding of PP5 to both GRα and PPARγ. In response to adipogenic stimuli, PP5-KO mouse embryonic fibroblast cells showed almost no lipid accumulation with reduced expression of adipogenic markers (aP2, CD36, and perilipin) and low fatty-acid synthase enzymatic activity. This was completely reversed following reintroduction of PP5. Loss of PP5 increased phosphorylation of GRα at serines 212 and 234 and elevated dexamethasone-induced activity at prolipolytic genes. In contrast, PPARγ in PP5-KO cells was hyperphosphorylated at serine 112 but had reduced rosiglitazone-induced activity at lipogenic genes. Expression of the S112A mutant rescued PPARγ transcriptional activity and lipid accumulation in PP5-KO cells pointing to Ser-112 as an important residue of PP5 action. This work identifies PP5 as a fulcrum point in nuclear receptor control of the lipolysis/lipogenesis equilibrium and as a potential target in the treatment of obesity.

Heat-induced chaperone activity of serine/threonine protein phosphatase 5 enhances thermotolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana

• This study reports that Arabidopsis thaliana protein serine/threonine phosphatase 5 (AtPP5) plays a pivotal role in heat stress resistance. A high-molecular-weight (HMW) form of AtPP5 was isolated from heat-treated A. thaliana suspension cells. AtPP5 performs multiple functions, acting as a protein phosphatase, foldase chaperone, and holdase chaperone. The enzymatic activities of this versatile protein are closely associated with its oligomeric status, ranging from low oligomeric protein species to HMW complexes. • The phosphatase and foldase chaperone functions of AtPP5 are associated primarily with the low-molecular-weight (LMW) form, whereas the HMW form exhibits holdase chaperone activity. Transgenic over-expression of AtPP5 conferred enhanced heat shock resistance to wild-type A. thaliana and a T-DNA insertion knock-out mutant was defective in acquired thermotolerance. A recombinant phosphatase mutant (H290N) showed markedly increased holdase chaperone activity. • In addition, enhanced thermotolerance was observed in transgenic plants over-expressing H290N, which suggests that the holdase chaperone activity of AtPP5 is primarily responsible for AtPP5-mediated thermotolerance. • Collectively, the results from this study provide the first evidence that AtPP5 performs multiple enzymatic activities that are mediated by conformational changes induced by heat-shock stress.

The phosphoprotein phosphatase family of Ser/Thr phosphatases as principal targets of naturally occurring toxins

Phosphoprotein phosphatases (PPPs) constitute one of three otherwise unrelated families of enzymes that specialize in removing the phosphate group from phosphorylated serine and threonine residues. The involvement of PPP enzymes in the regulation of processes such as gene expression, DNA replication, morphogenesis, synaptic transmission, glycogen metabolism, and apoptosis has underscored their potential as targets for the treatment of a variety of conditions such as cancer, diabetes, or Alzheimer's disease. Interestingly, PPP enzymes also constitute the physiological target of multiple naturally occurring toxins, including microcystins from cyanobacteria and cantharidin from beetles. This review is devoted to the PPP family of enzymes--with a focus on the human PPPs--and the naturally occurring toxins that are known to potently impair their activity. The interaction of the toxins with the enzymes is evaluated in atomic detail to obtain insight on two complementary aspects: (1) which specific structural differences within the similarly folded catalytic core of the PPP enzymes explain their diverse sensitivities to toxin inhibition and (2) which structural features presented by the various toxins account for the differential inhibitory potency towards each PPP. These analyses take advantage of numerous site-directed mutagenesis studies, structure-activity evaluations, and recent crystallographic structures of PPPs bound to different toxins.

Protein phosphatase with EF-hand domains 2 (PPEF2) is a potent negative regulator of apoptosis signal regulating kinase-1 (ASK1)

The function of protein phosphatases with EF-hand domains (PPEF) in mammals is not known. Large-scale expression profiling experiments suggest that PPEF expression may correlate with stress protective responses, cell survival, growth, proliferation, or neoplastic transformation. Apoptosis signal regulating kinase-1 (ASK1) is a MAP kinase kinase kinase implicated in cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. ASK1 is activated by oxidative stress and induces pro-apoptotic or inflammatory signalling, largely via sustained activation of MAP kinases p38 and/or JNK. We identify human PPEF2 as a novel interacting partner and a negative regulator of ASK1. In COS-7 or HEK 293A cells treated with H(2)O(2), expression of PPEF2 abrogated sustained activation of p38 and one of the JNK p46 isoforms, and prevented ASK1-dependent caspase-3 cleavage and activation. PPEF2 efficiently suppressed H(2)O(2)-induced activation of ASK1. Overexpessed as well as endogenous ASK1 co-immunoprecipitated with PPEF2. PPEF2 was considerably more potent both as a suppressor of ASK1 activation and as its interacting partner as compared to protein phosphatase 5 (PP5), a well-known negative regulator of ASK1. PPEF2 was found to form complexes with endogenous Hsp70 and to a lesser extent Hsp90, which are also known interacting partners of PP5. These data identify, for the first time, a possible downstream signalling partner of a mammalian PPEF phosphatase, and suggest that, despite structural divergence, PPEF and PP5 phosphatases may share common interacting partners and functions.

