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Biessy L, Pearman JK, Mertens KN, Réveillon D, Savar V, Hess P, Hampton H, Thompson L, Lebrun L, Terre-Terrillon A, Smith KF. Sudden peak in tetrodotoxin in French oysters during the summer of 2021: Source investigation using microscopy, metabarcoding and droplet digital PCR. Toxicon 2024; 243:107721. [PMID: 38636612 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin causing human intoxications from contaminated seafood worldwide and is of emerging concern in Europe. Shellfish have been shown to contain varying TTX concentrations globally, with concentrations typically higher in Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas in Europe. Despite many decades of research, the source of TTX remains unknown, with bacterial or algal origins having been suggested. The aim of this study was to identify potential source organisms causing TTX contamination in Pacific oysters in French coastal waters, using three different techniques. Oysters were deployed in cages from April to September 2021 in an estuary where TTX was previously detected. Microscopic analyses of water samples were used to investigate potential microalgal blooms present prior or during the peak in TTX. Differences in the bacterial communities from oyster digestive glands (DG) and remaining flesh were explored using metabarcoding, and lastly, droplet digital PCR assays were developed to investigate the presence of Cephalothrix sp., one European TTX-bearing species in the DG of toxic C. gigas. Oysters analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry contained quantifiable levels of TTX over a three-week period (24 June-15 July 2021), with concentrations decreasing in the DG from 424 μg/kg for the first detection to 101 μg/kg (equivalent to 74 to 17 μg/kg of total flesh), and trace levels being detected until August 13, 2021. These concentrations are the first report of the European TTX guidance levels being exceeded in French shellfish. Microscopy revealed that some microalgae bloomed during the TTX peak, (e.g., Chaetoceros spp., reaching 40,000 cells/L). Prokaryotic metabarcoding showed increases in abundance of Rubritaleaceae (genus Persicirhabdus) and Neolyngbya, before and during the TTX peak. Both phyla have previously been described as possible TTX-producers and should be investigated further. Droplet digital PCR analyses were negative for the targeted TTX-bearing genus Cephalothrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Biessy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| | - John K Pearman
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Kenneth Neil Mertens
- Ifremer, LITTORAL Unit, Place de la Croix, BP40537, 29900, Concarneau CEDEX, France
| | | | | | | | - Hannah Hampton
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Lucy Thompson
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Luc Lebrun
- Ifremer, LITTORAL Unit, Place de la Croix, BP40537, 29900, Concarneau CEDEX, France
| | | | - Kirsty F Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
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2
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Ulman A, Abd Rabou AFN, Al Mabruk S, Bariche M, Bilecenoğlu M, Demirel N, Galil BS, Hüseyinoğlu MF, Jimenez C, Hadjioannou L, Kosker AR, Peristeraki P, Saad A, Samaha Z, Stoumboudi MT, Temraz TA, Karachle PK. Assessment of Human Health Impacts from Invasive Pufferfish (Attacks, Poisonings and Fatalities) across the Eastern Mediterranean. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:208. [PMID: 38666820 PMCID: PMC11048499 DOI: 10.3390/biology13040208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
The silver-cheeked toadfish Lagocephalus sceleratus (Gmelin 1789), and to a lesser degree the orange spotted toadfish Torquigener hypselogeneion (Bleeker, 1852), pose threats to human health from physical attacks and poisonings in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. This study reviewed human health-related impacts resulting from these pufferfish, compiling and assessing records from online sources, the peer-reviewed literature, medical records, personal interviews, and observations across the Eastern Mediterranean in the years 2004 to 2023. A total of 198 events impacting human health were documented: 28 records of physical attacks, at least 144 non-lethal poisoning episodes, and 27 human fatalities resulting from consumption. The majority of the reported incidences occurred in Syria, Türkiye, and Lebanon. Most physical attacks occurred in summer, while most poisoning events occurred during winter. The number of recorded incidents greatly increased after 2019, especially with regard to poisonings, yet whether this is related to greater media attention, or to increased fish abundance is unclear. This is the first comprehensive study to collate findings on attacks, poisonings and fatalities caused by these pufferfish in the Mediterranean Sea, and may help in improving national health policies. We urge the continuation of national campaigns to caution residents and tourists of these species' high toxicities and potential aggressiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aylin Ulman
- Mersea Marine Consulting, 48300 Fethiye, Türkiye;
| | | | - Sara Al Mabruk
- Nursing Department, Higher Institute of Science and Technology-Cyrene, Shahat 6036, Libya;
| | - Michel Bariche
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut P.O. Box 11-0236, Lebanon;
| | - Murat Bilecenoğlu
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, 09010 Aydın, Türkiye;
| | - Nazli Demirel
- Institute of Marine Sciences and Management, Istanbul University, Fatih, 34134 Istanbul, Türkiye;
| | - Bella S. Galil
- The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Israel National Center for Biodiversity Studies, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel;
| | | | - Carlos Jimenez
- Enalia Physis Environmental Research Centre, 2101 Nicosia, Cyprus;
| | | | - Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, 01330 Adana, Türkiye;
| | - Panagiota Peristeraki
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, P.O. Box 2214, 71300 Heraklion, Greece;
| | - Adib Saad
- Directorate of Scientific Research and Publishing, Al-Manara University, Lattakia HQ28 RFM, Syria;
| | - Ziad Samaha
- General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM—FAO), Palazzo Blumenstihl, Via Vittoria Colonna 1, 00193 Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Th. Stoumboudi
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, 576 Vouliagmenis Ave., 16452 Argyroupoli, Greece;
| | - Tarek A. Temraz
- Department of Marine Sciences, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 8366004, Egypt;
| | - Paraskevi K. Karachle
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, 576 Vouliagmenis Ave., 16452 Argyroupoli, Greece;
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3
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Montuori E, De Luca D, Penna A, Stalberga D, Lauritano C. Alexandrium spp.: From Toxicity to Potential Biotechnological Benefits. Mar Drugs 2023; 22:31. [PMID: 38248656 PMCID: PMC10821459 DOI: 10.3390/md22010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Many dinoflagellates of the genus Alexandrium are well known for being responsible for harmful algal blooms (HABs), producing potent toxins that cause damages to other marine organisms, aquaculture, fishery, tourism, as well as induce human intoxications and even death after consumption of contaminated shellfish or fish. In this review, we summarize potential bioprospecting associated to the genus Alexandrium, including which Alexandrium spp. produce metabolites with anticancer, antimicrobial, antiviral, as well as anti-Alzheimer applications. When available, we report their mechanisms of action and targets. We also discuss recent progress on the identification of secondary metabolites with biological properties favorable to human health and aquaculture. Altogether, this information highlights the importance of studying which culturing conditions induce the activation of enzymatic pathways responsible for the synthesis of bioactive metabolites. It also suggests considering and comparing clones collected in different locations for toxin monitoring and marine bioprospecting. This review can be of interest not only for the scientific community, but also for the entire population and industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Montuori
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale F. Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy;
- Department of Ecosustainable Marine Biotechnology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Via Acton 55, 80133 Napoli, Italy
| | - Daniele De Luca
- Research Infrastructure for Marine Biological Resources Department, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Napoli, Italy;
| | - Antonella Penna
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino, Campus E. Mattei, 61029 Urbino, Italy;
| | - Darta Stalberga
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Linköping University, SE-58183 Linköping, Sweden;
| | - Chiara Lauritano
- Department of Ecosustainable Marine Biotechnology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Via Acton 55, 80133 Napoli, Italy
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Sonoda GG, Tobaruela EDC, Norenburg J, Fabi JP, Andrade SCS. Venomous Noodles: The Evolution of Toxins in Nemertea through Positive Selection and Gene Duplication. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:650. [PMID: 37999513 PMCID: PMC10674772 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15110650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Some, probably most and perhaps all, members of the phylum Nemertea are poisonous, documented so far from marine and benthic specimens. Although the toxicity of these animals has been long known, systematic studies on the characterization of toxins, mechanisms of toxicity, and toxin evolution for this group are scarce. Here, we present the first investigation of the molecular evolution of toxins in Nemertea. Using a proteo-transcriptomic approach, we described toxins in the body and poisonous mucus of the pilidiophoran Lineus sanguineus and the hoplonemertean Nemertopsis pamelaroeae. Using these new and publicly available transcriptomes, we investigated the molecular evolution of six selected toxin gene families. In addition, we also characterized in silico the toxin genes found in the interstitial hoplonemertean, Ototyphlonemertes erneba, a meiofaunal taxa. We successfully identified over 200 toxin transcripts in each of these species. Evidence of positive selection and gene duplication was observed in all investigated toxin genes. We hypothesized that the increased rates of gene duplications observed for Pilidiophora could be involved with the expansion of toxin genes. Studies concerning the natural history of Nemertea are still needed to understand the evolution of their toxins. Nevertheless, our results show evolutionary mechanisms similar to other venomous groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Gonzalez Sonoda
- Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, IB-Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-090, Brazil;
- Instituto Butantan, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Eric de Castro Tobaruela
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Food Research Center (FoRC), Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-080, Brazil; (E.d.C.T.); (J.P.F.)
