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Kim JH, Jeong EH, Jeon YH, Kim SK, Hur YB. Salinity-mediated changes in hematological parameters, stress, antioxidant responses, and acetylcholinesterase of juvenile olive flounders (Paralichthys olivaceus). ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2021; 83:103597. [PMID: 33493675 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2021.103597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to confirm the limit of salinity tolerance in juvenile olive flounders (Paralichthys olivaceus) by changes in blood parameters, AChE, antioxidant and stress responses. The P. olivaceus (mean weight 38.8 ± 4.2 g and mean length 16.4 ± 1.2 cm) were exposed to different concentrations of salinity (seawater, 16, 8, 4, 2, and 0 psu) for 2 weeks. Plasma osmotic pressure was significantly decreased in the P. olivaceus at 0 psu. Hematological parameters such as hematocrit and hemoglobin were significantly decreased in the P. olivaceus at low salinity. Plasma components also changed significantly in the low salinity environment. As a stress indicator, cortisol was significantly increased at low salinity. SOD and GST antioxidant responses, were significantly increased. GSH level in the liver was significantly increased, whereas a significant decrease was observed in the gill GSH level. AChE was significantly increased in P. olivaceus at low salinity. The results of this study indicate that exposure to salinities lower than 8 psu leads to changes in hematological parameters, neurotransmitter, antioxidant and stress responses of P. olivaceus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Hwan Kim
- National Institute of Fisheries Science, West Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research & Development, Taean 32132, Republic of Korea; Department of Aquatic Life and Medical Science, Sun Moon University, Asan 31460, Republic of Korea.
| | - Eun-Ha Jeong
- National Institute of Fisheries Science, West Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research & Development, Taean 32132, Republic of Korea
| | - Yu-Hyeon Jeon
- National Institute of Fisheries Science, West Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research & Development, Taean 32132, Republic of Korea
| | - Su Kyoung Kim
- National Institute of Fisheries Science, West Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research & Development, Taean 32132, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Baek Hur
- National Institute of Fisheries Science, West Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research & Development, Taean 32132, Republic of Korea
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Park IS, Gil HW, Oh JS. Changing Salinity Affects Hematological and Histological Response in Hybrids and Hybrid Triploids between River Puffer, Takifugu obscurus and Tiger Puffer, T. rubripes. Dev Reprod 2019; 23:239-253. [PMID: 31660451 PMCID: PMC6812970 DOI: 10.12717/dr.2019.23.3.239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Revised: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the physiological responses of the river puffer, Takifugu
obscurus, the tiger puffer, T. rubripes, a hybrids
of the two (river puffer×tiger puffer) and a hybrid triploids to acute
changes of salinity from 30 psu to 0 psu and from 0 psu to 30 psu. The blood and
plasma factors of each species were elevated for 48, 72, or 96 hrs, and
thereafter decreased due to hyper-osmoregulation and hypo-osmoregulation. In
hyper-osmoregulation and hypo-osmoregulation, the cortisol concentration of
river puffer, hybrids, hybrid triploids and tiger puffer increased for 12 or 48
hrs, and decreased thereafter. Chloride cells in the gill filaments of each
species increased with increasing salinity, and melano-macrophages in the kidney
tissue of each species increased with decreasing salinity. In conclusion, the
hematological and stress responses of the hybrids were between those of the
river puffer and tiger puffer, and the hematological responses of the hybrid
triploids were higher than those of the other groups. The stress response of the
hybrids was more sensitive than that of the hybrid triploids. In all groups, the
histological responses of kidney in hyper-osmoregulation were more sensitive
than those in hypo-osmoregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- In-Seok Park
- Division of Marine Bioscience, College of Ocean Science and Technology, Korea Maritime & Ocean University, Busan 49112, Korea.,Division of Marine Bioscience, College of Ocean Science and Technology, Korea Maritime & Ocean University, Busan 49112, Korea
| | - Hyun Woo Gil
- Division of Marine Bioscience, College of Ocean Science and Technology, Korea Maritime & Ocean University, Busan 49112, Korea
| | - Ji Su Oh
- National Agency for Marine Seed Improvement, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Busan 46083, Korea
