beta-Thymosins, small acidic peptides with multiple functions

In Vitro Study of Thymosin Beta 4 Promoting Transplanted Fat Survival by Regulating Adipose-Derived Stem Cells

BACKGROUND

Autologous fat grafting (AFG) has emerged as a highly sought-after plastic surgery procedure, although its success has been hampered by the uncertain fat survival rate. Current evidence suggests that adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) may contribute to fat retention in AFG. In previous studies, it was confirmed that thymosin beta 4 (Tβ4) could enhance fat survival in vivo, although the precise mechanism remains unclear.

METHODS

ADSCs were isolated from patients undergoing liposuction and their proliferation, apoptosis, anti-apoptosis, and migration were analyzed under Tβ4 stimulation using cell counting kit-8, flow cytometry, wound healing assay, and real-time quantitative PCR. The mRNA levels of genes relating to angiogenesis and Hippo signaling were also determined.

RESULTS

Tβ4 at 100 ng/mL (p-value = 0.0171) and 1000 ng/mL (p-value = 0.0054) significantly increased ADSC proliferation from day 1 compared to the control group (0 ng/mL). In addition, the mRNA levels of proliferation-associated genes were elevated in the Tβ4 group. Furthermore, Tβ4 enhanced the anti-apoptotic ability of ADSCs when stimulated with Tβ4 and an apoptotic induction reagent (0 ng/mL vs. 1000 ng/mL, p-value = 0.011). Crucially, the mRNA expression levels of angiogenesis-related genes and critical genes in the Hippo pathway were affected by Tβ4 in ADSCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Tβ4 enhances adipose viability in AFG via facilitating ADSC proliferation and reducing apoptosis, and acts as a crucial positive regulator of ADSC-associated angiogenesis. Additionally, Tβ4 could be accountable for the phenotypic adjustment of ADSCs by regulating the Hippo pathway.

NO LEVEL ASSIGNED

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Comparative transcriptomic analysis of bovine mesenchymal stromal cells reveals tissue-source and species-specific differences

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have the potential to be used as therapeutics, but their efficacy varies due to cellular heterogeneity, which is not fully understood. After characterizing donor-matched bovine MSC from adipose tissue (AT), bone marrow (BM), and peripheral blood (PB), we performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to evaluate overarching similarities and differences across these three tissue-derived MSCs. Next, the transcriptomic profiles of the bovine MSCs were compared to those of equine MSCs, derived from the same tissue sources and previously published by our group, and revealed species-specific differences. Finally, the transcriptomic profile from bovine BM-MSCs was compared to mouse and human BM-MSCs and demonstrated that bovine BM-MSCs share more common functionally relevant gene expression profiles with human BM-MSCs than compared to murine BM-MSCs. Collectively, this study presents the cow as a potential non-traditional animal model for translational MSC studies based on transcriptomic profiles similar to human MSCs.

Designing Composite Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels for Wound Healing Applications: The State-of-the-Art and Recent Discoveries

Effective wound treatment has become one of the most important challenges for healthcare as it continues to be one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Therefore, wound care technologies significantly evolved in order to provide a holistic approach based on various designs of functional wound dressings. Among them, hydrogels have been widely used for wound treatment due to their biocompatibility and similarity to the extracellular matrix. The hydrogel formula offers the control of an optimal wound moisture level due to its ability to absorb excess fluid from the wound or release moisture as needed. Additionally, hydrogels can be successfully integrated with a plethora of biologically active components (e.g., nanoparticles, pharmaceuticals, natural extracts, peptides), thus enhancing the performance of resulting composite hydrogels in wound healing applications. In this review, the-state-of-the-art discoveries related to stimuli-responsive hydrogel-based dressings have been summarized, taking into account their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and hemostatic properties, as well as other effects (e.g., re-epithelialization, vascularization, and restoration of the tissue) resulting from their use.

Thymosin beta-4 participate in antibacterial immunity and wound healing in black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon

Thymosin beta-4 (Tβ4) is a ubiquitous protein with multiple and diverse intracellular and extracellular functions in vertebrates, which play fundamental roles in innate immune against pathogens and wound healing. In this study, the full-length cDNA of Tβ4 was cloned from Penaeus monodon (designated as PmTβ4), using the technology of rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE). The cDNA of PmTβ4 was 1361 bp with an open reading frame (ORF) of 501 bp, which encoding a polypeptide of 166 amino acid. The Quantitative Real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis results showed that PmTβ4 was ubiquitously expressed in all the tested shrimp tissues, with the highest expression level was detected in the hemolymph, while the lowest expression level in the muscle. The expression level of PmTβ4 was significantly up-regulated in hepatopancreas after challenged by Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio harveyi and Staphylococcus aureus. In vitro antimicrobial test showed that the recombinant protein of PmTβ4 (rPmTβ4) had broad-spectrum of antimicrobial activity, which could inhibit both the growth of gram-negative bacteria and gram-positive bacteria, including Vibrio vulnificus, V. parahaemolyticus, Streptococcus agalactiae, S. aureus and Aeromonas hydrophila. Moreover, rPmTβ4 had a certain binding ability to different bacteria, and this binding ability exhibits a strong dose-dependent effect. In vivo, PmTβ4 could facilitate external bacterial clearance in shrimp, and have beneficial to shrimp survival post V. parahaemolyticus infection. Furthermore, wound-healing assay was carried out to study the role of PmTβ4 in the process of wound healing. The results showed that the PmTβ4 expression was significantly up-regulated by injury treatment, and exerted positive effects to promote wound healing. In addition, PmTβ4 can significantly increase the expression level of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and Catalase (CAT) after injury treatment in shrimp, which would involve in scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) caused by the wound. In conclusion, these results indicated that PmTβ4 may play important roles in antibacterial immunity and wound healing in Penaeus monodon.

Actin polymerization and depolymerization in developing vertebrates

Development is a complex process that occurs throughout the life cycle. F-actin, a major component of the cytoskeleton, is essential for the morphogenesis of tissues and organs during development. F-actin is formed by the polymerization of G-actin, and the dynamic balance of polymerization and depolymerization ensures proper cellular function. Disruption of this balance results in various abnormalities and defects or even embryonic lethality. Here, we reviewed recent findings on the structure of G-actin and F-actin and the polymerization of G-actin to F-actin. We also focused on the functions of actin isoforms and the underlying mechanisms of actin polymerization/depolymerization in cellular and organic morphogenesis during development. This information will extend our understanding of the role of actin polymerization in the physiologic or pathologic processes during development and may open new avenues for developing therapeutics for embryonic developmental abnormalities or tissue regeneration.

Thymosin beta-4 denotes new directions towards developing prosperous anti-aging regenerative therapies

Our dream of defeating the processes of organ damage and aging remains a challenge scientists pursued for hundreds of years. Although the goal is to successfully treat the body as a whole, steps towards regenerating individual organs are even considered significant. Since initial approaches utilizing only progenitor cells appear limited, we propose interconnecting our collective knowledge regarding aging and embryonic development may lead to the discovery of molecules which provide alternatives to effectively reverse cellular damage. In this review, we introduce and summarize our results regarding Thymosin beta-4 (TB4) to support our hypothesis using the heart as model system. Accordingly, we investigated the developmental expression of TB4 in mouse embryos and determined the impact of the molecule in adult animals by systemically injecting the peptide following acute cardiac infarction or with no injury. Our results proved, TB4 is expressed in the developing heart and promotes cardiac cell migration and survival. In adults, the peptide enhances myocyte survival and improves cardiac function after coronary artery ligation. Moreover, intravenous injections of TB4 alter the morphology of the adult epicardium, and the changes resemble the characteristics of the embryo. Reactivation of the embryonic program became equally reflected by the increased number of cardiac vessels and by the alteration of the gene expression profile typical of the embryonic state. Moreover, we discovered TB4 is capable of epicardial progenitor activation, and revealed the effect is independent of hypoxic injury. By observing the above results, we believe, further discoveries and consequential postnatal administration of developmentally relevant candidate molecules such as TB4 may likely result in reversing aging processes and accelerate organ regeneration in the human body.

