Tumor necrosis factor or tumor promoting factor?

Sequentially Released Liposomes Enhance Anti-Liver Cancer Efficacy of Tetrandrine and Celastrol-Loaded Coix Seed Oil

Background

A sequential release co-delivery system is an effective strategy to improve anti-cancer efficacy. Herein, multicomponent-based liposomes (TET-CTM/L) loaded with tetrandrine (TET) and celastrol (CEL)-loaded coix seed oil microemulsion (CTM) were fabricated, which showed synergistic anti-liver cancer activities. By virtue of Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) effect, TET-CTM/L can achieve efficient accumulation at the tumor site. TET was released initially to repair abnormal vessels and decrease the fibroblasts, and CTM was released subsequently for eradication of tumor tissue.

Methods

TEM (transmission electron microscopy) and DLS (dynamic light scattering) were adopted to characterize the TET-CTM/L. Flow cytometry was adopted to examine the cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of HepG2 cells. The HepG2 xenograft nude mice were adopted to evaluate the anti-tumor efficacy and systemic safety of TET-CTM/L.

Results

TEM images of TET-CTM/L showed the structure of small particle size of CTM within large-size liposomes, indicating that CTM can be encapsulated in liposomes by film dispersion method. In in vitro studies, TET-CTM/L induced massive apoptosis toward HepG2 cells, indicating synergistic cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells. In in vivo studies, TET-CTM/L displayed diminished systemic toxicity compared to celastrol or TET used alone. TET-CTM/L showed the excellent potential for tumor-targeting ability in a biodistribution study.

Conclusion

Our study provides a new strategy for combining anti-cancer therapy that has good potential not only in the treatment of liver cancer but also can be applied to the treatment of other solid tumors.

Th1 cytokines in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Immune milieus play an important role in various types of cancer. The present study focuses on the effect of Th1 cytokines on pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). The reaction of ALL cell lines and patient-derived xenografts (PDX) to the most important Th1 cytokines TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor alpha) and IFN-γ (interferon gamma) is analyzed and correlated with the respective cytokine receptors and the intracellular signaling molecules. ALL cell lines and ALL PDX display a great heterogeneity in cell death after incubation with TNF-α and IFN-γ. Several samples show a dose-dependent and additive induction of cell death by both cytokines; others do not react at all or even display an increased viability. Apoptosis is the main type of cell death induced by Th1 cytokines in ALL cells. Over all leukemia cells analyzed, IFN-γ receptor (IFNGR) shows a higher expression than both TNF-receptors, resulting in higher phosphorylation of STAT1 (signal transducer and activator of transcription) compared to phosphorylation of NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B-cells) in the TNF pathway. The activation of STAT1 correlates with the amount of cell death after stimulation with Th1 cytokines. TNF-α and IFN-γ lead to heterogeneous reactions in ALL cell lines and ALL PDX but are able to induce cell death by apoptosis in the majority of ALL blasts. The correlation of a high expression of IFNGR and following activation of STAT1 with cell death indicates an important role for IFN-γ signaling in this setting.

Liver organoid culture methods

Organoids, three-dimensional structures cultured in vitro, can recapitulate the microenvironment, complex architecture, and cellular functions of in vivo organs or tissues. In recent decades, liver organoids have been developed rapidly, and their applications in biomedicine, such as drug screening, disease modeling, and regenerative medicine, have been widely recognized. However, the lack of repeatability and consistency, including the lack of standardized culture conditions, has been a major obstacle to the development and clinical application of liver organoids. It is time-consuming for researchers to identify an appropriate medium component scheme, and the usage of some ingredients remains controversial. In this review, we summarized and compared different methods for liver organoid cultivation that have been published in recent years, focusing on controversial medium components and discussing their advantages and drawbacks. We aimed to provide an effective reference for the development and standardization of liver organoid cultivation.