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Bowden JA, Cantu TM, Chapman RW, Somerville SE, Guillette MP, Botha H, Hoffman A, Luus-Powell WJ, Smit WJ, Lebepe J, Myburgh J, Govender D, Tucker J, Boggs ASP, Guillette LJ. Predictive Blood Chemistry Parameters for Pansteatitis-Affected Mozambique Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153874. [PMID: 27115488 PMCID: PMC4846142 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the largest river systems in South Africa, the Olifants River, has experienced significant changes in water quality due to anthropogenic activities. Since 2005, there have been various “outbreaks” of the inflammatory disease pansteatitis in several vertebrate species. Large-scale pansteatitis-related mortality events have decimated the crocodile population at Lake Loskop and decreased the population at Kruger National Park. Most pansteatitis-related diagnoses within the region are conducted post-mortem by either gross pathology or histology. The application of a non-lethal approach to assess the prevalence and pervasiveness of pansteatitis in the Olifants River region would be of great importance for the development of a management plan for this disease. In this study, several plasma-based biomarkers accurately classified pansteatitis in Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) collected from Lake Loskop using a commercially available benchtop blood chemistry analyzer combined with data interpretation via artificial neural network analysis. According to the model, four blood chemistry parameters (calcium, sodium, total protein and albumin), in combination with total length, diagnose pansteatitis to a predictive accuracy of 92 percent. In addition, several morphometric traits (total length, age, weight) were also associated with pansteatitis. On-going research will focus on further evaluating the use of blood chemistry to classify pansteatitis across different species, trophic levels, and within different sites along the Olifants River.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A. Bowden
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Material Measurement Laboratory, Chemical Sciences Division, Environmental Chemical Sciences Group, Hollings Marine Laboratory, Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Theresa M. Cantu
- Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Robert W. Chapman
- Marine Resources Research Institute, South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, Hollings Marine Laboratory, Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Stephen E. Somerville
- Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Matthew P. Guillette
- Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Hannes Botha
- Scientific Services, Mpumalanga Tourism and Parks Agency, Nelspruit, South Africa
- Department of Biodiversity, University of Limpopo, Sovenga, South Africa
| | - Andre Hoffman
- Scientific Services, Mpumalanga Tourism and Parks Agency, Nelspruit, South Africa
| | | | - Willem J. Smit
- Department of Biodiversity, University of Limpopo, Sovenga, South Africa
| | - Jeffrey Lebepe
- Department of Biodiversity, University of Limpopo, Sovenga, South Africa
| | - Jan Myburgh
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
| | - Danny Govender
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
- Scientific Services, South African National Parks, Skukuza, South Africa
| | - Jonathan Tucker
- Marine Resources Research Institute, South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, Hollings Marine Laboratory, Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Ashley S. P. Boggs
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Material Measurement Laboratory, Chemical Sciences Division, Environmental Chemical Sciences Group, Hollings Marine Laboratory, Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Louis J. Guillette
- Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
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Sturrock AM, Hunter E, Milton JA, Trueman CN. Analysis methods and reference concentrations of 12 minor and trace elements in fish blood plasma. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2013; 27:273-85. [PMID: 23643248 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2013.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2012] [Revised: 02/03/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A comprehensive review of the analytical literature revealed substantial under-representation of trace element concentrations in fish blood, particularly for marine species. We describe a simple dilution procedure to measure Li, Mg, K, Ca, Mn, Cu, Zn, Se, Rb, Sr, Ba and Pb concentrations in low volumes of blood plasma of adult plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) using high resolution-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (HR-ICP-MS). Captive male and female plaice (n = 18) were serially sampled for one year and samples collected outside of the spawning season (n = 157) used to estimate reference ranges for this species. Method accuracy was deemed satisfactory, based on its application to the analysis of a certified reference material. Precision was generally <3%, with the most conservative measure of precision being ≤10% for all elements except Pb (∼20%). This is the first study to analyse fish blood plasma by ICP-MS and includes some of the first reference ranges for trace element concentrations in fish blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M Sturrock
- National Oceanography Centre Southampton, Waterfront Campus, University of Southampton, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK; Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Lowestoft Laboratory, Lowestoft, Suffolk NR33 0HT, UK.