| | | | - João Paulo Fabi
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Food Research Center (FoRC), Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-080, Brazil; (E.d.C.T.); (J.P.F.)
| | - Sónia C. S. Andrade
- Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, IB-Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-090, Brazil;
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Kosker AR, Karakus M, Katikou P, Dal İ, Durmus M, Ucar Y, Ayas D, Özogul F. Monthly Variation of Tetrodotoxin Levels in Pufferfish ( Lagocephalus sceleratus) Caught from Antalya Bay, Mediterranean Sea. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:527. [PMID: 37888462 PMCID: PMC10608123 DOI: 10.3390/md21100527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The silver-cheeked toadfish (Lagocephalus sceleratus), an invasive alien pufferfish species that has rapidly settled throughout the Mediterranean region, poses significant threats not only to native marine species and fisheries but also to public health due to the tetrodotoxin (TTX) they harbor. In this study, TTX concentrations in L. sceleratus from Antalya Bay in the Northeastern Mediterranean Sea were investigated using Q-TOF-LC-MS on a monthly basis over a one-year period. Pufferfish were caught by angling from May 2018 to April 2019. The TTX levels in three different tissues (gonads, liver, and muscle) of 110 pufferfish in total were determined in both male and female individuals caught for 11 months. The highest TTX mean levels generally occurred in the gonads and the lowest in the muscle samples. As regards the maximum TTX contents, the highest concentrations determined were 68.2, 34.2, and 7.8 µg/g in the gonad, liver, and muscle tissues, respectively. The highest levels were generally observed in late autumn to winter (especially in November and December) in all tissues from both genders. Female individuals were generally found to be more toxic than male individuals. The TTX levels found confirm that the consumption of L. sceleratus from Antalya Bay remains dangerous throughout the year, and thus L. sceleratus constantly constitutes an important risk source for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, 01330 Adana, Turkey; (M.D.); (F.Ö.)
| | - Merve Karakus
- Mediterranean Fisheries Research Production and Training Institute, Demre Unit, 07570 Antalya, Turkey; (M.K.); (İ.D.)
| | - Panagiota Katikou
- Veterinary Research Institute of Thessaloniki, Hellenic Agricultural Organization—DIMITRA, Ktima Thermis, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - İsmail Dal
- Mediterranean Fisheries Research Production and Training Institute, Demre Unit, 07570 Antalya, Turkey; (M.K.); (İ.D.)
| | - Mustafa Durmus
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, 01330 Adana, Turkey; (M.D.); (F.Ö.)
| | - Yılmaz Ucar
- Vocational School of Aladag, Department of Forestry, Cukurova University, 01720 Adana, Turkey;
| | - Deniz Ayas
- Fisheries Faculty, Mersin University, 33169 Mersin, Turkey;
| | - Fatih Özogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, 01330 Adana, Turkey; (M.D.); (F.Ö.)
- Biotechnology Research and Application Center, Cukurova University, 01330 Adana, Turkey
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6
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Cheng H, Zhao J, Zhang J, Wang Z, Liu Z, Ma X, Liang J, Li W, Fu P, Yang S, Guo Y. Attribution Analysis of Household Foodborne Disease Outbreaks in China, 2010-2020. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2023; 20:358-367. [PMID: 37506344 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2022.0070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Foodborne diseases have become a serious public health problem worldwide, and foodborne disease outbreaks have placed a heavy disease burden on China. Foodborne disease outbreaks occur most frequently among families in China. The objectives of this study were to analyze the cause of household foodborne disease outbreaks in China from 2010 to 2020 and to identify where preventive measures could be targeted. All data were obtained from the China Foodborne Disease Surveillance System Report. A total of 17,985 outbreaks, which resulted in 73,252 illnesses, 38,829 hospitalizations, and 1269 deaths, were reported in this period. Most household outbreaks of foodborne diseases occurred in May-October, and the highest number occurred in July (3620 outbreaks, 20%). The province with the highest number of outbreaks was Yunnan Province (4829 outbreaks), followed by Hunan Province (2264 outbreaks). The attribution analysis revealed that fungi (mainly poisonous mushrooms) were the most implicated food category, with 8873 (49.3%) cases. The second was poisonous plants and their products, with 1552 (8.6%) cases. Fungi were the primary etiologic agent, with 31,125 illnesses, accounting for 42.5% of the incidents. Inedibility and misuse (9423 outbreaks), unknown origin (2505 outbreaks), and improper processing (2365 outbreaks) were the main contributing factors causing outbreaks of foodborne diseases. The results show that southwest China was a high-risk area for household foodborne diseases. Therefore, public health institutions should strengthen supervision and food safety education of residents to reduce the outbreaks of household foodborne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Cheng
- School of Public Health, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Jie Zhao
- School of Public Health, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Weifang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong, China
| | - Zhiyuan Wang
- School of Public Health, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Zhitao Liu
- Yunnan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kunming, China
| | - Xiaochen Ma
- Beijing Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Jinjun Liang
- Hunan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Changsha, China
| | - Weiwei Li
- Division of Risk Surveillance II, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
| | - Ping Fu
- Division of Risk Surveillance II, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
| | - Shuxiang Yang
- School of Public Health, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Yunchang Guo
- Division of Risk Surveillance II, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
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7
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Alkassar M, Sanchez-Henao A, Reverté J, Barreiro L, Rambla-Alegre M, Leonardo S, Mandalakis M, Peristeraki P, Diogène J, Campàs M. Evaluation of Toxicity Equivalency Factors of Tetrodotoxin Analogues with a Neuro-2a Cell-Based Assay and Application to Puffer Fish from Greece. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:432. [PMID: 37623713 PMCID: PMC10455759 DOI: 10.3390/md21080432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent marine neurotoxin involved in poisoning cases, especially through the consumption of puffer fish. Knowledge of the toxicity equivalency factors (TEFs) of TTX analogues is crucial in monitoring programs to estimate the toxicity of samples analyzed with instrumental analysis methods. In this work, TTX analogues were isolated from the liver of a Lagocephalus sceleratus individual caught on South Crete coasts. A cell-based assay (CBA) for TTXs was optimized and applied to the establishment of the TEFs of 5,11-dideoxyTTX, 11-norTTX-6(S)-ol, 11-deoxyTTX and 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX. Results showed that all TTX analogues were less toxic than the parent TTX, their TEFs being in the range of 0.75-0.011. Then, different tissues of three Lagocephalus sceleratus individuals were analyzed with CBA and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The obtained TEFs were applied to the TTX analogues' concentrations obtained by LC-MS/MS analysis, providing an indication of the overall toxicity of the sample. Information about the TEFs of TTX analogues is valuable for food safety control, allowing the estimation of the risk of fish products to consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mounira Alkassar
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Andres Sanchez-Henao
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Jaume Reverté
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Lourdes Barreiro
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Maria Rambla-Alegre
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Sandra Leonardo
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Manolis Mandalakis
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, 71003 Heraklion, Greece;
| | - Panagiota Peristeraki
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, 71003 Heraklion, Greece;
| | - Jorge Diogène
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Mònica Campàs
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
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8
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Finch SC, Webb NG, Boundy MJ, Harwood DT, Munday JS, Sprosen JM, Somchit C, Broadhurst RB. A Sub-Acute Dosing Study of Saxitoxin and Tetrodotoxin Mixtures in Mice Suggests That the Current Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Regulatory Limit Is Fit for Purpose. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:437. [PMID: 37505706 PMCID: PMC10467072 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning is a worldwide problem induced by shellfish contaminated with paralytic shellfish toxins. To protect human health, a regulatory limit for these toxins in shellfish flesh has been adopted by many countries. In a recent study, mice were dosed with saxitoxin and tetrodotoxin mixtures daily for 28 days showing toxicity at low concentrations, which appeared to be at odds with other work. To further investigate this reported toxicity, we dosed groups of mice with saxitoxin and tetrodotoxin mixtures daily for 21 days. In contrast to the previous study, no effects on mouse bodyweight, food consumption, heart rate, blood pressure, grip strength, blood chemistry or hematology were observed. Furthermore, no histological findings were associated with dosing in this trial. The dose rates in this study were 2.6, 3.8 and 4.9 times greater, respectively, than the highest dose of the previous study. As rapid mortality in three out of five mice was observed in the previous study, the deaths are likely to be due to the methodology used rather than the shellfish toxins. To convert animal data to that used in a human risk assessment, a 100-fold safety factor is required. After applying this safety factor, the dose rates used in the current study were 3.5, 5.0 and 6.5 times greater, respectively, than the acute reference dose for each toxin type set by the European Union. Furthermore, it has previously been proposed that tetrodotoxin be included in the paralytic shellfish poisoning suite of toxins. If this were done, the highest dose rate used in this study would be 13 times the acute reference dose. This study suggests that the previous 28-day trial was flawed and that the current paralytic shellfish toxin regulatory limit is fit for purpose. An additional study, feeding mice a diet laced with the test compounds at higher concentrations than those of the current experiment, would be required to comment on whether the current paralytic shellfish toxin regulatory limit should be modified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C. Finch
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (C.S.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Nicola G. Webb
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (C.S.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Michael J. Boundy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (M.J.B.); (D.T.H.)
| | - D. Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (M.J.B.); (D.T.H.)
| | - John S. Munday
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Jan M. Sprosen
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (C.S.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Chanatda Somchit
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (C.S.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Ric B. Broadhurst
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (C.S.); (R.B.B.)