Protection effect of thymosin β4 on ethanol injury in corneal stromal keratocyte

Purpose

To investigate the protective effects of thymosin β4 (Tβ4) on ethanol injured human corneal keratocytes (HCKs).

Methods

HCKs and BALB/c mice were chosen as the study subject. Ethanol was used to treat the cells and corneal stroma of mice to build the ethanol injured model in vitro and vivo respectively. CCK-8 was used to evaluate the cell metabolic activity. DCFH-DA was used to detect the intracellular reactive oxygen species level. TUNEL was chose to detect the cell apoptosis rate. The cell proliferation and migration were investigated by using wound healing insert. Wound healing of corneal surface and stroma was observed by using fluorescein sodium eyedrop and HE stain. RT-qPCR, ELISA, and immunostaining were performed to detect gene and protein expression in keratocytes or corneal stroma tissue of mice.

Results

Ethanol induced oxidative stress injury and cell apoptosis on HCKs, and Tβ4 can alleviate it by up-regulating the expression of Bcl-2, catalase, and CuZnSOD, and inhibiting the expression of Caspase-3. Tβ4 promotes the proliferation of HCKs and the process of corneal wound healing. It may relevant to the up-regulated expression of Ki67.

Conclusions

Our study established an ethanol-injured corneal stroma model in both vitro and vivo. The present study confirmed that Tβ4 play a protective effect on the reconstruction process of ethanol-injured corneal stroma.

PTEN/AKT upregulation of TMSB10 contributes to lung cancer cell growth and predicts poor survival of the patients

PTEN/AKT signaling cascade is frequently activated in various cancers, including lung cancer. The downstream effector of this signaling cascade is poorly understood. β-Thymosin 10 (TMSB10) functions as an oncogene or tumor suppressors in cancers, whereas its significance in lung cancer remains unknown. In this study, we showed that the activation of PTEN/AKT signaling promoted the expression of TMSB10. Based on the TCGA database, TMSB10 was upregulated in lung cancer tissues and its overexpression was correlated with poor prognosis of lung cancer patients. Functional experiments demonstrated that TMSB10 knockdown suppressed, while its overexpression promoted the proliferation, growth, and migration of lung cancer cells. Apoptosis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition were also regulated by TMSB10. We therefore suggest that TMSB10 is a novel oncogene for lung cancer. Targeting TMSB10 may benefit lung cancer patients with activated PTEN/AKT signaling.

Bioengineering strategies to control epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition for studies of cardiac development and disease

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a process that occurs in a wide range of tissues and environments, in response to numerous factors and conditions, and plays a critical role in development, disease, and regeneration. The process involves epithelia transitioning into a mobile state and becoming mesenchymal cells. The investigation of EMT processes has been important for understanding developmental biology and disease progression, enabling the advancement of treatment approaches for a variety of disorders such as cancer and myocardial infarction. More recently, tissue engineering efforts have also recognized the importance of controlling the EMT process. In this review, we provide an overview of the EMT process and the signaling pathways and factors that control it, followed by a discussion of bioengineering strategies to control EMT. Important biological, biomaterial, biochemical, and physical factors and properties that have been utilized to control EMT are described, as well as the studies that have investigated the modulation of EMT in tissue engineering and regenerative approaches in vivo, with a specific focus on the heart. Novel tools that can be used to characterize and assess EMT are discussed and finally, we close with a perspective on new bioengineering methods that have the potential to transform our ability to control EMT, ultimately leading to new therapies.

Utilizing Developmentally Essential Secreted Peptides Such as Thymosin Beta-4 to Remind the Adult Organs of Their Embryonic State-New Directions in Anti-Aging Regenerative Therapies

Our dream of defeating the processes of aging has occupied the curious and has challenged scientists globally for hundreds of years. The history is long, and sadly, the solution is still elusive. Our endeavors to reverse the magnitude of damaging cellular and molecular alterations resulted in only a few, yet significant advancements. Furthermore, as our lifespan increases, physicians are facing more mind-bending questions in their routine practice than ever before. Although the ultimate goal is to successfully treat the body as a whole, steps towards regenerating individual organs are even considered significant. As our initial approach to enhance the endogenous restorative capacity by delivering exogenous progenitor cells appears limited, we propose, utilizing small molecules critical during embryonic development may prove to be a powerful tool to increase regeneration and to reverse the processes associated with aging. In this review, we introduce Thymosin beta-4, a 43aa secreted peptide fulfilling our hopes and capable of numerous regenerative achievements via systemic administration in the heart. Observing the broad capacity of this small, secreted peptide, we believe it is not the only molecule which nature conceals to our benefit. Hence, the discovery and postnatal administration of developmentally relevant agents along with other approaches may result in reversing the aging process.

Spatiotemporal single-cell RNA sequencing of developing chicken hearts identifies interplay between cellular differentiation and morphogenesis

Single-cell RNA sequencing is a powerful tool to study developmental biology but does not preserve spatial information about tissue morphology and cellular interactions. Here, we combine single-cell and spatial transcriptomics with algorithms for data integration to study the development of the chicken heart from the early to late four-chambered heart stage. We create a census of the diverse cellular lineages in developing hearts, their spatial organization, and their interactions during development. Spatial mapping of differentiation transitions in cardiac lineages defines transcriptional differences between epithelial and mesenchymal cells within the epicardial lineage. Using spatially resolved expression analysis, we identify anatomically restricted expression programs, including expression of genes implicated in congenital heart disease. Last, we discover a persistent enrichment of the small, secreted peptide, thymosin beta-4, throughout coronary vascular development. Overall, our study identifies an intricate interplay between cellular differentiation and morphogenesis.

Ectopic Expression of Human Thymosin β4 Confers Resistance to Legionella pneumophila during Pulmonary and Systemic Infection in Mice

Thymosin beta-4 (Tβ4) is an actin-sequestering peptide that plays important roles in regeneration and remodeling of injured tissues. However, its function in a naturally occurring pathogenic bacterial infection model has remained elusive. We adopted Tβ4-overexpressing transgenic (Tg) mice to investigate the role of Tβ4 in acute pulmonary infection and systemic sepsis caused by Legionella pneumophila Upon infection, Tβ4-Tg mice demonstrated significantly lower bacterial loads in the lung, less hyaline membranes and necrotic abscess, with lower interstitial infiltration of neutrophils, CD4⁺, and CD8⁺ T cells. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of Tβ4-Tg mice possessed higher bactericidal activity against exogenously added L. pneumophila, suggesting that constitutive expression of Tβ4 could efficiently control L. pneumophila Furthermore, qPCR analysis of lung homogenates demonstrated significant reduction of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), which primarily originate from lung macrophages, in Tβ4-Tg mice after pulmonary infection. Upon L. pneumophila challenge of bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) in vitro, secretion of IL-1β and TNF-α proteins was also reduced in Tβ4-Tg macrophages, without affecting their survival. The anti-inflammatory effects of BMDM in Tβ4-Tg mice on each cytokine were affected when triggering with tlr2, tlr4, tlr5, or tlr9 ligands, suggesting that anti-inflammatory effects of Tβ4 are likely mediated by the reduced activation of Toll-like receptors (TLR). Finally, Tβ4-Tg mice in a systemic sepsis model were protected from L. pneumophila-induced lethality compared to wild-type controls. Therefore, Tβ4 confers effective resistance against L. pneumophila via two pathways, a bactericidal and an anti-inflammatory pathway, which can be harnessed to treat acute pneumonia and septic conditions caused by L. pneumophila in humans.