Candida albicans CaPTC6 is a functional homologue for Saccharomyces cerevisiae ScPTC6 and encodes a type 2C protein phosphatase

Type 2C protein phosphatases (PP2C) are monomeric enzymes and their activities require the presence of magnesium or manganese ions. There are seven PP2C genes, ScPTC1, ScPTC2, ScPTC3, ScPTC4, ScPTC5, ScPTC6 and ScPTC7, in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. PTC6 is highly conserved in pathogenic and nonpathogenic yeasts. In the current study we have demonstrated that the Candida albicans CaPTC6 gene could complement the functions of ScPTC6 in the rapamycin and caffeine sensitivities of S. cerevisiae cells, indicating that they are functional homologues. We have also demonstrated that the CaPTC6-encoded protein is a typical PP2C enzyme and that CaPtc6p is localized in the mitochondrion of yeast-form and hyphal cells. However, deletion of CaPTC6 neither affects cell and hyphal growth nor renders Candida cells sensitive to rapamycin and caffeine. Therefore, possibly with a functional redundancy to other mitochondrial phosphatases, CaPtc6p is likely to be involved in the regulation of a mitochondrial physiology.

PPEF/PP7 protein Ser/Thr phosphatases

PPEF/PP7 represents one of the five subfamilies of the PPP protein Ser/Thr phosphatases. Studies published in recent years point to a role of plant PP7 at a crossroad of different pathways of light and stress signalling. In animals, PPEFs are highly expressed in sensory neurons, and Drosophila PPEF phosphatase, rdgC, is essential for dephosphorylation of rhodopsin. Expression profiling suggests that mammalian PPEF may play a role in stress-protective responses, cell survival, growth, proliferation, and oncogenesis. Despite structural similarities of the catalytic domains and the fact that some of these phosphatases are involved in light perception both in animals and in plants, the plant and non-plant representatives of this group have distinct domain architecture and appear not to be orthologues.

Protein phosphatase 5 regulates the function of 53BP1 after neocarzinostatin-induced DNA damage

53BP1 (p53-binding protein 1) is a conserved nuclear protein that is phosphorylated in response to DNA damage and rapidly recruited to the site of DNA double strand breaks, demonstrating its role in the early events to DNA damage and repair of damaged DNA. In this study, we used the yeast two-hybrid system to identify proteins that interact with 53BP1. Identification and characterization of 53BP1 protein interactions may help to further elucidate the function and regulation of 53BP1. We identified protein phosphatase 5 (PP5), a serine/threonine phosphatase that has been implicated in multiple cellular function, as a 53BP1-binding protein. This interaction further confirmed that 53BP1 interacts with PP5 in PP5-overexpressing U2OS cells, after radiomimetic agent neocarzinostatin (NCS) treatment. 53BP1 dephosphorylation at Ser-25 and Ser-1778 was accelerated in PP5-overexpressing U2OS cells following NCS treatment, and its dephosphorylation was correlated with reduced phospho-53BP1 foci formation. In contrast, the overexpression of PP5 had no effect on NCS-activated BRCA1-Ser-1524 phosphorylation. Additionally, PP5 down-regulation inhibited the dephosphorylation of 53BP1 on Ser-1778 and the disappearance of phospho-53BP1 foci following NCS treatment. Moreover, non-homologous end-joining activity was reduced in PP5-overexpressing U2OS cells. These findings indicate that PP5 plays an important role in the regulation of 53BP1 phosphorylation and activity in vivo.

Protein Ser/Thr phosphatases of parasitic protozoa

Protein phosphorylation is an important mechanism implicated in physiology of any organism, including parasitic protozoa. Enzymes that control protein phosphorylation (kinases and phosphatases) are considered promising targets for drug development. This review attempts to provide the first account of the current understanding of the structure, regulation and biological functions of protein Ser/Thr phosphatases in unicellular parasites. We have examined the complements of phosphatases ("phosphatomes") of the PPP and PPM families in several species of Apicomplexa (including malaria parasite Plasmodium), as well as Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, Trichomonas vaginalis and a microsporidium Encephalitozoon cuniculi. Apicomplexans have homologues (in most cases represented by single isoforms) of all human PPP subfamilies. Some apicomplexan PPP phosphatases have no orthologues in their vertebrate hosts, including a previously unrecognised group of pseudo-phosphatases with putative Ca(2+)-binding domains, which we designate as EFPP. We also describe the presence of previously undetected Zn finger motifs in PPEF phosphatases from kinetoplastids, and a likely case of convergent evolution of tetratricopeptide repeat domain-containing phosphatases in G. lamblia. Among the parasites examined, E. cuniculi has the smallest Ser/Thr phosphatome (5 PPP and no PPM), while T. vaginalis shows the largest expansion of the PPP family (169 predicted phosphatases). Most protozoan PPM phosphatases cluster separately from human sequences. The structural peculiarities or absence of human orthologues of a number of protozoan protein Ser/Thr phosphatases makes them potentially suitable targets for chemotherapy and thus warrants their functional assessment.

Structure and content of the Entamoeba histolytica genome

The intestinal parasite Entamoeba histolytica is one of the first protists for which a draft genome sequence has been published. Although the genome is still incomplete, it is unlikely that many genes are missing from the list of those already identified. In this chapter we summarise the features of the genome as they are currently understood and provide previously unpublished analyses of many of the genes.