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9
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Malloggi C, Rizzo B, Giusti A, Guardone L, Gasperetti L, Dall’Ara S, Armani A. First Toxicological Analysis of the Pufferfish Sphoeroides pachygaster Collected in Italian Waters (Strait of Sicily): Role of Citizens Science in Monitoring Toxic Marine Species. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:1873. [PMID: 37889799 PMCID: PMC10252100 DOI: 10.3390/ani13111873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Pufferfish (Tetraodontidae) inhabiting the Mediterranean Sea may represent an emerging public health risk due to the possible accumulation of marine neurotoxins such as tetrodotoxin (TTXs) and saxitoxin (STXs) in their tissues. In this study, the presence of pufferfish species in the Strait of Sicily (Lampedusa Island, Italy) was investigated using a citizen science (CS) approach, involving local fishermen. Samples (liver, intestine, gonads, muscle, skin) from 20 specimens were sent to the National Reference Laboratory on Marine Biotoxins for TTXs detection using a validated HILIC-MS/MS method on fish tissue. The presence of STXs was also screened in part of the specimens. Overall, 56 specimens identified as Sphoeroides pachygaster (Müller &Troschel, 1848) were collected. Data on their total length, body weight, fishing method and catch area (with relative depth temperature and salinity) were analyzed and compared with the S. pachygaster records reported in literature which were updated to 2022. All the analysed tissues were found to be negative for both TTXs and STXs. CS played an essential role in monitoring potentially toxic marine species in this investigation. Outcomes from this study, which is the first investigating S. pachygaster toxicity in Italian waters, may provide useful data for the proper assessment of this emerging risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Malloggi
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (C.M.); (A.G.); (L.G.)
| | - Biagio Rizzo
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (C.M.); (A.G.); (L.G.)
| | - Alice Giusti
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (C.M.); (A.G.); (L.G.)
| | - Lisa Guardone
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (C.M.); (A.G.); (L.G.)
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Torino, Italy
| | - Laura Gasperetti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana, 00178 Roma, Italy;
| | - Sonia Dall’Ara
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, National Reference Laboratory on Marine Biotoxins, Viale A. Vespucci 2, 47042 Cesenatico, Italy;
| | - Andrea Armani
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (C.M.); (A.G.); (L.G.)
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10
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Huang Y, Xu A, Xu Y, Wu H, Sun M, Madushika L, Wang R, Yuan J, Wang S, Ling S. Sensitive and rapid detection of tetrodotoxin based on gold nanoflower-and latex microsphere-labeled monoclonal antibodies. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1196043. [PMID: 37260827 PMCID: PMC10227513 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1196043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) could result in serious diseases due to its extremely high neurotoxicity. Thus, it is of great importance to measure TTX for food safety. In this study, an anti-TTX monoclonal antibody with good specificity and high affinity was used to develop the immunochromatographic test strips (ICTS). Gold nanoflower (AuNF) with multiple branches and latex microsphere (LM) with large particle size as signal reporters were employed for improving the sensitivity of test strips. Both AuNF and LM probes are stable, and the developed ICTS were specific to TTX, demonstrating no cross-reactivity with other marine toxins. The linear range of AuNF- and LM-based strips for TTX was 9.49-330.98 ng/mL and 5.40-443.19 ng/mL, respectively. The limit of detection (LOD) of AuNF- and LM-based strips was determined to be 9.49 ng/mL and 5.40 ng/mL, respectively. In summary, the developed ICTS based on AuNF and LM signal probes displayed enhancement of sensitivity and provided rapid and specific detection of TTX.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Sumei Ling
- *Correspondence: Shihua Wang, ; Sumei Ling,
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11
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Rossignoli AE, Mariño C, Martín H, Blanco J. First Report of Two Gymnodimines and Two Tetrodotoxin Analogues in Invertebrates from the North Atlantic Coast of Spain. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:md21040232. [PMID: 37103371 PMCID: PMC10144553 DOI: 10.3390/md21040232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Gymnodimine D (GYM D), 16-desmethyl gymnodimine D (16-desmethyl GYM D), and two tetrodotoxin analogues have been found in invertebrates obtained from the north Atlantic coast of Spain from May 2021 to October 2022. It is the first report of GYMD and 16-desmethyl GYM D in invertebrates worldwide and of the tetrodotoxin analogues, 5,6,11 trideoxy tetrodotoxin (5,6,11 trideoxy TTX) and its isomer (referred to as 5,6,11 trideoxy-epi-TTX), in the north Atlantic Coast of Spain. In this study, we also report for the first time the detection of tetrodotoxin (TTX) in three species (the cnidaria Calliactis parasitica, an unidentified species, and the bivalve Tellina donacina). The prevalence was medium for GYM D and 16-desmethyl GYM D and low for TTXs overall. The concentrations recorded were variable, with maximum values of GYM D in the bivalve Cerastoderma edule (8.8 μg GYM A equivalents kg-1), of 16-desmethyl GYM D in the bivalve Magellana gigas (10 μg GYM A equivalents kg-1) and of TTX and 5,6,11 trideoxy TTX in the cnidaria C. parasitica (49.7 and 233 μg TTX equivalents kg-1, respectively). There is very scarce information about these compounds. Therefore, the reporting of these new detections will increase the knowledge on the current incidence of marine toxins in Europe that the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), in particular, and the scientific community, in general, have. This study also highlights the importance of analyzing toxin analogues and metabolites for effective monitoring programs and adequate health protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Araceli E Rossignoli
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Carmen Mariño
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Helena Martín
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
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12
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Tetrodotoxin Profiles in Xanthid Crab Atergatis floridus and Blue-Lined Octopus Hapalochlaena cf. fasciata from the Same Site in Nagasaki, Japan. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15030193. [PMID: 36977084 PMCID: PMC10052739 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15030193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The xanhid crab Atergatis floridus and the blue-lined octopus Hapalochlaena cf. fasciata have long been known as TTX-bearing organisms. It has been speculated that the TTX possessed by both organisms is exogenously toxic through the food chain, since they are reported to have geographic and individual differences. The source and supply chain of TTX for both of these organisms, however, remain unclear. On the other hand, since crabs are one of the preferred prey of octopuses, we focused our attention on the relationship between the two species living in the same site. The aim of this study was to determine TTX concentrations and TTX profiles of A. floridus and H. cf. fasciata, collected simultaneously in the same site, and examine the relationship between them. Although there were individual differences in the TTX concentration in both A. floridus and H. cf. fasciata, the toxin components commonly contained 11-norTTX-6(S)-ol in addition to TTX as the major components, with 4-epiTTX, 11-deoxyTTX, and 4,9-anhydroTTX as the minor components. The results suggest that octopuses and crabs in this site acquire TTX from common prey, including TTX-producing bacteria and/or may have a predator–prey relationship.