Thymoquinone Inhibition of Chemokines in TNF-α-Induced Inflammatory and Metastatic Effects in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells

The lack of identifiable molecular targets or biomarkers hinders the development of treatment options in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). However, natural products offer a promising alternative by targeting inflammatory chemokines in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Chemokines are crucial in promoting breast cancer growth and metastasis and correlate to the altered inflammatory process. In the present study, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory and antimetastatic effects of the natural product thymoquinone (TQ) on TNF-α-stimulated TNBC cells (MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468) to study the cytotoxic, antiproliferative, anticolony, antimigratory, and antichemokine effects using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reactions, and Western blots were used in sequence to validate the microarray results further. Four downregulated inflammatory cytokines were identified, CCL2 and CCL20 in MDA-MB-468 cells and CCL3 and CCL4 in MDA-MB-231 cells. Furthermore, when TNF-α-stimulated MDA-MB-231 cells were compared with MDA-MB-468 cells, the two cells were sensitive to TQ's antichemokine and antimetastatic effect in preventing cell migration. It was concluded from this investigation that genetically different cell lines may respond to TQ differently, as TQ targets CCL3 and CCL4 in MDA-MB-231 cells and CCL2 and CCL20 in MDA-MB-468 cells. Therefore, the results indicate that TQ may be recommended as a component of the therapeutic strategy for TNBC treatment. These outcomes stem from the compound's capacity to suppress the chemokine. Even though these findings support the usage of TQ as part of a therapy strategy for TNBC associated with the identified chemokine dysregulations, additional in vivo studies are needed to confirm these in vitro results.

Coriolus versicolor and its bioactive molecule are potential immunomodulators against cancer cell metastasis via inactivation of MAPK pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Coriolus versicolor (CV) has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for over 2000 years as a premium medicine for enhancing good health and longevity. The immunomodulatory and anti-cancer effects of polysaccharopeptides (PSP) from cultured CV have been extensively studied; however, the effect and the mechanism of action of other small molecules from CV remain unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

we aim to examine the immunomodulatory and anti-cancer effects of the small molecules from CV (SMCV) and identify the active compounds that are responsible for the biological effects against glioblastoma multiforme cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of SMCV/active compound on cytokine and MMP mRNA expressions and productions were assessed by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. An active compound from SMCV was identified with a bioassay-guided fractionation scheme. The potential mode of action of the active compound was further investigated by identifying the cell signaling pathway. The protein expressions of phospho-ERK, phospho-JNK and phospho-p38 MAPKs were measured by Western Blotting. The anti-invasive effect of SMCV/bioactive compound against T98G, lung carcinoma (A549), and breast adenocarcinoma (MDA-MB-231) cells were determined using invasion assay.

RESULTS

Our results showed that SMCV had strong immunomodulatory effect by suppressing LPS-induced TNF-α production, whereas increasing poly I:C-induced IFN-β level in PBMac. SMCV not only possessed indirect anti-cancer effect by suppressing TNF-α-induced MMP-3 production in glioblastoma T98G cells, but also directly reduced the invasion ability of malignant cells including T98G, A549 and MDA-MB-231. Using bioassay-guided fractionation scheme, we isolated 9-KODE methyl ester (compound AM) that was responsible for the bioactivity of SMCV. This compound suppressed TNF-α-induced MMP-3 production in T98G cells and the suppression may be correlated with the inactivation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Moreover, compound AM also directly reduced T98G cell invasion.

CONCLUSION

Results of our present study provides scientific evidence that SMCV possesses immunomodulatory and anti-cancer effects. Its bioactive compound, compound AM, is a potential new drug candidate against the invasion and metastasis of glioblastoma cells.

Surfeit folic acid, protein, and exercise modify oncogenic inflammatory biomarkers and fecal microbiota