Multiple potential roles of thymosin β4 in the growth and development of hair follicles

The hair follicle (HF) is an important mini-organ of the skin, composed of many types of cells. Dermal papilla cells are important signalling components that guide the proliferation, upward migration and differentiation of HF stem cell progenitor cells to form other types of HF cells. Thymosin β4 (Tβ4), a major actin-sequestering protein, is involved in various cellular responses and has recently been shown to play key roles in HF growth and development. Endogenous Tβ4 can activate the mouse HF cycle transition and affect HF growth and development by promoting the migration and differentiation of HF stem cells and their progeny. In addition, exogenous Tβ4 increases the rate of hair growth in mice and promotes cashmere production by increasing the number of secondary HFs (hair follicles) in cashmere goats. However, the molecular mechanisms through which Tβ4 promotes HF growth and development have rarely been reported. Herein, we review the functions and mechanisms of Tβ4 in HF growth and development and describe the endogenous and exogenous actions of Tβ4 in HFs to provide insights into the roles of Tβ4 in HF growth and development.

The Role of Endogenous Antimicrobial Peptides in Modulating Innate Immunity of the Ocular Surface in Dry Eye Diseases

The ocular surface has the challenging responsibility of maintaining a clear moist refractive surface while protecting the eye from exogenous pathogens and the environment. Homeostasis of the ocular surface, including its innate immune components, is altered in ocular surface disease states. In this review, we focus on antimicrobial peptides and the role they play in the immune response of the ocular surface during healthy states and dry eye diseases. Antimicrobial peptides are of special interest to the study of the ocular surface because of their various roles that include microbial threat neutralization, wound healing, and immune modulation. This review explores current literature on antimicrobial peptides in ocular surface diseases and discusses their therapeutic potential in ocular surface diseases and dry eye.

Progress on the Function and Application of Thymosin β4

Thymosin β4 (Tβ4) is a multifunctional and widely distributed peptide that plays a pivotal role in several physiological and pathological processes in the body, namely, increasing angiogenesis and proliferation and inhibiting apoptosis and inflammation. Moreover, Tβ4 is effectively utilized for several indications in animal experiments or clinical trials, such as myocardial infarction and myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury, xerophthalmia, liver and renal fibrosis, ulcerative colitis and colon cancer, and skin trauma. Recent studies have reported the potential application of Tβ4 and its underlying mechanisms. The present study reveals the progress regarding functions and applications of Tβ4.

Thymosin β4 is essential for adherens junction stability and epidermal planar cell polarity

Planar cell polarity (PCP) is essential for tissue morphogenesis and homeostasis; however, the mechanisms that orchestrate the cell shape and packing dynamics required to establish PCP are poorly understood. Here, we identified a major role for the globular (G)-actin-binding protein thymosin-β4 (TMSB4X) in PCP establishment and cell adhesion in the developing epidermis. Depletion of Tmsb4x in mouse embryos hindered eyelid closure and hair-follicle angling owing to PCP defects. Tmsb4x depletion did not preclude epidermal cell adhesion in vivo or in vitro; however, it resulted in abnormal structural organization and stability of adherens junction (AJ) due to defects in filamentous (F)-actin and G-actin distribution. In cultured keratinocytes, TMSB4X depletion increased the perijunctional G/F-actin ratio and decreased G-actin incorporation into junctional actin networks, but it did not change the overall actin expression level or cellular F-actin content. A pharmacological treatment that increased the G/F-actin ratio and decreased actin polymerization mimicked the effects of Tmsb4x depletion on both AJs and PCP. Our results provide insights into the regulation of the actin pool and its involvement in AJ function and PCP establishment.

Highlighted Article: By regulating actin pool distribution and incorporation into junctional actin networks, thymosin β4 regulates cell–cell adhesion, planar cell polarity and epidermal morphogenesis.

Thymosin β4 dynamics during chicken enteroid development

The sheared avian intestinal villus-crypts exhibit high tendency to self-repair and develop enteroids in culture. Presuming that this transition process involves differential biomolecular changes, we employed matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF–MS) to find whether there were differences in the spectral profiles of sheared villi versus the enteroids, assessed in the mass range of 2–18 kDa. The results showed substantial differences in the intensities of the spectral peaks, one particularly corresponding to the mass of 4963 Da, which was significantly low in the sheared villus-crypts compared with the enteroids. Based on our previous results with other avian tissues and further molecular characterization by LC-ESI-IT-TOF–MS, and multiple reaction monitoring (MRM), the peak was identified to be thymosin β4 (Tβ4), a ubiquitously occurring regulatory peptide implicated in wound healing process. The identity of the peptide was further confirmed by immunohistochemistry which showed it to be present in a very low levels in the sheared villi but replete in the enteroids. Since Tβ4 sequesters G-actin preventing its polymerization to F-actin, we compared the changes in F-actin by its immunohistochemical localization that showed no significant differences between the sheared villi and enteroids. We propose that depletion of Tβ4 likely precedes villous reparation process. The possible mechanism for the differences in Tβ4 profile in relation to the healing of the villus-crypts to developing enteroids is discussed.

Thymus-Pineal Gland Axis: Revisiting Its Role in Human Life and Ageing

For years the thymus gland (TG) and the pineal gland (PG) have been subject of increasingly in-depth studies, but only recently a link that can associate the activities of the two organs has been identified. Considering, on the one hand, the well-known immune activity of thymus and, on the other, the increasingly emerging immunological roles of circadian oscillators and the rhythmically secreted main pineal product, melatonin, many studies aimed to analyse the possible existence of an interaction between these two systems. Moreover, data confirmed that the immune system is functionally associated with the nervous and endocrine systems determining an integrated dynamic network. In addition, recent researches showed a similar, characteristic involution process both in TG and PG. Since the second half of the 20th century, evidence led to the definition of an effectively interacting thymus-pineal axis (TG-PG axis), but much has to be done. In this sense, the aim of this review is to summarize what is actually known about this topic, focusing on the impact of the TG-PG axis on human life and ageing. We would like to give more emphasis to the implications of this dynamical interaction in a possible therapeutic strategy for human health. Moreover, we focused on all the products of TG and PG in order to collect what is known about the role of peptides other than melatonin. The results available today are often unclear and not linear. These peptides have not been well studied and defined over the years. In this review we hope to awake the interest of the scientific community in them and in their future pharmacological applications.

Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF1alpha) inhibition modulates cumulus cell function and affects bovine oocyte maturation in vitro†

Various metabolic and hormonal factors expressed in cumulus cells are positively correlated with the in vitro maturation (IVM) of oocytes. However, the role of hypoxia sensing both during maturation of cumulus–oocyte complexes (COCs) as well as during the resumption of meiosis remains uncertain. HIF1alpha plays major roles in cellular responses to hypoxia, and here we investigated its role during bovine COC maturation by assessing the expression of related genes in cumulus cells. COCs were divided into the following groups: immature (control), in vitro matured (IVM/control), or matured in the presence of a blocker of HIF1alpha activity (echinomycin, IVM/E). We found an inhibition of cumulus cell expansion in IVM/E, compared with the IVM/control. Transcript levels of several factors (n = 13) were assessed in cumulus cells. Decreased expression of HAS2, TNFAIP6, TMSB4, TMSB10, GATM, GLUT1, CX43, COX2, PTGES, and STAR was found in IVM/E (P < 0.05). Additionally, decreased protein levels were detected for STAR, HAS2, and PCNA (P < 0.05), while activated-Caspase 3 remained unaffected in IVM/E. Progesterone output decreased in IVM/E. The application of PX-478, another blocker of HIF1alpha expression, yielded identical results. Negative effects of HIF1alpha suppression were further observed in the significantly decreased oocyte maturation and blastocyst rates from COCs matured with echinomycin (P < 0.05) or PX-478 (P < 0.05). These results support the importance of HIF1alpha for COC maturation and subsequent embryo development. HIF1alpha is a multidirectional factor controlling intercellular communication within COCs, steroidogenic activity, and oocyte development rates, and exerting effects on blastocyst rates.