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13
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Wu H, Hu Y, Wang J, Gong X, Bao B. Adaptive evolution of scn4aa in Takifugu and Tetraodon. AQUACULTURE AND FISHERIES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aaf.2022.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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14
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Xin L, Liang Y, Yang S, Jiang F, Yu F, Zhang M, Chang W, Wang W, Yu C, Liu G, Lu Y. Simple and fast determination of tetrodotoxin in human plasma based on hydrophilic-interaction/ion-exchange mixed-mode solid phase extraction combined with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectroscopy. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1684:463567. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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15
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Gouel P, Gatti CMI, de Haro L, Liautaud A, Langrand J, Boucaud-Maitre D. Tetrodotoxin Poisoning in Mainland France and French Overseas Territories: A Review of Published and Unpublished Cases. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14050351. [PMID: 35622597 PMCID: PMC9146393 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin is one of the most potent neurotoxins in the aquatic world. This review of published and unpublished reports aims to describe the poisoning cases that have occurred in mainland France and overseas territories. Six articles were included, with 13 poisoning events, individuals or collective (number (n) = 53 patients). Moreover, 13 unpublished poisoning events from toxicovigilance networks were found (n = 17). All cases happened in overseas territories: French Guyana (n = 7), New Caledonia (n = 11), Reunion (n = 35) and French Polynesia (n = 17). The median age was 36 years. The most frequent signs were neurological (81.8%), digestive (54.5%) and general (52.3%). Three cases of dysgueusia and nine cases of urogenital discomfort were observed in French Polynesia. Twelve severe cases were reported, including seven deaths. Only three events (11.5%) were documented by a tetrodotoxin assay. Two families of fish accounted for 91.6% of the poisonings: 33.3% due to the Diodontidae family and 58.3% to the Tetraodontidae family. Although rare, information and collection campaigns on tetrodotoxin poisoning are, therefore, essential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierrick Gouel
- Service des Urgences, Centre Hospitalier de Mayotte, 97600 Mamoudzou, France;
| | - Clémence Mahana iti Gatti
- Laboratoire des Biotoxines Marines, Institut Louis Malardé, UMR 241 EIO (Ifremer, ILM, IRD, UPF), 98713 Papeete, French Polynesia;
| | - Luc de Haro
- Clinical Pharmacology, Poison Control Center, St Marguerite Hospital, 13009 Marseille, France;
| | - Alice Liautaud
- Centre Antipoison de Paris, Hôpital Fernand Widal, 75010 Paris, France; (A.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Jérôme Langrand
- Centre Antipoison de Paris, Hôpital Fernand Widal, 75010 Paris, France; (A.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Denis Boucaud-Maitre
- Department of Research an Biostatistics, University Hospital of Guadeloupe, LAMIA (EA4540) French West Indies University, 97159 Pointe-à-Pitre, France
- Correspondence:
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16
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Yamanoi E, Sakurada M, Ueno Y. Discrimination method of seven species pufferfish of the genus Takifugu using DNA chromatography. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2022; 57:102078. [DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2022.102078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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17
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Louzao MC, Vilariño N, Vale C, Costas C, Cao A, Raposo-Garcia S, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Current Trends and New Challenges in Marine Phycotoxins. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20030198. [PMID: 35323497 PMCID: PMC8950113 DOI: 10.3390/md20030198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine phycotoxins are a multiplicity of bioactive compounds which are produced by microalgae and bioaccumulate in the marine food web. Phycotoxins affect the ecosystem, pose a threat to human health, and have important economic effects on aquaculture and tourism worldwide. However, human health and food safety have been the primary concerns when considering the impacts of phycotoxins. Phycotoxins toxicity information, often used to set regulatory limits for these toxins in shellfish, lacks traceability of toxicity values highlighting the need for predefined toxicological criteria. Toxicity data together with adequate detection methods for monitoring procedures are crucial to protect human health. However, despite technological advances, there are still methodological uncertainties and high demand for universal phycotoxin detectors. This review focuses on these topics, including uncertainties of climate change, providing an overview of the current information as well as future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
- Correspondence: (M.C.L.); (L.M.B.)
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Carmen Vale
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Celia Costas
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Alejandro Cao
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Sandra Raposo-Garcia
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Mercedes R. Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain;
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
- Correspondence: (M.C.L.); (L.M.B.)
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18
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Xie R, Li H, Yu W, Wang N, Zhang J, Gao J, Chen A. Rapid identification of Takifugu genus using visual loop-mediated isothermal amplification. J Food Sci 2022; 87:867-877. [PMID: 35028941 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.16012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Some Takifugu species are commonly found in the coastal areas of China, Japan, Thailand, and Korea and cause pufferfish poisoning, which is toxic and even lethal to humans. From 2010 to 2015, there were 430 cases of pufferfish poisoning worldwide, resulting in 52 deaths. Identification of Takifugu species is imperative to reduce financial losses and ensure food safety. Here, visual loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) was applied to identify Takifugu species. Conserved regions within the mitochondrial DNA among different Takifugu species were selected to design LAMP primers. In 55 min of amplification, sufficient DNA was obtained to observe the results with the naked eye, without the need for complicated instruments. The method was highly specific, with no cross-detection of 17 other fish species, namely, 7 Tetraodontiformes species and 10 commercially important fish. The method showed a detection limit of 0.1 ng Takifugu DNA and was successfully validated to detect Takifugu in cooked fish and the vomitus of poisoned patients. This rapid and visual LAMP method is a useful tool to prevent false labeling, protect consumer rights, and reduce the risk of pufferfish poisoning. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The loop-mediated isothermal amplification method established in this study can identify cooked or digested fish products containing 1% or more of Takifugu. Therefore, it can be used for the visual detection of Takifugu products and the medical diagnosis of Takifugu poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruibin Xie
- Institute of Quality Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Key Laboratory of Agro-Product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Li
- Institute of Quality Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Key Laboratory of Agro-Product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wenjie Yu
- Institute of Quality Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Key Laboratory of Agro-Product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Nan Wang
- Institute of Quality Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Key Laboratory of Agro-Product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Juan Zhang
- Institute of Quality Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Key Laboratory of Agro-Product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Gao
- Institute of Quality Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Key Laboratory of Agro-Product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ailiang Chen
- Institute of Quality Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Key Laboratory of Agro-Product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
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19
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Fathalla W, Pazdera P, Khalifa ME, Ali IAI, El Rayes SM. Novel domino synthesis of 2‐(2,3.4‐substituted phenyl) quinazolin‐4‐amine. J Heterocycl Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/jhet.4435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Walid Fathalla
- Physics and Math. Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering Port‐Said University Port Said Egypt
| | - Pavel Pazdera
- Centre for Syntheses at Sustainable Conditions and Their Management, Faculty of Science Masaryk University Brno Czech Republic
| | - Mohamed E. Khalifa
- Department of Chemistry College of Science, Taif University Taif Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibrahim A. I. Ali
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science Suez Canal University Ismailia Egypt
| | - Samir M. El Rayes
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science Suez Canal University Ismailia Egypt
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20
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Katikou P, Gokbulut C, Kosker AR, Campàs M, Ozogul F. An Updated Review of Tetrodotoxin and Its Peculiarities. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20010047. [PMID: 35049902 PMCID: PMC8780202 DOI: 10.3390/md20010047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a crystalline, weakly basic, colorless organic substance and is one of the most potent marine toxins known. Although TTX was first isolated from pufferfish, it has been found in numerous other marine organisms and a few terrestrial species. Moreover, tetrodotoxication is still an important health problem today, as TTX has no known antidote. TTX poisonings were most commonly reported from Japan, Thailand, and China, but today the risk of TTX poisoning is spreading around the world. Recent studies have shown that TTX-containing fish are being found in other regions of the Pacific and in the Indian Ocean, as well as the Mediterranean Sea. This review aims to summarize pertinent information available to date on the structure, origin, distribution, mechanism of action of TTX and analytical methods used for the detection of TTX, as well as on TTX-containing organisms, symptoms of TTX poisoning, and incidence worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiota Katikou
- Ministry of Rural Development and Food, Directorate of Research, Innovation and Education, Hapsa & Karatasou 1, 54626 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Correspondence: (P.K.); (F.O.)
| | - Cengiz Gokbulut
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Balikesir University, Balikesir 10145, Turkey;
| | - Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey;
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain;
| | - Fatih Ozogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey;
- Correspondence: (P.K.); (F.O.)
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21
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Christidis G, Mandalakis M, Anastasiou TI, Tserpes G, Peristeraki P, Somarakis S. Keeping Lagocephalus sceleratus off the Table: Sources of Variation in the Quantity of TTX, TTX Analogues, and Risk of Tetrodotoxication. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13120896. [PMID: 34941733 PMCID: PMC8706384 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The invasion of the tetrodotoxin (TTX)-bearing silver-cheeked toadfish and potential poisoning due to its consumption (tetrodotoxication) threatens public safety in the Mediterranean Sea. In this study, TTX and TTX analogues of Lagocephalus sceleratus (Gmelin, 1789) were measured using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in fish collected off the island of Crete (Southern Mediterranean). We tested the synergistic effect of a suite of factors potentially affecting toxins' levels and tetrodotoxication risk using general and generalized linear models, respectively. The type of tissue, geographic origin (Cretan Sea, Libyan Sea), sex, and fish maturity stage were significant predictors of toxin concentrations. Mean TTX was higher in gonads and lower in muscles, higher in the Libyan Sea and in female fish, and lower in juvenile (virgin) fish. The concentration of TTX was also significantly and positively correlated with the concentration of several TTX analogues (4-epiTTX, 4,9-anhydroTTX, 11-deoxyTTX, 5,11/6,11-dideoxyTTX, 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX, 11-norTTX-6-ol). The analysis showed that fish originating from the Libyan Sea had significantly higher probability to cause tetrodotoxication in case of consumption. The variability explained by the models developed in this study was relatively low, indicating that toxin levels are hard to predict and the consumption of L. sceleratus should therefore be avoided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgios Christidis
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), 71500 Heraklion, Greece; (G.T.); (P.P.); (S.S.)