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Prodocimo V, Galvez F, Freire CA, Wood CM. Unidirectional Na+ and Ca2+ fluxes in two euryhaline teleost fishes, Fundulus heteroclitus and Oncorhynchus mykiss, acutely submitted to a progressive salinity increase. J Comp Physiol B 2007; 177:519-28. [PMID: 17318607 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-007-0150-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2006] [Revised: 01/30/2007] [Accepted: 01/30/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Na(+) and Ca(2+) regulation were compared in two euryhaline species, killifish (normally estuarine-resident) and rainbow trout (normally freshwater-resident) during an incremental salinity increase. Whole-body unidirectional fluxes of Na(+) and Ca(2+), whole body Na(+) and Ca(2+), and plasma concentrations (trout only), were measured over 1-h periods throughout a total 6-h protocol of increasing salinity meant to simulate a natural tidal flow. Killifish exhibited significant increases in both Na(+) influx and efflux rates, with efflux slightly lagging behind efflux up to 60% SW, but net Na(+) balance was restored by the time killifish reached 100% SW. Whole body Na(+) did not change, in agreement with the capacity of this species to tolerate daily salinity fluctuations in its natural habitat. In contrast, rainbow trout experienced a dramatic increase in Na(+) influx (50-fold relative to FW values), but not Na(+) efflux between 40 and 60% SW, resulting in a large net loading of Na(+) at higher salinities (60-100% SW), and increases in plasma Na(+) and whole body Na(+) at 100% SW. Killifish were in negative Ca(2+) balance at all salinities, whereas trout were in positive Ca(2+) balance throughout. Ca(2+) influx rate increased two- to threefold in killifish at 80 and 100% SW, but there were no concomitant changes in Ca(2+) efflux. Ca(2+) flux rates were affected to a larger degree in trout, with twofold increases in Ca(2+) influx at 40% SW and sevenfold increases at 100% SW. Again, there was no change in Ca(2+) efflux with salinity, so plasma Ca(2+) concentration increased in 100% SW. As the killifish is regularly submitted to increased salinity in its natural environment, it is able to rapidly activate changes in unidirectional fluxes in order to ensure ionic homeostasis, in contrast to the trout.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane Prodocimo
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Setor de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Paraná 81531-990, Brazil.
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Wu SM, Ho YC, Shih MJ. Effects of Ca2+ or Na+ on metallothionein expression in tilapia larvae (Oreochromis mossambicus) exposed to cadmium or copper. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2007; 52:229-34. [PMID: 17165107 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-006-0112-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2006] [Accepted: 08/24/2006] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to try to determine the reasons of the external Ca(2+) and Na(+) enhancement of Cd(2+) and Cu(2+) resistance in fish. Tilapia larvae at 3 days posthatch were exposed to (A) 0 (control), 40 microg/L Cd(2+), 40 microg/L Cd(2+) + 2 mM Ca(2+) (Cd/hyper-Ca), and 2 mM Ca(2+) or (B) 0 (control), 75 microg/L Cu(2+), 75 microg/L Cu(2+) + 0.52 mM Na(+) (Cu/hyper-Na), and 0.52 mM Na(+). After 48 hours, results indicated that (1) Cd/hyper-Ca and Cu/hyper-Na treatments showed decreased growth inhibition induced by the metals; (2) metal accumulation in Cd/hyper-Ca-treated larvae was lower compared with those exposed only to Cd; and (3) metallothionein (MT) expression was significantly higher in Cu/hyper-Na-treated larvae than in the group treated with Cu only. Taking all of this into account, either supplementary Ca(2+) or Na(+) in ambient water may help fish to maintain Ca(2+) or Na(+) homeostasis, which could decrease metal accumulation and its detrimental effects. Consequently, the fish increase MT expression and retard the growth inhibition caused by metals.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Wu
- Department of Aquatic Biosciences, National Chiayi University, 300 University Road, Chiayi 600, Taiwan.
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Hirose S, Kaneko T, Naito N, Takei Y. Molecular biology of major components of chloride cells. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2004; 136:593-620. [PMID: 14662288 DOI: 10.1016/s1096-4959(03)00287-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Current understanding of chloride cells (CCs) is briefly reviewed with emphasis on molecular aspects of their channels, transporters and regulators. Seawater-type and freshwater-type CCs have been identified based on their shape, location and response to different ionic conditions. Among the freshwater-type CCs, subpopulations are emerging that are implicated in the uptake of Na(+), Cl(-) and Ca(2+), respectively, and can be distinguished by their shape of apical crypt and affinity for lectins. The major function of the seawater CC is transcellular secretion of Cl(-), which is accomplished by four major channels and transporters: (1). CFTR Cl(-) channel, (2). Na(+),K(+)-ATPase, (3). Na(+)/K(+)/2Cl(-) cotransporter and (4). a K(+) channel. The first three components have been cloned and characterized, but concerning the K(+) channel that is essential for the continued generation of the driving force by Na(+),K(+)-ATPase, only one candidate is identified. Although controversial, freshwater CCs seem to perform the uptake of Na(+), Cl(-) and Ca(2+) in a manner analogous to but slightly different from that seen in the absorptive epithelia of mammalian kidney and intestine since freshwater CCs face larger concentration gradients than ordinary epithelial cells. The components involved in these processes are beginning to be cloned, but their CC localization remains to be established definitively. The most important yet controversial issue is the mechanism of Na(+) uptake. Two models have been postulated: (i). the original one involves amiloride-sensitive electroneutral Na(+)/H(+) exchanger (NHE) with the driving force generated by Na(+),K(+)-ATPase and carbonic anhydrase (CA) and (ii). the current model suggests that Na(+) uptake occurs through an amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) electrogenically coupled to H(+)-ATPase. While fish ENaC remains to be identified by molecular cloning and database mining, fish NHE has been cloned and shown to be highly expressed on the apical membrane of CCs, reviving the original model. The CC is also involved in acid-base regulation. Analysis using Osorezan dace (Tribolodon hakonensis) living in a pH 3.5 lake demonstrated marked inductions of Na(+),K(+)-ATPase, CA-II, NHE3, Na(+)/HCO(3)(-) cotransporter-1 and aquaporin-3 in the CCs on acidification, leading to a working hypothesis for the mechanism of Na(+) retention and acid-base regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigehisa Hirose
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan.