Multiple functions of thymosin β4 in the pearl oyster Pinctada fucata suggest its multiple potential roles in artificial pearl culture

Thymosin β4 is a multifunctional protein in vertebrates that participates in physiological processes, such as wound healing, immune response, cell proliferation and migration. We assessed the multifarious roles of this small peptide in Pinctada fucata, an oyster commonly used in pearl culture in China. Our results showed that when P. fucata was challenged by bacterial pathogens or LPS, the relative expression level of Pfthymosin β4 mRNA was significantly up-regulated, suggesting its involvement in immune response of the animal. Recombinant Pfthymosin β4 (rPfthymosin β4) was produced and showed in vitro different antibacterial activities against different pathogenic bacteria; the inhibitory effect of rPfthymosin β4 on bacterial growth was relatively stronger in the broth culture than agar culture. The overexpression of Pfthymosin β4 in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) cells could improve their resistance to Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, Cd²⁺, and H₂O₂, suggesting that Pfthymosin β4 is likely involved with antioxidant. rPfthymosin β4 also significantly promoted the proliferation and migration of mouse aortic vascular smooth muscle cells as indicated by MTT assay and cell scratch assay, respectively. In addition, chemically synthesized or recombinant Pfthymosin β4 could transiently increase the circulating total hemocytes counts but down-regulated by RNAi in P. fucata. Taking together above results and previous studies suggested that Pfthymosin β4 is potentially able to promote wound healing through enhancing antibacterial activity and antioxidant capacity, promotion of cell proliferation and migration, and increase of circulating hemocytes in P. fucata due to nucleus implantation injury. Thus, the future of recombinant Pfthymosin β4 should be promising in the culture of pearls in P. fucata.

Leading edge: emerging drug, cell, and gene therapies for junctional epidermolysis bullosa

INTRODUCTION

Junctional epidermolysis bullosa (JEB) is a rare inherited genetic disorder with limited treatments beyond palliative care. A major hallmark of JEB is skin blistering caused by functional loss or complete absence of major structural proteins of the skin. Impaired wound healing in patients with JEB gives rise to chronic cutaneous ulcers that require daily care. Wound care and infection control are the current standard of care for this patient population.

AREAS COVERED

This review covers research and clinical implementation of emerging drug, cell, and gene therapies for JEB. Current clinical trials use topical drug delivery to manipulate the inflammation and re-epithelialization phases of wound healing or promote premature stop codon readthrough to accelerate chronic wound closure. Allogeneic cell therapies for JEB have been largely unsuccessful, with autologous skin grafting emerging as a reliable method of resolving the cutaneous manifestations of JEB. Genetic correction and transplant of autologous keratinocytes have demonstrated persistent amelioration of chronic wounds in a subset of patients.

EXPERT OPINION

Emerging therapies address the cutaneous symptoms of JEB but are unable to attend to systemic manifestations of the disease. Investigations into the molecular mechanism(s) underpinning the failure of systemic allogeneic cell therapies are necessary to expand the range of effective JEB therapies.

Protective effect of Tβ4 on central nervous system tissues and its developmental prospects

Tissue repair and regeneration in the central nervous system (CNS) remains a serious medical problem. CNS diseases such as traumatic and neurological brain injuries have a high mortality and disability rate, thereby bringing a considerable amount of economic burden to society and families. How to treat traumatic and neurological brain injuries has always been a serious issue faced by neurosurgeons. The global incidence of traumatic and neurological brain injuries has gradually increased and become a global challenge. Thymosin β4 (Tβ4) is the main G-actin variant molecule in eukaryotic cells. During the development of the CNS, Tβ4 regulates neurogenesis, tangential expansion, tissue growth, and cerebral hemisphere folding. In addition, Tβ4 has anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory properties. It promotes angiogenesis, wound healing, stem/progenitor cell differentiation, and other characteristics of cell migration and survival, providing a scientific basis for the repair and regeneration of injured nerve tissue. This review provides evidence to support the role of Tβ4 in the protection and repair of nervous tissue in CNS diseases, especially with the potential to control brain inflammatory processes, and thus open up new therapeutic applications for a series of neurodegenerative diseases.

N-acetyl-seryl-aspartyl-lysyl-proline is a valuable endogenous antifibrotic peptide for kidney fibrosis in diabetes: An update and translational aspects

N-acetyl-seryl-aspartyl-lysyl-proline (AcSDKP) is an endogenous peptide that has been confirmed to show excellent organ-protective effects. Even though originally discovered as a modulator of hemotopoietic stem cells, during the recent two decades, AcSDKP has been recognized as valuable antifibrotic peptide. The antifibrotic mechanism of AcSDKP is not yet clear; we have established that AcSDKP could target endothelial-mesenchymal transition program through the induction of the endothelial fibroblast growth factor receptor signaling pathway. Also, recent reports suggested the clinical significance of AcSDKP. The aim of this review was to update recent advances of the mechanistic action of AcSDKP and discuss translational research aspects.

Anti-inflammatory effects of glycine thymosin β4 eye drops in experimental dry eye

The aim of the present study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of glycine thymosin β4 (Gly-Tβ4) eye drops, and to compare the efficacy of topical Gly-Tβ4 with Cyclosporine A (CsA) in a mouse model of experimental dry eye (EDE). Eye drops consisting of balanced salt solution (BSS), 0.1% Gly-Tβ4 or 0.05% CsA were used for treatment of EDE. Tear volume, tear film break-up time and corneal staining scores were measured after 7 and 14 days. Periodic acid-Schiff staining for conjunctival gobleT cells, TUNEL assay for corneal apoptotic positive cells, multiplex immunobead assay for interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ levels, and flow cytometry for CD4⁺/CCR5⁺ T cells were performed after 14 days. All clinical parameters showed improvement in the Gly-Tβ4 and CsA groups (all P<0.05). Significantly increased conjunctival gobleT cells and decreased corneal TUNEL positive cells were observed in the Gly-Tβ4 and CsA groups. The Gly-Tβ4 and CsA treated groups showed significantly reduced inflammatory cytokine levels and T cells in the conjunctiva compared with the EDE and BSS groups (all P<0.05). However, there were no significant differences observed in the inflammatory and clinical parameters between the Gly-Tβ4 and CsA treatment groups. Topical application of 0.1% Gly-Tβ4 significantly reduced inflammation on the ocular surface, as well as clinical parameters of EDE, with a similar efficacy to that of 0.05% CsA emulsions, suggesting that Gly-Tβ4 eye drops may be used as a therapeutic agent for treatment of dry eye disease.

Thymosin β4-Enhancing Therapeutic Efficacy of Human Adipose-Derived Stem Cells in Mouse Ischemic Hindlimb Model

Thymosin β4 (Tβ4) is a G-actin sequestering protein that contributes to diverse cellular activities, such as migration and angiogenesis. In this study, the beneficial effects of combined cell therapy with Tβ4 and human adipose-derived stem cells (hASCs) in a mouse ischemic hindlimb model were investigated. We observed that exogenous treatment with Tβ4 enhanced endogenous TMSB4X mRNA expression and promoted morphological changes (increased cell length) in hASCs. Interestingly, Tβ4 induced the active state of hASCs by up-regulating intracellular signaling pathways including the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK/ERK pathways. Treatment with Tβ4 significantly increased cell migration and sprouting from microbeads. Moreover, additional treatment with Tβ4 promoted the endothelial differentiation potential of hASCs by up-regulating various angiogenic genes. To evaluate the in vivo effects of the Tβ4-hASCs combination on vessel recruitment, dorsal window chambers were transplanted, and the co-treated mice were found to have a significantly increased number of microvessel branches. Transplantation of hASCs in combination with Tβ4 was found to improve blood flow and attenuate limb or foot loss post-ischemia compared to transplantation with hASCs alone. Taken together, the therapeutic application of hASCs combined with Tβ4 could be effective in enhancing endothelial differentiation and vascularization for treating hindlimb ischemia.