- Biology Department, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece
- Correspondence: (G.C.); (M.M.)
| | - Manolis Mandalakis
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Center of Marine Research (HCMR), 71500 Heraklion, Greece;
- Correspondence: (G.C.); (M.M.)
| | - Thekla I. Anastasiou
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Center of Marine Research (HCMR), 71500 Heraklion, Greece;
| | - George Tserpes
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), 71500 Heraklion, Greece; (G.T.); (P.P.); (S.S.)
| | - Panagiota Peristeraki
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), 71500 Heraklion, Greece; (G.T.); (P.P.); (S.S.)
| | - Stylianos Somarakis
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), 71500 Heraklion, Greece; (G.T.); (P.P.); (S.S.)
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22
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Shkembi X, Skouridou V, Svobodova M, Leonardo S, Bashammakh AS, Alyoubi AO, Campàs M, O Sullivan CK. Hybrid Antibody-Aptamer Assay for Detection of Tetrodotoxin in Pufferfish. Anal Chem 2021; 93:14810-14819. [PMID: 34697940 PMCID: PMC8581965 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c03671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
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The marine toxin
tetrodotoxin (TTX) poses a great risk to public
health safety due to its severe paralytic effects after ingestion.
Seafood poisoning caused by the consumption of contaminated marine
species like pufferfish due to its expansion to nonendemic areas has
increased the need for fast and reliable detection of the toxin to
effectively implement prevention strategies. Liquid chromatography-mass
spectrometry is considered the most accurate method, although competitive
immunoassays have also been reported. In this work, we sought to develop
an aptamer-based assay for the rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective
detection of TTX in pufferfish. Using capture-SELEX combined with
next-generation sequencing, aptamers were identified, and their binding
properties were evaluated. Finally, a highly sensitive and user-friendly
hybrid antibody–aptamer sandwich assay was developed with superior
performance compared to several assays reported in the literature
and commercial immunoassay kits. The assay was successfully applied
to the quantification of TTX in pufferfish extracts, and the results
obtained correlated very well with a competitive magnetic bead-based
immunoassay performed in parallel for comparison. This is one of the
very few works reported in the literature of such hybrid assays for
small-molecule analytes whose compatibility with field samples is
also demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xhensila Shkembi
- Interfibio, Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Avinguda Paisos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Vasso Skouridou
- Interfibio, Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Avinguda Paisos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Marketa Svobodova
- Interfibio, Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Avinguda Paisos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Sandra Leonardo
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain
| | - Abdulaziz S Bashammakh
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, 21589 Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulrahman O Alyoubi
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, 21589 Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain
| | - Ciara K O Sullivan
- Interfibio, Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Avinguda Paisos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain.,Institució Catalana de Recerca I Estudis Avancats (ICREA), Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
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Li J, Zhang X, Ye Y, Li X, Gu Y, Yun L. Awareness on tetrodotoxin of illegal activity: forensic issue from a rare homicide case report and literature review. J Forensic Leg Med 2021; 79:102152. [PMID: 33765596 DOI: 10.1016/j.jflm.2021.102152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The authors describe an extremely rare case of homicide by injecting tetrodotoxin (TTX) as lethal neurotoxin found in puffer fish. After a thorough investigation, the male victim was found to have a broken stalk from syringe needle in the subcutaneous tissue of left buttock and severe asphyxia confirmed by the main pathological findings at autopsy. During tortuous toxicological analysis,TTX was revealed by ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) as well as acute intoxication confirmed from forensic examination. The literature of qualitative and quantitative determination of TTX from human fluids was also reviewed to expect widely acceptable detection strategies. This case highlighted the importance of TTX toxicant with chemical formula name purchased through e-commerce,so as to improve particular emphasis and supervision on harmful substances possibly using hidden information or illegal means. Histopathological and toxicological results demonstrated here provided a reference and other useful information to the challenges of forensic casework. In general, the case report illustrates medico-legal issues of more attention to the possibility of TTX poisoning in rapid death and the need of routine postmortem tox screening in future practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juntao Li
- Department of Forensic Pathology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Xiangyu Zhang
- Public Security Sub-Bureau of Tianfu New Area, Chengdu, 610000, Sichuan, China
| | - Yi Ye
- Department of Forensic Toxicological Analysis, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Xuewen Li
- Public Security Sub-Bureau of Tianfu New Area, Chengdu, 610000, Sichuan, China
| | - Yan Gu
- Department of Forensic Pathology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Libing Yun
- Department of Forensic Pathology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China.
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24
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Kosker AR, Regenstein JM, Özogul F. Proximate composition and fatty acid profiles of common pufferfish species in the Mediterranean Sea. Int J Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.14732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology Faculty of Fisheries Çukurova University Adana 01330 Turkey
| | - Joe M. Regenstein
- Department of Food Science Cornell University Ithaca NY 14853‐7201 USA
| | - Fatih Özogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology Faculty of Fisheries Çukurova University Adana 01330 Turkey
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25
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Law WY, Asaruddin MR, Bhawani SA, Mohamad S. Pharmacophore modelling of vanillin derivatives, favipiravir, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, monolaurin and tetrodotoxin as M Pro inhibitors of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). BMC Res Notes 2020; 13:527. [PMID: 33176880 PMCID: PMC7656897 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-020-05379-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to use Ligand-based pharmacophore modelling approach for four established antiviral drugs, namely remdesivir, lopinavir, ritonavir and hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19 inhibitors as training sets. In this study Twenty vanillin derivatives together with monolaurin and tetrodotoxin were used as test sets to evaluate as potential SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors. The Structure-based pharmacophore modelling approach was also performed using 5RE6, 5REX and 5RFZ in order to analyse the binding site and ligand-protein complex interactions. RESULTS The pharmacophore modelling mode of 5RE6 displayed two Hydrogen Bond Acceptors (HBA) and one Hydrophobic (HY) interaction. Besides, the pharmacophore model of 5REX showed two HBA and two HY interactions. Finally, the pharmacophore model of 5RFZ showed three HBA and one HY interaction. Based on ligand-based approach, 20 Schiff-based vanillin derivatives, showed strong MPro inhibition activity. This was due to their good alignment and common features to PDB-5RE6. Similarly, monolaurin and tetrodotoxin displayed some significant activity against SARS-CoV-2. From structure-based approach, vanillin derivatives (1) to (12) displayed some potent MPro inhibition against SARS-CoV-2. Favipiravir, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine also showed some significant MPro inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woon Yi Law
- Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.
| | - Mohd Razip Asaruddin
- Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.
| | - Showkat Ahamd Bhawani
- Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Samsur Mohamad
- Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
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26
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Brown TW, Lacqua AJ, Maryon DF, Sansur AD. Caribbean Sharp-nosed Pufferfish (Tetraodontidae: Canthigaster rostrata) Tetrodotoxin Poisoning in Two Dogs in Honduras. CARIBB J SCI 2020. [DOI: 10.18475/cjos.v50i2.a3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tom W. Brown
- Kanahau Utila Research & Conservation Facility, Isla de Utila, Islas de la Bahía, Honduras
| | - Andrew J. Lacqua
- Animal Awareness Abroad Foundation Incorporated, Staten Island, New York, U.S.A
| | - Daisy F. Maryon
- Kanahau Utila Research & Conservation Facility, Isla de Utila, Islas de la Bahía, Honduras
| | - Ana D. Sansur
- Kanahau Utila Research & Conservation Facility, Isla de Utila, Islas de la Bahía, Honduras
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27
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Boente-Juncal A, Otero P, Rodríguez I, Camiña M, Rodriguez-Vieytes M, Vale C, Botana LM. Oral Chronic Toxicity of the Safe Tetrodotoxin Dose Proposed by the European Food Safety Authority and Its Additive Effect with Saxitoxin. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E312. [PMID: 32397553 PMCID: PMC7291010 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent natural toxin causative of human food intoxications that shares its mechanism of action with the paralytic shellfish toxin saxitoxin (STX). Both toxins act as potent blockers of voltage-gated sodium channels. Although human intoxications by TTX were initially described in Japan, nowadays increasing concern about the regulation of this toxin in Europe has emerged due to its detection in fish and mollusks captured in European waters. Currently, TTX is only regularly monitored in Dutch fishery products. However, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has established a safety level of 44 µg/kg TTX as the amount of toxin that did not cause adverse effects in humans. This level was extrapolated considering initial data on its acute oral toxicity and EFSA remarked the need for chronic toxicity studies to further reduce the uncertainty of future toxin regulations. Thus, in this work, we evaluated the oral chronic toxicity of TTX using the safety levels initially recommended by EFSA in order to exclude potential human health risks associated with the worldwide expanding presence of TTX. Using internationally recommended guidelines for the assessment of oral chronic toxicity, the data provided here support the proposed safety level for TTX as low enough to prevent human adverse effects of TTX even after chronic daily exposure to the toxin. However, the combination of TTX with STX at doses above the maximal exposure level of 5.3 µg/kg body weight derived by EFSA increased the lethality of TTX, thus confirming that both TTX and paralytic shellfish toxins should be taken into account to assess human health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Boente-Juncal
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Farmacia e Tecnoloxía Farmacéutica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (A.B.-J.); (P.O.)
| | - Paz Otero
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Farmacia e Tecnoloxía Farmacéutica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (A.B.-J.); (P.O.)
| | - Inés Rodríguez
- Laboratorios Cifga, Benigno Rivera, 56, 27003 Lugo, Spain;
| | - Mercedes Camiña
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (M.C.); (M.R.-V.)
| | - Mercedes Rodriguez-Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (M.C.); (M.R.-V.)
| | - Carmen Vale
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Farmacia e Tecnoloxía Farmacéutica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (A.B.-J.); (P.O.)