Intestinal microbiota, diet, and physical activity are inextricably linked to inflammation occurring in the presence of tumor progression and declining neurocognition. This study aimed to explore how fecal microbiota, inflammatory biomarkers, and neurocognitive behavior are influenced by voluntary exercise and surplus dietary protein and folic acid which are common health choices. Dietary treatments provided over 8 weeks to C57BL/CJ male mice (N = 76) were: Folic Acid (FA) Protein (P) Control (FPC, 17.9% P; 2 mgFA/kg); Folic Acid Deficient (FAD); Folic Acid Supplemented (FAS; 8 mgFA/kg); Low Protein Diet (LPD, 6% P); and High Protein Diet (HPD, 48% P). FAS mice had decreased plasma HCys (p < 0.05), therefore confirming consumption of FA. Objectives included examining influence of exercise using Voluntary Wheel Running (VWR) upon fecal microbiota, inflammatory biomarkers C - reactive protein (CRP), Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), nuclear factor kappa ß subunit (NF-κßp65), Caspase-3 (CASP3), Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α), and neurocognitive behavior. CRP remained stable, while a significant exercise and dietary effect was notable with decreased VEGF (p < 0.05) and increased CASP3 (p < 0.05) for exercised HPD mice. Consumption of FAS did significantly increase (p < 0.05) muscle TNF-α and the ability to build a nest (p < 0.05) was significantly decreased for both FAD and LPD exercised mice. Rearing behavior was significantly increased (p < 0.05) in mice fed HPD. An emerging pattern with increased dietary protein intake revealed more distance explored in Open Field Testing. At week 1, both weighted and unweighted UniFrac principal coordinates analysis yielded significant clustering (permanova, p ≤ 0.05) associated with the specific diets. Consumption of a HPD diet resulted in the most distinct fecal microbiota composition. At the phylum level-comparing week 1 to week 8-we report a general increase in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, characterized by an outgrowth of Firmicutes by week 8 in all groups except the HPD. MaAsLin2 analysis corroborates this finding and emphasizes an apparent inversion of the microbiome composition at week 8 after HPD. Explicit modification of oncogenic inflammatory biomarkers and fecal microbiome post high FA and protein intake along with voluntary exercise contributed to current underlying evidence that this diet and exercise relationship has broader effects on human health and disease-perhaps importantly as a practical modulation of cancer progression and declining neurocognition.

The association between biomarkers of acrylamide and cancer mortality in U.S. adult population: Evidence from NHANES 2003-2014

The association between acrylamide (AA) and the development of cancer has been extensively discussed but the results remained controversial, especially in population studies. Large prospective epidemiological studies on the relationship of AA exposure with cancer mortality were still lacking. Therefore, we aimed to assess the association between AA biomarkers and cancer mortality in adult population from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2014. We followed 3717 participants for an average of 10.3 years. Cox regression models with multivariable adjustments were performed to determine the relationship of acrylamide hemoglobin adduct (HbAA) and glycidamide hemoglobin adduct (HbGA) with cancer mortality. Mediation analysis was conducted to demonstrate the mediated role of low-grade inflammation score (INFLA-score) in this correlation. Compared with the lowest quintile, participants with the highest quintile of HbAA, HbGA and HbAA+HbGA had increased cancer mortality risk, and the hazard ratios(HRs) were 2.07 (95%CI:1.04-4.14) for HbAA, 2.39 (95%CI:1.29-4.43) for HbGA and 2.48 (95%CI:1.28-4.80) for HbAA+HbGA, respectively. And there was a considerable non-linearity association between HbAA and cancer mortality (pfor non-linearity = 0.0139). We further found that increased INFLA-score significantly mediated 71.67% in the effect of HbGA exposure on increased cancer mortality risk. This study demonstrates that hemoglobin biomarkers of AA are positively associated with cancer mortality in adult American population and INFLA-score plays a mediated role in this process. Our findings can raise public awareness of environmental and dietary exposure to acrylamide and remind people to refrain from smoking or having acrylamide-rich foods.