TMSB10 acts as a biomarker and promotes progression of clear cell renal cell carcinoma

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is one of the most common urological malignancies. Identifying novel biomarkers and investigating the underlying mechanism of ccRCC development will be crucial to the management and treatment of ccRCC in patients. Thymosin b10 (TMSB10), a member of the thymosin family, is involved in various physiological processes, including tissue regeneration and inflammatory regulation. Moreover, it has been found to be upregulated in many types of carcinoma. However, its roles in ccRCC remain to be elucidated. The present study aimed to explore the expression of TMSB10 in ccRCC through mining The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Oncomine databases, and to investigate the association between TMSB10 expression and clinicopathological factors. Furthermore, immunohistochemistry assays and western blotting were conducted to verify TMSB10 expression levels in human ccRCC tissues and cell lines. Functional analyses were also performed to identify the roles of TMSB10 in vitro. The results revealed that TMSB10 was significantly upregulated in RCC tissues and cell lines. The expression of TMSB10 was closely associated with various clinicopathological parameters. In addition, high expression of TMSB10 predicted poor clinical outcome. The receiver operating characteristic curve revealed that TMSB10 could sufficiently distinguish the tumor from normal kidney (area under the curve = 0.9543, P<0.0001). Furthermore, knockdown of TMSB10 impaired the proliferation of ccRCC cells, and attenuated cell and invasion in vitro. In addition, TMSB10 knockdown downregulated reduced the phosphorylation of PI3K and the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that high expression of TMSB10 could serve as a useful diagnostic and prognostic biomarker and a potential therapeutic target for ccRCC.

Thymosin β4 cytoplasmic/nuclear translocation as a new marker of cellular stress. A Caco2 case study

Biomarkers of cell stress are important for proper diagnosis, and in studies of how cells respond to drug treatment. Biomarkers that respond early to pharmacological treatment could improve therapy by tailoring the treatment to the needs of the patient. Thymosin beta-4 (Tβ₄) plays a significant role in many aspects of cellular metabolism because of its actin-sequestering properties. Other physiological functions of Tβ₄ have been also reported. Among these, Tβ₄ may play a crucial role during cellular stress. We addressed the relevance of Tβ₄ in cellular stress conditions by using different treatments (serum starvation, DMSO, and butyrate administration) in a colon adenocarcinoma cell line (CaCo2), a cell line frequently used for in vitro experimental studies of Tβ₄. In this study, different stress stimuli were analyzed and the obtained results were compared using immunocytochemistry, and molecular and biochemical methods. Taken together, the data clearly indicate that the Tβ₄ peptide is involved in adaptive and defensive cellular mechanisms, and that different stress inducers lead to a similar Tβ₄ cytoplasmic/nuclear translocation. The translocation of Tβ₄ between the cytoplasm and the nucleus of the cell seems characteristic of a possible molecular response to cellular stress exerted by this peptide.

Biomarkers of cell stress are important for proper diagnosis, and in studies of how cells respond to drug treatment.

A new insight into thymosin β4, a promising therapeutic approach for neurodegenerative disorders

Thymosin β4 (Tβ4), a G-actin-sequestering secreted peptide, improves neurovascular remodeling and central nervous system plasticity, which leads to neurological recovery in many neurological diseases. Inflammatory response adjustment and tissue inflammation consequences from neurological injury are vital for neurological recovery. The innate or nonspecific immune system is made of different components. The Toll-like receptor pro-inflammatory signaling pathway, which is one of these components, regulates tissue injury. The main component of the Toll-like/IL-1 receptor signaling pathway, which is known as IRAK1, can be regulated by miR-146a and regulates NF-κB expression. Due to the significant role of Tβ4 in oligodendrocytes, neurons, and microglial cells in neurological recovery, it is suggested that Tβ4 regulates the Toll-like receptor (TLR) pro-inflammatory signaling pathway by upregulating miR-146a in neurological disorders. However, further investigations on the role of Tβ4 in regulating the expression of miR146a and TLR signaling pathway in the immune response adjustment in neurological disorders provides an insight into mechanisms of action and the possibility of Tβ4 therapeutic effect enhancement.

Comparative study of β-thymosin in two scallop species Argopecten irradians and Chlamys farreri

The β-thymosin (Tβ) proteins participate in numerous biological processes, such as cell proliferation and differentiation, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial mechanism. To date, Tβ proteins have been well studied in vertebrates, especially mammals. While limited Tβ or Tβ-like proteins have been reported in invertebrates. Moreover, rare information of Tβ or Tβ-like proteins is available in scallop species yet. In the present study, two Tβ homologues, AiTβ and CfTβ, were identified and characterized from two scallop species bay scallop Argopecten irradians and Zhikong scallop Chlamys farreri. They were both 41 amino acid peptide and contained one THY domain, a highly conserved actin-binding motif and two conserved helix forming regions. Tissue distribution and expression profiles of their mRNA transcripts were roughly similar yet different in detail, while their recombinant proteins exhibited different immunomodulation activity on the downstream immune parameters. These results collectively indicated that the function of Tβ family in scallop were functionally differentiated.

Molecular cloning, expression analysis, and the immune-related role of a thymosin β in the goldfish, Carassius auratus

β-Thymosins play critical roles in the regulation of many important physiological processes, but their function in teleost fishes remains poorly understood. In this study, the full-length cDNA coding for a thymosin β (Tβ) was cloned and identified in goldfish, Carassius auratus (gfTβ). The gfTβ cDNA consisted of 653 bp with an open reading frame of 135 bp that encodes a 44 amino acid polypeptide. Sequence analysis revealed one thymosin domain and a highly conserved actin-binding motif (¹⁸LKKTET²³). Expression of gfTβ transcript was detected ubiquitously in all tissues examined, with relatively higher levels in the brain, intestine, spleen, gill, skin, kidney, and testis. Cadmium and H₂O₂ exposure induced increases in gfTβ transcript levels in the liver and spleen. Moreover, gfTβ transcription was upregulated in response to LPS challenge in the spleen while Poly I:C treatment did not affect gfTβ expression. In vivo injection of recombinant gfTβ generated from an Escherichia coli system induced expression of T lymphocyte-related genes (RAG1 and CD8α). These results suggest that gfTβ may be involved in the immune response of teleost fishes via modulation of T lymphocyte development.

Anti-inflammatory potential of thymosin β4 in the central nervous system: implications for progressive neurodegenerative diseases

INTRODUCTION

The actin-sequestering thymosin beta4 (Tβ4) is the most abundant member of the β-thymosins, and is widely expressed in the central nervous system (CNS), but its functions in the healthy and diseased brain are poorly understood. The expression of Tβ4 in neurons and microglia, the resident immune cells of the brain, suggests that it can play a role in modulating behavioral processes and immunological mechanisms in the brain. The purpose of this review is to shed lights on the role of Tβ4 in CNS function and diseases without antecedent autoimmune inflammation or injury, and to question its therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.

AREAS COVERED

This review presents the evidence supporting a role for Tβ4 in behaviors that are affected in CNS disorders, as well as studies linking Tβ4 upregulation in microglia to neuroinflammatory processes associated with these disorders. Finally, the implication of Tβ4 in the process of microglial activation and the mechanisms underlying its ability to suppress pro-inflammatory signaling in microglia are discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

Tβ4 has the potential to control inflammatory processes in the brain, opening avenues for new therapeutic applications to a range of neurodegenerative conditions.

Steroidal glycoalkaloids from Solanum nigrum target cytoskeletal proteins: an in silico analysis

Background

Solanum nigrum (black nightshade; S. nigrum), a member of family Solanaceae, has been endowed with a heterogeneous array of secondary metabolites of which the steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) and steroidal saponins (SS) have vast potential to serve as anticancer agents. Since there has been much controversy regarding safety of use of glycoalkaloids as anticancer agents, this area has remained more or less unexplored. Cytoskeletal proteins like actin play an important role in maintaining cell shape, synchronizing cell division, cell motility, etc. and along with their accessory proteins may also serve as important therapeutic targets for potential anticancer candidates. In the present study, glycoalkaloids and saponins from S. nigrum were screened for their interaction and binding affinity to cytoskeletal proteins, using molecular docking.