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Farmacia e Tecnoloxía Farmacéutica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (A.B.-J.); (P.O.)
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28
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Lehel J, Yaucat-Guendi R, Darnay L, Palotás P, Laczay P. Possible food safety hazards of ready-to-eat raw fish containing product (sushi, sashimi). Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2020; 61:867-888. [PMID: 32270692 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1749024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
It is undeniable that with the popularity of sushi and sashimi over the last decade the consumption of raw fish has extremely increased. Raw fish is very appreciated worldwide and has become a major component of human diet because of its fine taste and nutritional properties. Possible hazards concerning fish safety and quality are classified as biological and chemical hazards. They are contaminants that often accumulate in edible tissue of fish and transmit to humans via the food chain affecting the consumer's health. Although their concentration in fish and fishery products are found at non-alarming level of a daily basis period, they induce hazardous outcome on human health due to long and continuous consumption of raw fish. Regular sushi and sashimi eaters have to be aware of the contaminants found in the other components of their dish that often add up to acceptable residue limits found in fish. Hence, there is the urge for effective analytical methods to be developed as well as stricter regulations to be put in force between countries to monitor the safety and quality of fish for the interest of public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- József Lehel
- Department of Food Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - Lívia Darnay
- Department of Food Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - Péter Laczay
- Department of Food Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
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29
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Determination of tetrodotoxin (TTX) levels in various tissues of the silver cheeked puffer fish (Lagocephalus sceleratus (Gmelin, 1789)) in Northern Cyprus Sea (Eastern Mediterranean). Toxicon 2020; 175:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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30
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Biessy L, Boundy MJ, Smith KF, Harwood DT, Hawes I, Wood SA. Tetrodotoxin in marine bivalves and edible gastropods: A mini-review. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 236:124404. [PMID: 31545201 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Revised: 07/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin responsible for countless human intoxications and deaths around the world. The distribution of TTX and its analogues is diverse and the toxin has been detected in organisms from both marine and terrestrial environments. Increasing detections seafood species, such as bivalves and gastropods, has drawn attention to the toxin, reinvigorating scientific interest and regulatory concerns. There have been reports of TTX in 21 species of bivalves and edible gastropods from ten countries since the 1980's. While TTX is structurally dissimilar to saxitoxin (STX), another neurotoxin detected in seafood, it has similar sodium channel blocking action and potency and both neurotoxins have been shown to have additive toxicities. The global regulatory level for the STX group toxins applied to shellfish is 800 μg/kg. The presence of TTX in shellfish is only regulated in one country; The Netherlands, with a regulatory level of 44 μg/kg. Due to the recent interest surrounding TTX in bivalves, the European Food Safety Authority established a panel to assess the risk and regulation of TTX in bivalves, and their final opinion was that a concentration below 44 μg of TTX per kg of shellfish would not result in adverse human effects. In this article, we review current knowledge on worldwide TTX levels in edible gastropods and bivalves over the last four decades, the different methods of detection used, and the current regulatory status. We suggest research needs that will assist with knowledge gaps and ultimately allow development of robust monitoring and management protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Biessy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand.
| | | | - Kirsty F Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand.
| | - Ian Hawes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand.
| | - Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
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31
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Madejska A, Michalski M, Osek J. Marine Tetrodotoxin as a Risk for Human Health. J Vet Res 2019; 63:579-586. [PMID: 31934670 PMCID: PMC6950440 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2019-0060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a toxin mainly occurring naturally in contaminated puffer fish, which are a culinary delicacy in Japan. It is also detected in various marine organisms like globefish, starfish, sunfish, stars, frogs, crabs, snails, Australian blue-ringed octopuses, and bivalve molluscs. TTX is produced by marine bacteria that are consumed mainly by fish of the Tetraodontidae family and other aquatic animals. TTX poisoning through consuming marine snails has recently begun to occur over a wider geographical extent through Taiwan, China, and Europe. This neurotoxin causes food intoxication and poses an acute risk to public health. The aim of this review is to present the most recent information about TTX and its analogues with particular regard to toxicity, methods of analysis, and risk to humans of exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Madejska
- Department of Hygiene of Food of Animal Origin National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
| | - Mirosław Michalski
- Department of Hygiene of Food of Animal Origin National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
| | - Jacek Osek
- Department of Hygiene of Food of Animal Origin National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
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32
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Asakawa M, Matsumoto T, Umezaki K, Kaneko K, Yu X, Gomez-Delan G, Tomano S, Noguchi T, Ohtsuka S. Toxicity and Toxin Composition of the Greater Blue-Ringed Octopus Hapalochlaena lunulata from Ishigaki Island, Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11050245. [PMID: 31035711 PMCID: PMC6563023 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The toxicity of the greater blue-ringed octopus Hapalochlaena lunulata, whose bite is fatal to humans, was examined to better understand and prevent deaths from accidental bites. Living specimens were collected from tide pools on Ishigaki Island, Okinawa Prefecture, Japan, in November and December of 2015, 2016, and 2017. The specimens were examined for the anatomical distribution of the toxicity, which was expressed in terms of mouse units (MU), by the standard bioassay method for tetrodotoxin (TTX) in Japan. Paralytic toxicity to mice was detected in all of the soft parts. The posterior salivary glands exhibited the highest toxicity score with a maximum level of 9276 MU/g, which was classified as "strongly toxic" (more than 1000 MU/g tissue) according to the classification of toxicity established by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare of Japan, followed by the hepatopancreas (21.1 to 734.3 MU/g), gonads (not detectable to 167.6 MU/g), arms (5.3 to 130.2 MU/g), and other body areas (17.3 to 107.4 MU/g). Next, the toxin from the salivary glands was partially purified by a Sep-Pak C18 cartridge and an Amicon Ultra Centrifugal Filter with a 3000-Da cut-off, and analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) equipped with a φ2.0 × 150-mm (5 μm) TSKgel Amide-80 column (Tosoh, Tokyo, Japan) with a mixture of 16 mM ammonium formate buffer (pH 5.5) and acetonitrile (ratio 3:7, v/v) as a mobile phase. This study aimed to clarify the toxicity and the composition of TTX and its derivatives in this toxic octopus. The main toxin in this toxic octopus was identified as TTX, along with 4-epi TTX, 4, 9-anhydroTTX and 6-epi TTX. Further, the toxicity of this species is also significant from a food hygiene point of view.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manabu Asakawa
- Laboratory of Marine Bioresource Chemistry, Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8528, Japan.
| | - Takuya Matsumoto
- Faculty of Human Culture and Science, Prefectural University of Hiroshima, Hiroshima 734-8558, Japan.
| | - Kohei Umezaki
- Laboratory of Marine Bioresource Chemistry, Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8528, Japan.
| | - Kyoichiro Kaneko
- Laboratory of Marine Bioresource Chemistry, Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8528, Japan.
| | - Ximiao Yu
- Laboratory of Marine Bioresource Chemistry, Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8528, Japan.
| | - Gloria Gomez-Delan
- Department of Fisheries, Cebu Technological University-Carmen Campus, 6005 Cebu, Philippines.
| | - Satoshi Tomano
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, CA, USA.
| | - Tamao Noguchi
- Faculty of Healthcare, Tokyo Health Care University, Tokyo 154-8568, Japan.
| | - Susumu Ohtsuka
- Takehara Station, Setouchi Field Science Center, Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, Takehara City, Hiroshima 725-0024, Japan.