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Guerreiro PM, Fuentes J, Flik G, Rotllant J, Power DM, Canario AVM. Water calcium concentration modifies whole-body calcium uptake in sea bream larvae during short-term adaptation to altered salinities. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 207:645-53. [PMID: 14718507 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.00765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Whole-body calcium uptake was studied in gilthead sea bream larvae (9-83 mg) in response to changing environmental salinity and [Ca2+]. Calcium uptake increased with increased fish size and salinity. Fish exposed to calcium-enriched, diluted seawater showed increased calcium uptake compared with fish in diluted seawater alone. Calcium uptake was unchanged in Na(+)-enriched, diluted seawater. Overall, [Ca2+], and not salinity/osmolarity per se, appears to be the main factor contributing to calcium uptake. By contrast, drinking was reduced by a decrease in salinity/osmolarity but was little affected by external [Ca2+]. Calculations of the maximum contribution from drinking-associated calcium uptake showed that it became almost insignificant (less than 10%) through a strong decrease in drinking rate at low salinities (0-8 per thousand ). Diluted seawater enriched in calcium to the concentration present in full-strength seawater (i.e. constant calcium, decreasing salinity) restored intestinal calcium uptake to normal. Extra-intestinal calcium uptake also benefited from calcium addition but to a lesser extent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro M Guerreiro
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
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Guerreiro PM, Fuentes J, Power DM, Ingleton PM, Flik G, Canario AV. Parathyroid hormone-related protein: a calcium regulatory factor in sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) larvae. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2001; 281:R855-60. [PMID: 11507001 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.2001.281.3.r855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The effects of an N-terminal peptide (amino acids 1-38) of Fugu parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP 1-38) on calcium regulation of larval sea bream were investigated in seawater (36 per thousand) and after transfer to dilute seawater (12 per thousand). Exposure to PTHrP 1-38 evoked a 1.5-fold increase in calcium influx in both full-strength and dilute seawater. Calcium influx in dilute seawater-adapted larvae was roughly one-half that observed in full-strength seawater controls. PTHrP 1-38 also reduced drinking of fish in seawater but, at all concentrations tested, was without effect in dilute seawater. The amount of water imbibed was 55% lower in dilute seawater than in seawater. PTHrP 1-38 exposure affected the calcium influx route: the main contribution of calcium uptake shifted from intestinal absorption to extraintestinal uptake, probably by the induction of a dose-dependent increase in branchial (active) transport. Moreover, seawater-adapted fish exposed to 1 nM and 10 mM PTHrP 1-38 experienced a 2.5-fold reduction in overall calcium efflux. Overall, the calciotropic action of PTHrP 1-38 resulted in a dose-dependent increase in net calcium balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Guerreiro
- Centre of Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8000-810 Faro, Portugal
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Piermarini PM, Evans DH. Effects of environmental salinity on Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase in the gills and rectal gland of a euryhaline elasmobranch (Dasyatis sabina). J Exp Biol 2000; 203:2957-66. [PMID: 10976032 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.203.19.2957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Changes in Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity and abundance associated with environmental salinity were investigated in the gills and rectal gland of the Atlantic stingray Dasyatis sabina. Using a ouabain-specific ATPase assay and western blotting, we found that stingrays from fresh water had the highest activity and highest relative abundance of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase in the gills. Using immunohistochemistry, we also found that gills from freshwater stingrays had the greatest number of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase-rich cells. When freshwater stingrays were acclimated to sea water for 1 week, the activity and abundance of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase and the number of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase-rich cells decreased in the gills. In seawater stingrays, the branchial activity and abundance of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase and the number of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase-rich cells were further reduced. In rectal glands, the activity and abundance of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase were lower in freshwater animals than in seawater-acclimated and seawater stingrays, both of which had equivalent levels. These findings suggest that salinity-associated changes in gill and rectal gland Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity are due to changes in the abundance of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase. We conclude that the gills may be important for active ion uptake in fresh water, while the rectal gland is important for active NaCl excretion in sea water. The results from this study are the first to demonstrate an effect of environmental salinity on Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase expression in the gills and rectal gland of an elasmobranch.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Piermarini
- Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
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