Combinatorial approaches of nanotherapeutics for inflammatory pathway targeted therapy of prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PC) is the most prevalent male urogenital cancer worldwide. PC patients presenting an advanced or metastatic cancer succumb to the disease, even after therapeutic interventions including radiotherapy, surgery, androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), and chemotherapy. One of the hallmarks of PC is evading immune surveillance and chronic inflammation, which is a major challenge towards designing effective therapeutic formulations against PC. Chronic inflammation in PC is often characterized by tumor microenvironment alterations, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and extracellular matrix modifications. The inflammatory events are modulated by reactive nitrogen and oxygen species, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Major signaling pathways in PC includes androgen receptor, PI3K and NF-κB pathways and targeting these inter-linked pathways poses a major therapeutic challenge. Notably, many conventional treatments are clinically unsuccessful, due to lack of targetability and poor bioavailability of the therapeutics, untoward toxicity and multidrug resistance. The past decade witnessed an advancement of nanotechnology as an excellent therapeutic paradigm for PC therapy. Modern nanovectorization strategies such as stimuli-responsive and active PC targeting carriers offer controlled release patterns and superior anti-cancer effects. The current review initially describes the classification, inflammatory triggers and major inflammatory pathways of PC, various PC treatment strategies and their limitations. Subsequently, recent advancement in combinatorial nanotherapeutic approaches, which target PC inflammatory pathways, and the mechanism of action are discussed. Besides, the current clinical status and prospects of PC homing nanovectorization, and major challenges to be addressed towards the advancement PC therapy are also addressed.

The risk of newly diagnosed cancer in patients with rheumatoid arthritis by TNF inhibitor use: a nationwide cohort study

Background

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) inhibitors use in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has raised safety concerns about cancer risk, but study results remain controversial. This largest nationwide study to date compared cancer risk in TNF inhibitor users to non-biologic disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drug (nbDMARD) users in Korean patients with RA.

Methods

Data on all the eligible patients diagnosed with RA between 2005 and 2016 were retrieved from the Korean National Health Information Database. The one-to-one matched patients consisted of the matched cohort. The risks for developing all-type and site-specific cancers were estimated using incidence and incidence rate (IR) per 1000 person-years. Adjusted hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were estimated using a Cox regression model.

Results

Of the 22,851 patients in the before matching cohort, 4592 patients were included in the matched cohort. Treatment with TNF inhibitors was consistently associated with a lower risk of cancer than in the nbDMARD cohort (IR per 1000 person-years, 6.5 vs. 15.6; adjusted HR, 0.379; 95% CI, 0.255–0.563). The adjusted HR (95% CI) was significantly lower in the TNF inhibitor cohort than the nbDMARD cohort for gastrointestinal cancer (0.432; 0.235–0.797), breast cancer (0.146; 0.045–0.474), and genitourinary cancer (0.220; 0.059–0.820).

Conclusions

The use of TNF inhibitors was not associated with an increased risk of cancer development, and rather associated with a lower cancer incidence in Korean patients with RA. Cautious interpretation is needed not to oversimplify the study results as cancer-protective effects of TNF inhibitors. A further study linking claims and clinical data is needed to confirm our results.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13075-022-02868-w.

Risks of Melanoma and Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers Pre- and Post-Inflammatory Bowel Disease Diagnosis

BACKGROUND

We compared risks of nonmelanoma skin cancers (NMSCs) and melanoma preceding and following a diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and to evaluate the effect of thiopurines and anti-tumor necrosis factor α (anti-TNF-α) on skin cancer risk in IBD.

METHODS

This was a retrospective, historical cohort study using the population-based University of Manitoba IBD Epidemiology Database (11 228 IBD cases and 104 725 matched controls) linked to the Manitoba Cancer Registry. Logistic and Cox regression analyses were performed to calculate skin cancer risks prior to and after IBD diagnosis.

RESULTS

Persons with ulcerative colitis (UC) were more likely to have basal cell carcinoma (BCC) predating their UC diagnosis (odds ratio, 1.32; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.08-1.60). Risks of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), other NMSCs, or melanoma prior to IBD diagnosis were not significantly increased. Post-IBD diagnosis, risks of BCC (hazard ratio, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.37-1.70) and SCC (hazard ratio, 1.61; 95% CI, 1.29-2.01) were significantly increased across all IBD groups except for SCC in UC. There was no significant association between melanoma and IBD post-IBD diagnosis. The risks of BCC and melanoma were increased in thiopurine and anti-TNF users, and risk of SCC was increased in only thiopurine users. Nested cohort analysis of persons with IBD with censoring at both thiopurines and anti-TNF use confirmed a higher baseline risk of BCC and no effect on SCC, comparable to pre-IBD diagnosis findings.