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33
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Kosker AR, Özogul F, Ayas D, Durmus M, Ucar Y, Regenstein JM, Özogul Y. Tetrodotoxin levels of three pufferfish species (Lagocephalus sp.) caught in the North-Eastern Mediterranean sea. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 219:95-99. [PMID: 30529858 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) levels in Lagocephalus sceleratus (Silverstripe blaasop), Lagocephalus spadiceus (Half-smooth golden pufferfish) and Lagocephalus suezensis (Suez puffer) caught in Mersin Bay in the Northeastern Mediterranean Sea were analysed using Q-TOF LC/MS. Pufferfish were caught using trawl fishing, longlining and fishing line from December 2015 to October 2016. The TTX changes in the gonads, livers, intestines, skins and muscle tissues were evaluated according to sex and season. TTX levels for L. sceleratus and L. suezensis for all tissues were in the range of 0.69-35.6 μg/g and 0.67-3.09 μg/g, respectively. The highest TTX levels were observed in the gonads of female L. sceleratus caught in the autumn, and in the skin of L. suezensis caught in the spring but no quantifiable levels of TTX were found for L. spadiceus. In conclusion, L. sceleratus and L. suezensis species caught in the North-Eastern Mediterranean are toxic, and their consumption is unsafe.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fatih Özogul
- Faculty of Fisheries, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey.
| | - Deniz Ayas
- Faculty of Fisheries, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Durmus
- Faculty of Fisheries, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Yılmaz Ucar
- Faculty of Fisheries, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey; Faculty of Marine Sciences, Ordu University, Ordu, Turkey
| | - Joe M Regenstein
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-7201, USA
| | - Yesim Özogul
- Faculty of Fisheries, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey
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Göransson U, Jacobsson E, Strand M, Andersson HS. The Toxins of Nemertean Worms. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E120. [PMID: 30781381 PMCID: PMC6410017 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Most ribbon worms (phylum: Nemertea) are found in marine environments, where they act as predators and scavengers. They are characterized by an eversible proboscis that isused to hunt for prey and thick mucus covering their skin. Both proboscis and epidermal mucus mediate toxicity to predators and preys. Research into the chemical nature of the substances that render toxicity has not been extensive, but it has nevertheless led to the identification of several compounds of potential medicinal use or for application in biotechnology. This review provides a complete account of the current status of research into nemertean toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulf Göransson
- Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Biomedical Centre, Uppsala University, 75123 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Erik Jacobsson
- Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Biomedical Centre, Uppsala University, 75123 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Malin Strand
- Swedish Species Information Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Håkan S Andersson
- Linnaeus University Centre for Biomaterials Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Linnaeus University, 39231 Kalmar, Sweden.
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35
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Daguer H, Hoff RB, Molognoni L, Kleemann CR, Felizardo LV. Outbreaks, toxicology, and analytical methods of marine toxins in seafood. Curr Opin Food Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2018.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Turner AD, Fenwick D, Powell A, Dhanji-Rapkova M, Ford C, Hatfield RG, Santos A, Martinez-Urtaza J, Bean TP, Baker-Austin C, Stebbing P. New Invasive Nemertean Species ( Cephalothrix Simula) in England with High Levels of Tetrodotoxin and a Microbiome Linked to Toxin Metabolism. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E452. [PMID: 30453540 PMCID: PMC6266807 DOI: 10.3390/md16110452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Revised: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The marine nemertean Cephalothrix simula originates from the Pacific Ocean but in recent years has been discovered in northern Europe. The species has been associated with high levels of the marine neurotoxin Tetrodotoxin, traditionally associated with Pufferfish Poisoning. This study reports the first discovery of two organisms of C. simula in the UK, showing the geographical extent of this species is wider than originally described. Species identification was initially conducted morphologically, with confirmation by Cox 1 DNA sequencing. 16S gene sequencing enabled the taxonomic assignment of the microbiome, showing the prevalence of a large number of bacterial genera previously associated with TTX production including Alteromonas, Vibrio and Pseudomonas. LC-MS/MS analysis of the nemertean tissue revealed the presence of multiple analogues of TTX, dominated by the parent TTX, with a total toxin concentration quantified at 54 µg TTX per g of tissue. Pseudomonas luteola isolated from C. simula, together with Vibrio alginolyticus from the native nemertean Tubulanus annulatus, were cultured at low temperature and both found to contain TTX. Overall, this paper confirms the high toxicity of a newly discovered invasive nemertean species with links to toxin-producing marine bacteria and the potential risk to human safety. Further work is required to assess the geographical extent and toxicity range of C. simula along the UK coast in order to properly gauge the potential impacts on the environment and human safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | | | - Andy Powell
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Charlotte Ford
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Robert G Hatfield
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Andres Santos
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
- Laboratory of Applied and Molecular Biology, Avenida Alemania 0458, 4810296 Temuco, Chile.
- Scientific and Technological Bioresource Nucleus (BIOREN), Universidad de La Frontera, Avenida Francisco Salazar 01145, 4811230 Temuco, Chile.
| | - Jaime Martinez-Urtaza
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Tim P Bean
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Craig Baker-Austin
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Paul Stebbing
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
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Finch SC, Boundy MJ, Harwood DT. The Acute Toxicity of Tetrodotoxin and Tetrodotoxin⁻Saxitoxin Mixtures to Mice by Various Routes of Administration. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E423. [PMID: 30360529 PMCID: PMC6266834 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin associated with human poisonings through the consumption of pufferfish. More recently, TTX has been identified in bivalve molluscs from diverse geographical environments, including Europe, and is therefore recognised as an emerging threat to food safety. A recent scientific opinion of the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain recognised the need for further data on the acute oral toxicity of TTX and suggested that, since saxitoxin (STX) and TTX had similar modes of action, it was possible that their toxicities were additive so could perhaps be combined to yield one health-based guideline value. The present study determined the toxicity of TTX by various routes of administration. The testing of three different mixtures of STX and TTX and comparing the experimentally determined values to those predicted on the basis of additive toxicity demonstrated that the toxicities of STX and TTX are additive. This illustrates that it is appropriate to treat TTX as a member of the paralytic shellfish group of toxins. Since the toxicity of TTX was found to be the same as STX by feeding, a molar toxicity equivalence factor of 1.0 for TTX can be applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C Finch
- AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
| | | | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
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McKerrall SJ, Sutherlin DP. Nav1.7 inhibitors for the treatment of chronic pain. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2018; 28:3141-3149. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Giusti A, Ricci E, Guarducci M, Gasperetti L, Davidovich N, Guidi A, Armani A. Emerging risks in the European seafood chain: Molecular identification of toxic Lagocephalus spp. in fresh and processed products. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Xiong X, Yao L, Ying X, Lu L, Guardone L, Armani A, Guidi A, Xiong X. Multiple fish species identified from China's roasted Xue Yu fillet products using DNA and mini-DNA barcoding: Implications on human health and marine sustainability. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.12.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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First report on TTX levels of the yellow spotted pufferfish (Torquigener flavimaculosus) in the Mediterranean Sea. Toxicon 2018; 148:101-106. [PMID: 29698756 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The differences of tetrodotoxin (TTX) levels in various parts of pufferfish (Torquigener flavimaculosus) were examined in conjunction with the seasonal and sexual variations. The TTX levels in gonads, liver, intestines, skin and muscle tissue were determined using the Q-TOF LC/MS. Instrumental analysis revealed that all examined tissues from T. flavimaculosus contained high TTX concentrations. TTX levels in the gonads, liver, intestines, skin and muscle tissue of pufferfish were within the range of 5.03-100.71, 7.04-106.80, 12.59-86.30, 33.95-139.88 and 15.88-86.07 (μg/g), respectively. It was determined that in all seasons, except for summer, female individuals had higher TTX levels than males. Among all seasons, the highest level of TTX was found in winter and the lowest in autumn. Consequently, T. flavimaculosus is a highly toxic pufferfish that is dangerous for human consumption and should not be consumed under any circumstances.