Methods

Bioactivity score and Prediction of Activity Spectra for Substances (PASS) analysis were performed using softwares Molinspiration and Osiris Data Explorer respectively, to assess the feasibility of selected phytoconstituents as potential drug candidates. The results were compared with two standard reference drugs doxorubicin hydrochloride (anticancer) and tetracycline (antibiotic). Multivariate data obtained were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA).

Results

Docking analysis revealed that the binding affinities of the phytoconstituents towards the target cytoskeletal proteins decreased in the order coronin>villin>ezrin>vimentin>gelsolin>thymosin>cofilin. Glycoalkaloid solasonine displayed the greatest binding affinity towards the target proteins followed by alpha-solanine whereas amongst the saponins, nigrumnin-I showed maximum binding affinity. PASS Analysis of the selected phytoconstituents revealed 1 to 3 violations of Lipinski’s parameters indicating the need for modification of their structure-activity relationship (SAR) for improvement of their bioactivity and bioavailability. Glycoalkaloids and saponins all had bioactivity scores between −5.0 and 0.0 with respect to various receptor proteins and target enzymes. Solanidine, solasodine and solamargine had positive values of druglikeness which indicated that these compounds have the potential for development into future anticancer drugs. Toxicity potential evaluation revealed that glycoalkaloids and saponins had no toxicity, tumorigenicity or irritant effect(s). SAR analysis revealed that the number, type and location of sugar or the substitution of hydroxyl group on alkaloid backbone had an effect on the activity and that the presence of α-L-rhamnopyranose sugar at C-2 was critical for a compound to exhibit anticancer activity.

Conclusion

The present study revealed some cytoskeletal target(s) for S. nigrum phytoconstituents by docking analysis that have not been previously reported and thus warrant further investigations both in vitro and in vivo.

Thymosins in multiple sclerosis and its experimental models: moving from basic to clinical application

BACKGROUND

Multiple sclerosis (MS) afflicts more than 2.5 million individuals worldwide and this number is increasing over time. Within the past years, a great number of disease-modifying treatments have emerged; however, efficacious treatments and a cure for MS await discovery. Thymosins, soluble hormone-like peptides produced by the thymus gland, can mediate immune and non-immune physiological processes and have gained interest in recent years as therapeutics in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.

METHODS

Pubmed was searched with no time constraints for articles using a combination of the keywords "thymosin/s" or "thymus factor/s" AND "multiple sclerosis", mesh terms with no language restriction.

RESULTS

Here, we review the state-of-the-art on the effects of thymosins on MS and its experimental models. In particular, we describe what is known in this field on the roles of thymosin-α1 (Tα1) and -β4 (Tβ4) as potential anti-inflammatory as well as neuroprotective and remyelinating molecules and their mechanisms of action.

CONCLUSION

Based on the data that Tα1 and Tβ4 act as anti-inflammatory molecules and as inducers of myelin repair and neuronal protection, respectively, a possible therapeutic application in MS for Tα1 and Tβ4 alone or combined with other approved drugs may be envisaged. This approach is reasonable in light of the current clinical usage of Tα1 and data demonstrating the safety, tolerability and efficacy of Tβ4 in clinical practice.

RGN-259 (thymosin β4) improves clinically important dry eye efficacies in comparison with prescription drugs in a dry eye model

This study evaluated the clinical activity of RGN-259 (thymosin β4) in comparison with cyclosporine A (CsA), diquafosol (DQS), and lifitegrast (LFA) in a murine model of dry eye. The model was NOD.B10-H2^b mice in a 30–40% humidified environment together with daily scopolamine hydrobromide injections for 10 days. After desiccation stress, all drugs were evaluated after 10 treatment days. RGN-259 increased tear production similar to that in the DQS- and LFA-treated mice while CsA was inactive. RGN-259 improved corneal smoothness and decreased fluorescein staining similar to that of LFA group while CsA and DQS were inactive. Corneal epithelial detachment was reduced by RGN-259, and DQS and LFA showed similar activity but the CsA was inactive. RGN-259 increased conjunctival goblet cells and mucin production comparable to that seen with CsA, while DQS and LFA were inactive. RGN-259 reduced the over-expression of inflammatory factors comparable to that with CsA and LFA, while DQS was inactive. RGN-259 increased mucin production comparable to that observed with CsA, while DQS and LFA were inactive. In conclusion, RGN-259 promoted recovery of mucins and goblet cells, improved corneal integrity, and reduced inflammation in a dry eye mouse model and was equal to or more effective than prescription treatments.

A thymosin repeated protein1 reduces white spot syndrome virus replication in red claw crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus

The β-thymosins are a group of structurally related, highly conserved intracellular small peptides in vertebrates with various biological functions, including cytoskeletal remodeling, neuronal development, cell migration, cell survival, tissue repair and inhibition of inflammation. In contrast to vertebrates, the function of β-thymosin is not fully understood in crustaceans. Previously, we found that a thymosin-repeated protein1 (CqTRP1) gene was up-regulated after white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) challenge in hematopoietic tissue (Hpt) cells from the red claw crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus. To further identify the effect of CqTRP1 on WSSV infection, a full length cDNA sequence of β-thymosin homologue was cloned and analyzed from red claw crayfish followed by functional study. The CqTRP1 cDNA contains an open reading frame of 387 nucleotides encoding a protein of 129 amino acids with a putative molecular mass of 14.3 kDa. The amino acid sequence showed high identity with other β-thymosins and contained three characteristic thymosin β actin-binding motifs, suggesting that CqTRP1 was a member of the β-thymosin family. Tissue distribution analysis revealed a ubiquitous presence of CqTRP1 in all the examined tissues with the highest expression in hemocytes, Hpt and gonad at the transcriptional level. Interestingly, the gene silencing of endogenous CqTRP1 by RNAi enhanced the WSSV replication in Hpt cells. Meanwhile, the WSSV replication was significantly reduced in the Hpt cell cultures if overloaded with a recombinant CqTRP1. Taken together, these data clearly indicated that CqTRP1 was likely to be associated with the anti-WSSV response in a crustacean C. quadricarinatus, which provides new strategy against white spot disease in crustacean aquaculture.

Thymosin β4 promotes endothelial progenitor cell angiogenesis via a vascular endothelial growth factor‑dependent mechanism

Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) are a promising cell source for tissue repair and regeneration, predominantly through angiogenesis promotion. Paracrine functions serve a pivotal role in EPC‑mediated angiogenesis, which may be impaired by various cardiovascular risk factors. Therefore, it is important to identify a solution that optimizes the paracrine function of EPCs. Thymosin β4 (Tβ4) is a peptide with the potential to promote tissue regeneration and wound healing. A previous study demonstrated that Tβ4 enhances the EPC‑mediated angiogenesis of the ischemic myocardium. In the present study, whether Tβ4 improved angiogenesis by enhancing the paracrine effects of EPCs was investigated. A tube formation assay was used to assess the effect of angiogenesis, and the paracrine effects were measured using an ELISA kit. The results indicated that Tβ4 improved the paracrine effects of EPCs, evidenced by an increase in the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). EPC‑conditioned medium (EPC‑CM) significantly promoted human umbilical vein endothelial cell angiogenesis in vitro, which was further enhanced by pretreatment with Tβ4. The effect of Tβ4 pretreated EPC‑CM on angiogenesis was abolished by VEGF neutralizing antibody in vitro, indicating that increased VEGF secretion had a pivotal role in Tβ4‑mediated EPC angiogenesis. Furthermore, transplantation of EPCs pretreated with Tβ4 into infarcted rat hearts resulted in significantly higher VEGF expression in the border zone, compared with EPC transplantation alone. To further investigate whether the Akt/eNOS pathway was involved in Tβ4‑induced VEGF secretion in EPCs, the expression levels of VEGF in EPC‑CM were significantly decreased following knockdown of Akt or eNOS by small interfering RNA transfection. In conclusion, Tβ4 significantly increased angiogenesis by enhancing the paracrine effects of EPCs, evidenced by the increased expression of VEGF. The RAC‑α serine/threonine‑protein kinase/endothelial nitric oxide synthase signal transduction pathway was involved in the regulation of Tβ4‑induced VEGF secretion in EPCs. Further studies are required to investigate the long‑term prognosis of patients with coronary heart disease following Tβ4‑pretreated EPC transplantation.

Effect of vitamin A deficiency on thymosin-β4 and CD4 concentrations

Vitamins are evaluated for their role in immunity. Recently, vitamin A received a particular attention as a critical micronutrient for regulating immune system. Therefore, the present study aimed to search for new about vitamin A. Forty-eight Egyptian adults aged from 18 to 42 years old from both sexes were subjected to clinical examination and nutrition questionnaire and were screened for vitamin A by using ELISA method. Forty subjects were selected and subdivided into two groups. Group 1 with vitamin A at level >200 µg/dl consists of 10 healthy subjects. Group 2 with vitamin A deficiency at level <50 µg/dl consists of 30 subjects. Tβ4 and CD4 levels were also determined by a commercial ELISA kit. Results showed a significant decrease in serum levels of Tβ4 and CD4 in group 2 than group 1 at P < .003 and P < .019 respectively. Both of Tβ4 and CD4 had positive correlation with vitamin A level at P < .000 and P < .003 respectively as well as with each other at p < .000. We concluded that vitamin A deficiency may be influence the levels of Tβ4 and CD4.

Inhibition of acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in mice by exogenous thymosinβ4 treatment

OBJECTIVE

To study the effects of exogenous thymosinβ4 (Tβ4) treatment in acetaminophen (APAP)-induced hepatotoxicity.

METHODS

Liver injury was induced in mice by a single intraperitoneal injection of APAP (500 mg/kg). Exogenous Tβ4 was intraperitoneally administrated at 0 h, 2 h and 4 h after APAP injection. Chloroquine (CQ) (60 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally injected 2 h before APAP administration to inhibit autophagy. Six hours after APAP injection liver injury was evaluated by histological examinations, biochemical measurements and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISAs). Western blots were performed to detect proteins expression.

RESULTS

Serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities were significantly increased 6 h after APAP administration, but were significantly reduced by co-administration of Tβ4. Histological examinations demonstrated that Tβ4 reduced necrosis and inflammation induced by APAP. Immunofluorescence showed that Tβ4 suppressed APAP-induced translocation of high mobility group box-1 protein (HMGB1) from the nucleus to cytosol and intercellular space. Hepatic glutathione (GSH) depletion, malondialdehyde (MDA) formation and decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities induced by APAP were all attenuated by Tβ4. APAP-induced increases in hepatic nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 protein expression and inflammatory cytokines production including interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were reduced by Tβ4 treatment. Increased LC3 and p62 proteins in the liver tissues of APAP-treated mice were decreased by Tβ4 treatment, which indicated the enhancement of autophagy flux by Tβ4. Furthermore, inhibiting autophagy by CQ abrogated the protective effects of Tβ4 against APAP hepatotoxicity.

CONCLUSION

Exogenous Tβ4 treatment exerts protective effects against APAP-induced hepatotoxicity in mice. The underneath molecular mechanisms may involve autophagy enhancement and inhibition of oxidative stress by Tβ4.

Water-Soluble Nanoparticle Receptors Supramolecularly Coded for Acidic Peptides

Sequence-specific recognition of peptides is of enormous importance to many chemical and biological applications, but has been difficult to achieve due to the minute differences in the side chains of amino acids. Acidic peptides are known to play important roles in cell growth and gene expression. In this work, we report molecularly imprinted micelles coded with molecular recognition information for the acidic and hydrophobic side chains of acidic peptides. The imprinted receptors could distinguish acidic amino acids from other polar and nonpolar amino acids, with dissociation constants of tens of nanomolar for biologically active peptides containing up to 18 amino acids.

Effects of exogenous thymosin β4 on carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury and fibrosis

The present study investigated the effects of exogenous thymosin β4 (TB4) on carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced acute liver injury and fibrosis in rodent animals. Results showed that both in mice and rats CCl₄ rendered significant increases in serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase, hepatic malondialdehyde formation, decreases in antioxidants including superoxide dismutase and glutathione, and up-regulated expressions of transforming growth factor-β1, α-smooth muscle actin, tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β in the liver tissues. Hydroxyproline contents in the rat livers were increased by CCl₄. Histopathological examinations indicated that CCl₄ induced extensive necrosis in mice livers and pseudo-lobule formations, collagen deposition in rats livers. However, all these changes in mice and rats were significantly attenuated by exogenous TB4 treatment. Furthermore, up-regulations of nuclear factor-κB p65 protein expression by CCl₄ treatment in mice and rats livers were also remarkably reduced by exogenous TB4 administration. Taken together, findings in this study suggested that exogenous TB4 might prevent CCl₄-induced acute liver injury and subsequent fibrosis through alleviating oxidative stress and inflammation.

The Hidden Function of Vitamin D

AIM:

There are no reports regarding the influence of vitamin D on thymosin ß4 and the cluster of differentiation CD4 levels which are important for maintaining a healthy immune system. Consequently, we aimed to explore this relationship through a study.

MATERIAL AND METHODS:

The study was carried out on 35 subjects, screened for 25-hydroxy vitamin D[25 (OH) D] using ELISA method and they were divided into two groups: Group 1 consists of 10 healthy subjects with sufficient vit. D level > 24.8 ng/ml. Group 2 consists of 25 subjects suffering, severely, from vitamin D deficiency at level < 11.325 ng/ml. Also, Thymosin ß4, CD4 and zinc levels were performed.

RESULTS:

There were significant differences between the two groups in the concentration levels of thymosin β4, as the group 1 has shown higher levels (P = 0.005). Whereas, CD4 and zinc levels didn’t show any significant difference between the two groups. At the same time, a significant positive correlation has been observed between vitamin D, thymosin β4, and CD4 at (r = 0.719; P = 0.001), and (r = 0.559, P = 0.001) respectively.

CONCLUSION:

We concluded that vitamin D may be an essential factor that influence or determine the level of thymosin β4. This study is the first that focused on demonstrating that sufficient level of vitamin D may have the ability to influence the thymic hormone thymosin β4 levels. Further studies on large scale of subjects are needed to explore the positive correlation we had found between vitamin D and thymosin β4 and CD4.

Increased Expression of Thymosin β4 Is Independently Correlated with Hypoxia Inducible Factor-1α (HIF-1α) and Worse Clinical Outcome in Human Colorectal Cancer

Background

Thymosin β₄ is a multi-functional hormone-like polypeptide, being involved in cell migration, angiogenesis, and tumor metastasis. This study was undertaken to clarify the clinicopathologic implications of thymosin β₄ expression in human colorectal cancers (CRCs).

Methods

We investigated tissue sections from 143 patients with CRC by immunohistochemistry. In addition, we evaluated the expression patterns and the clinico-pathological significance of thymosin β₄ expression in association with hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) expression in the CRC series.

Results

High expression of thymosin β₄ was significantly correlated with lymphovascular invasion, invasion depth, regional lymph node metastasis, distant metastasis, and TNM stage. Patients with high expression of thymosin β₄ showed poor recurrence-free survival (p = .001) and poor overall survival (p = .005) on multivariate analysis. We also found that thymosin β₄ and HIF-1α were overexpressed and that thymosin β₄ expression increased in parallel with HIF-1α expression in CRC.

Conclusions

A high expression level of thymosin β₄ indicates poor clinical outcomes and may be a useful prognostic factor in CRC. Thymosin β₄ is functionally related with HIF-1α and may be a potentially valuable biomarker and possible therapeutic target for CRC.