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Species identification of fish maw (Porcupinefish) products sold on the market using DNA sequencing of 16S rRNA and COI genes. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Brown AC. Kidney toxicity related to herbs and dietary supplements: Online table of case reports. Part 3 of 5 series. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 107:502-519. [PMID: 28755953 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2016.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND No tabular summary of potentially life-threatening, kidney-toxic dietary supplements (DS; includes herbs) based on PubMed case reports is currently available online and continually updated to forewarn United States consumers, clinicians, and companies manufacturing DS. The purpose of this review was to create an online research summary table of kidney toxicity case reports related to DS. METHODS Documented PubMed case reports (1966 to May 2016, and cross-referencing) of DS appearing to contribute to kidney toxicity were listed in "DS Toxic Tables." Keywords included "herb" or "dietary supplement" combined with "kidney" to generate an overview list, and possibly "toxicity" to narrow the selection. Case reports were excluded if they involved herb combinations (some exceptions), Chinese herb mixtures, teas of mixed herb contents, mushrooms, poisonous plants, self-harm, excessive doses (except vitamins/minerals), legal or illegal drugs, drug-herbal interactions, and confounders of drugs or diseases. Since commercial DS often include a combination of ingredients, they were treated separately; so were foods. A few foods with kidney-toxic effects were listed in a fourth table. The spectrum of herbal or DS-induced kidney injuries included kidney stones, nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, necrosis, acute kidney injury (AKI; previously known as acute renal failure [ARF]), chronic kidney disease, kidney transplant, and death. RESULTS Approximately 7 herbs (minus 4 no longer for sale) and 10 dietary supplements (minus 3 excluded due to excessive doses + germanium that is no longer sold) have been related to kidney injury case reports published in PubMed (+crosslisting) in the last 50 + years (1966 to May 2016). The implicated herbs include Chinese yew (Taxus celbica) extract, impila (Callilepis laureola), morning cypress (Cupressus funebris Endl), St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), thundergod vine (Tripterygium wilfordii hook F), tribulus (Tribulus terrestris) and wormwood (Artemisia herba-alba). No longer sold in the United States are chocolate vine or mu tong (Caulis aristolochiae), guang fang ji (Aristolochia fangchi), ma huang (Ephedra sinica), and Tenshin Tokishigyaku-ka-goshuyu-shokyo-to. The DS include bile (sheep), chlorella, chromium (Cr), CKLS, creatine, gallbladder (fish), glucosamine, hydrazine, N.O.-Xplode, Spanish fly, and excess intakes of vitamins A, C, and D. Germanium (Ge) is not available for sale. The top two DS with the largest number of reported publications, but not always case reports, in descending order, were the aristolochic acid-containing herbs guang fang ji (mistaken identity) and chocolate vine or mu tong. The remaining DS featured one to three publications over a 50+ year period. Numerous case reports were reported for kidney-toxic foods: djenkol bean, gallbladders (carp fish, pufferfish, & snake), and star fruit (only in chronic kidney disease patients), and uncooked yam powder or juice. CONCLUSION This online "DS Toxic Table" provides clinicians, consumers, and manufacturers with a list of herbs that could potentially contribute to kidney injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Christine Brown
- Department of Complementary and Alternative Medicine, John A. Burns School of Medicine, 651 Ilalo Street, MEB 223, Honolulu, HI, USA; University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA.
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Urinary Excretion of Tetrodotoxin Modeled in a Porcine Renal Proximal Tubule Epithelial Cell Line, LLC-PK₁. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:md15070225. [PMID: 28714912 PMCID: PMC5532667 DOI: 10.3390/md15070225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the urinary excretion of tetrodotoxin (TTX) modeled in a porcine renal proximal tubule epithelial cell line, LLC-PK₁. Time course profiles of TTX excretion and reabsorption across the cell monolayers at 37 °C showed that the amount of TTX transported increased linearly for 60 min. However, at 4 °C, the amount of TTX transported was approximately 20% of the value at 37 °C. These results indicate that TTX transport is both a transcellular and carrier-mediated process. Using a transport inhibition assay in which cell monolayers were incubated with 50 µM TTX and 5 mM of a transport inhibitor at 37 °C for 30 min, urinary excretion was significantly reduced by probenecid, tetraethylammonium (TEA), l-carnitine, and cimetidine, slightly reduced by p-aminohippuric acid (PAH), and unaffected by 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), oxaliplatin, and cefalexin. Renal reabsorption was significantly reduced by PAH, but was unaffected by probenecid, TEA and l-carnitine. These findings indicate that TTX is primarily excreted by organic cation transporters (OCTs) and organic cation/carnitine transporters (OCTNs), partially transported by organic anion transporters (OATs) and multidrug resistance-associated proteins (MRPs), and negligibly transported by multidrug and toxic compound extrusion transporters (MATEs).
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Arnich N, Benford D, Botana L, Viviani B, Arcella D, Binaglia M, Horvath Z, Steinkellner H, van Manen M, Petersen A. Risks for public health related to the presence of tetrodotoxin (TTX) and TTX analogues in marine bivalves and gastropods. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04752. [PMID: 32625458 PMCID: PMC7010203 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and its analogues are produced by marine bacteria and have been detected in marine bivalves and gastropods from European waters. The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of TTX and TTX analogues in marine bivalves and gastropods. The Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain reviewed the available literature but did not find support for the minimum lethal dose for humans of 2 mg, mentioned in various reviews. Some human case reports describe serious effects at a dose of 0.2 mg, corresponding to 4 μg/kg body weight (bw). However, the uncertainties on the actual exposure in the studies preclude their use for derivation of an acute reference dose (ARfD). Instead, a group ARfD of 0.25 μg/kg bw, applying to TTX and its analogues, was derived based on a TTX dose of 25 μg/kg bw at which no apathy was observed in an acute oral study with mice, applying a standard uncertainty factor of 100. Estimated relative potencies for analogues are lower than that of TTX but are associated with a high degree of uncertainty. Based on the occurrence data submitted to EFSA and reported consumption days only, average and P95 exposures of 0.00-0.09 and 0.00-0.03 μg/kg bw, respectively, were calculated. Using a large portion size of 400 g bivalves and P95 occurrence levels of TTX, with exception of oysters, the exposure was below the group ARfD in all consumer groups. A concentration below 44 μg TTX equivalents/kg shellfish meat, based on a large portion size of 400 g, was considered not to result in adverse effects in humans. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS) methods are the most suitable for identification and quantification of TTX and its analogues, with LOQs between 1 and 25 μg/kg.
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Acute Oral Toxicity of Tetrodotoxin in Mice: Determination of Lethal Dose 50 (LD50) and No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL). Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9030075. [PMID: 28245573 PMCID: PMC5371830 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9030075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is starting to appear in molluscs from the European waters and is a hazard to seafood consumers. This toxin blocks sodium channels resulting in neuromuscular paralysis and even death. As a part of the risk assessment process leading to a safe seafood level for TTX, oral toxicity data are required. In this study, a 4-level Up and Down Procedure was designed in order to determine for the first time the oral lethal dose 50 (LD50) and the No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) in mice by using an accurate well-characterized TTX standard.
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Tanis D, Vareltzis P, Nikolaides G, Minos G, Kokokiris L, Rigas PG. Evaluation of Helically Coiled and Knitted Open Tubular Reactors for the Efficient Post-Column Determination of Tetrodotoxin by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography. ANAL LETT 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2016.1177068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dimitris Tanis
- Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Technology, Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, Nea Moudania, Greece
| | - Patroklos Vareltzis
- Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Technology, Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, Nea Moudania, Greece
| | - George Nikolaides
- Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Technology, Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, Nea Moudania, Greece
| | - George Minos
- Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Technology, Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, Nea Moudania, Greece
| | - Lambros Kokokiris
- Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Technology, Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, Nea Moudania, Greece
| | - Pantelis G. Rigas
- Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Technology, Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, Nea Moudania, Greece
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Kosker AR, Özogul F, Durmus M, Ucar Y, Ayas D, Regenstein JM, Özogul Y. Tetrodotoxin levels in pufferfish (Lagocephalus sceleratus) caught in the Northeastern Mediterranean Sea. Food Chem 2016; 210:332-7. [PMID: 27211655 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.04.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2016] [Revised: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The toxicity of tetrodotoxin (TTX) in pufferfish (Lagocephalus sceleratus) from Mersin Bay in the Northeastern Mediterranean Sea was measured using a mouse bioassay (MBA) and LC-MS-MS. Pufferfish were caught by trawl fishing, longlining and fishing line from December 2012 to October 2013. Changes in the levels of TTX in the gonads, livers, intestines, skins and muscles as a function of season and sex were determined. The gonads of female fish were toxic in all seasons (>2μg/g), whereas the gonads of male fish were only toxic in the spring and autumn. The highest TTX levels in gonads, livers, intestines and skins of female fish were 52.1, 46.2, 7.64 and 3.43μg/g, respectively, using LC-MS-MS. The TTX level in the muscle of female fish in winter was 2.83μg/g but was otherwise below the toxic limit. Consequently, it can be dangerous to consume pufferfish, including the edible muscle, from the Eastern Mediterranean Sea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Fatih Özogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey.
| | - Mustafa Durmus
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Yılmaz Ucar
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Deniz Ayas
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Joe M Regenstein
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-7201, USA
| | - Yesim Özogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
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Chen TY, Hsieh CH, Hwang DF. Development of standardized methodology for identifying toxins in clinical samples and fish species associated with tetrodotoxin-borne poisoning incidents. J Food Drug Anal 2016; 24:9-14. [PMID: 28911413 PMCID: PMC9345434 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfda.2015.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a naturally occurring toxin in food, especially in puffer fish. TTX poisoning is observed frequently in South East Asian regions. In TTX-derived food poisoning outbreaks, the amount of TTX recovered from suspicious fish samples or leftovers, and residual levels from biological fluids of victims are typically trace. However, liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry methods have been demonstrated to qualitatively and quantitatively determine TTX in clinical samples from victims. Identification and validation of the TTX-originating seafood species responsible for a food poisoning incident is needed. A polymerase chain reaction-based method on mitochondrial DNA analysis is useful for identification of fish species. This review aims to collect pertinent information available on TTX-borne food poisoning incidents with a special emphasis on the analytical methods employed for TTX detection in clinical laboratories as well as for the identification of TTX-bearing species.
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