Thymosin β4 and β10 in Sjögren's syndrome: saliva proteomics and minor salivary glands expression

Background

In the present study, we investigated whether thymosin β (Tβ) in saliva and in minor salivary glands is differentially expressed in patients with primary Sjögren’s syndrome (pSS) and patients with autoimmune diseases (systemic sclerosis [SSc], systemic lupus erythematosus [SLE], and rheumatoid arthritis [RA], with and without sicca syndrome [ss]).

Methods

Saliva specimens of nine patients with pSS, seven with ss/SSc, seven with ss/SLE, seven with ss/RA, seven with SSc, seven with SLE, and seven with RA, as well as ten healthy subjects, were analyzed using a high-performance liquid chromatograph coupled with a mass spectrometer equipped with an electrospray ionization source to investigate the presence and levels of Tβ₄, Tβ₄ sulfoxide, and Tβ₁₀. Immunostaining for Tβ₄ and Tβ₁₀ was performed on minor salivary glands of patients with pSS and ss.

Results

Tβ₄ levels were statistically higher in patients with pSS with respect to the other subgroups. Tβ₁₀ was detectable in 66.7 % of patients with pSS and in 42.8 % of those with ss/SSc, while Tβ₄ sulfoxide was detectable in 44.4 % of patients with pSS and in 42.9 % of those with ss/SSc. Tβ₁₀ and Tβ₄ sulfoxide were not detectable in patients without associated ss and in healthy control subjects. Regarding thymosin immunostaining, all patients had immunoreactivity for Tβ₁₀, and a comparable distribution pattern in the four different subgroups of patients was observed. Tβ₄ immunoreactivity was present in patients with ss/SSc and those with ss/SLE, while it was completely absent in patients with pSS and those with ss/RA.

Conclusions

Our data show that higher salivary Tβ expression characterizes patients with pSS, while Tβ₄ sulfoxide and Tβ₁₀ salivary expression was selectively present in patients with sicca symptoms. Moreover, at the immunohistochemical level in patients with pSS, minor salivary glands showed a peculiar pattern characterized by immunostaining for Tβ₁₀ in acinar cells in the absence of any reactivity for Tβ₄. These findings, taken together, suggest a different role for Tβ₄ and Tβ₁₀ in patients with pSS who have ss and other autoimmune disease.

The TMSB4 Pseudogene LncRNA Functions as a Competing Endogenous RNA to Promote Cartilage Degradation in Human Osteoarthritis

Mechanical stress plays a key role in the development of cartilage degradation in osteoarthritis (OA). Nevertheless, the role of long noncoding RNAs in mechanical stress-induced regulation of chondrocytes remains unclear. The aim of this study was to explore the function of mechanical stress-related long noncoding RNAs in cartilage. Tissue samples were collected from 50 patients and chondrocytes were exposed to cyclic tensile strain (CTS). A total of 107 lncRNAs were differentially expressed in damaged cartilage versus intact cartilage. Of these lncRNAs, 51 were upregulated and 56 were downregulated in the damaged tissue. The TMSB4 pseudogene, lncRNA-MSR, was upregulated in the damaged cartilage and was activated in chondrocytes in response to mechanical stress. Furthermore, lncRNA-MSR regulated the expression of TMSB4 by competing with miRNA-152 in chondrocytes. Our results demonstrated that upregulation of lncRNA-MSR initiates pathological changes that lead to cartilage degradation, and the inhibition of lncRNA-MSR could represent a potential therapeutic target for OA.

Effect of Antifibrotic MicroRNAs Crosstalk on the Action of N-acetyl-seryl-aspartyl-lysyl-proline in Diabetes-related Kidney Fibrosis

N-acetyl-seryl-aspartyl-lysyl-proline (AcSDKP) is an endogenous antifibrotic peptide. We found that suppression of AcSDKP and induction of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4), which is associated with insufficient levels of antifibrotic microRNA (miR)s in kidneys, were imperative to understand the mechanisms of fibrosis in the diabetic kidneys. Analyzing streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mouse strains, diabetic CD-1 mice with fibrotic kidneys could be differentiated from less-fibrotic diabetic 129Sv mice by suppressing AcSDKP and antifibrotic miRs (miR-29s and miR-let-7s), as well as by the prominent induction of DPP-4 protein expression/activity and endothelial to mesenchymal transition. In diabetic CD-1 mice, these alterations were all reversed by AcSDKP treatment. Transfection studies in culture endothelial cells demonstrated crosstalk regulation of miR-29s and miR-let-7s against mesenchymal activation program; such bidirectional regulation could play an essential role in maintaining the antifibrotic program of AcSDKP. Finally, we observed that AcSDKP suppression in fibrotic mice was associated with induction of both interferon-γ and transforming growth factor-β signaling, crucial molecular pathways that disrupt antifibrotic miRs crosstalk. The present study provides insight into the physiologically relevant antifibrotic actions of AcSDKP via antifibrotic miRs; restoring such antifibrotic programs could demonstrate potential utility in combating kidney fibrosis in diabetes.

MALDI imaging mass spectrometry analysis-A new approach for protein mapping in multiple sclerosis brain lesions

Multiple sclerosis is a disease of the central nervous system characterized by recurrent inflammatory demyelinating lesions in the early disease stage. Lesion formation and mechanisms leading to lesion remyelination are not fully understood. Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionisation Mass Spectrometry imaging (MALDI-IMS) is a technology which analyses proteins and peptides in tissue, preserves their spatial localization, and generates molecular maps within the tissue section. In a pilot study we employed MALDI imaging mass spectrometry to profile and identify peptides and proteins expressed in normal-appearing white matter, grey matter and multiple sclerosis brain lesions with different extents of remyelination. The unsupervised clustering analysis of the mass spectra generated images which reflected the tissue section morphology in luxol fast blue stain and in myelin basic protein immunohistochemistry. Lesions with low remyelination extent were defined by compounds with molecular weight smaller than 5300Da, while more completely remyelinated lesions showed compounds with molecular weights greater than 15,200Da. An in-depth analysis of the mass spectra enabled the detection of cortical lesions which were not seen by routine luxol fast blue histology. An ion mass, mainly distributed at the rim of multiple sclerosis lesions, was identified by liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry as thymosin beta-4, a protein known to be involved in cell migration and in restorative processes. The ion mass of thymosin beta-4 was profiled by MALDI imaging mass spectrometry in brain slides of 12 multiple sclerosis patients and validated by immunohistochemical analysis. In summary, our results demonstrate the ability of the MALDI-IMS technology to map proteins within the brain parenchyma and multiple sclerosis lesions and to identify potential markers involved in multiple sclerosis pathogenesis and/or remyelination.

Thymosin β4: Roles in Development, Repair, and Engineering of the Cardiovascular System

The burden of cardiovascular disease is a growing worldwide issue that demands attention. While many clinical trials are ongoing to test therapies for treating the heart after myocardial infarction (MI) and heart failure, there are few options doctors able to currently give patients to repair the heart. This eventually leads to decreased ventricular contractility and increased systemic disease, including vascular disorders that could result in stroke. Small peptides such as thymosin β4 (Tβ4) are upregulated in the cardiovascular niche during fetal development and after injuries such as MI, providing increased neovasculogenesis and paracrine signals for endogenous stem cell recruitment to aid in wound repair. New research is looking into the effects of in vivo administration of Tβ4 through injections and coatings on implants, as well as its effect on cell differentiation. Results so far demonstrate Tβ4 administration leads to robust increases in angiogenesis and wound healing in the heart after MI and the brain after stroke, and can differentiate adult stem cells toward the cardiac lineage for implantation to the heart to increase contractility and survival. Future work, some of which is currently in clinical trials, will demonstrate the in vivo effect of these therapies on human patients, with the goal of helping the millions of people worldwide affected by cardiovascular disease.