CONCLUSIONS

The risk of BCC preceding a diagnosis of UC is higher than in non-UC controls, compared with a generally increased risk of all NMSCs post-IBD diagnosis. Thiopurine and anti-TNF therapy increase the risks for skin cancers in persons with IBD after their diagnoses.

The Roles of TNF Signaling Pathways in Metabolism of Bone Tumors

The metabolism of bone tumors is extraordinarily complex and involves many signaling pathways and processes, including the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling pathway, which consists of TNF factors and the TNF receptors that belong to the TNF receptor superfamily (TNFRSF). It is appreciated that signaling events and pathways involving TNFRSF components are essential in coordinating the functions of multiple cell types that act as a host defense network against pathogens and malignant cells, the implications of TNFRSF-related signaling pathways on bone tumor metabolism remain to be summarized, which is one of the significant obstacles to the application of TNF-related treatment modalities in the domain of bone oncology. This review will discuss and summarize the anti-tumor properties of important TNFRSF components concerning osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, and Ewing sarcoma.

Cancer Immunoediting: Elimination, Equilibrium, and Immune Escape in Solid Tumors

Emphasizing the dynamic processes between cancer and host immune system, the initially discovered concept of cancer immunosurveillance has been replaced by the current concept of cancer immunoediting consisting of three phases: elimination, equilibrium, and escape. Solid tumors composed of both cancer and host stromal cells are an example how the three phases of cancer immunoediting functionally evolve and how tumor shaped by the host immune system gets finally resistant phenotype. The elimination, equilibrium, and escape have been described in this chapter in details, including the role of immune surveillance, cancer dormancy, disruption of the antigen-presenting machinery, tumor-infiltrating immune cells, resistance to apoptosis, as well as the function of tumor stroma, microvesicles, exosomes, and inflammation.

Microbial Colonization and Inflammation as Potential Contributors to the Lack of Therapeutic Success in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

This review discusses the microenvironment of evolving and established conventional oral squamous cell carcinoma, by far the most common oral cancer. The focus of this paper is mainly on the more recent data that describe the role of microorganisms, host-microbial interactions, and in particular, the contributions of cell-surface toll-like receptors on immune system cells and on normal and malignant epithelial cells to their functions that support carcinogenesis. Because carcinomas arising at various host surfaces share much in common, additional information available from studies of other carcinomas is included in the discussion. Accumulating evidence reveals the complex toll-like receptor-mediated tumor-supporting input into many aspects of carcinogenesis via malignant cells, stromal immune cells and non-immune cells, complicating the search for effective treatments.

The Association of TNF-α Promoter Polymorphisms with Genetic Susceptibility to Cervical Cancer in a Chinese Han Population

Background

The tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) gene plays an important role in the host immune response, which will influence the development and clearance of cancer. Polymorphism of the TNF-α promoter region is considered to influence its transcription and be a risk factor for tumorigenesis. In the current study, we evaluated the role of TNF-α promoter region polymorphisms in susceptibility to cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and cervical cancer (CC).

Methods

A total of 2732 subjects, including 1173 healthy controls, 579 patients with CIN and 980 patients with CC in a Chinese Han population, were selected for the current study. Five SNPs in the TNF-α promoter, rs1799964 (−1031 C>T), rs1800630 (−863 A>C), rs1799724 (−857 C>T), rs1800629 (−308 A>G) and rs361525 (−238 A>G), were selected and genotyped using TaqMan Assays. The association of these SNPs with CIN and cervical cancer was evaluated among healthy controls, CIN and CC patients.

Results

The frequency distribution of rs1800629 and rs361525 alleles was significantly different between the CC group and the control group (P=0.009 and P=0.002). The rs1800629 A allele was found to be a protective factor for CC (OR=0.72; 95% CI=0.56–0.92). The rs361525 A allele was found to be a risk factor for CC (OR=1.69; 95% CI=1.21–2.38). After pathological subtyping of CC, the allele distribution of rs1800629 and rs361525 were both significantly different between the cervical squamous cell carcinoma and control groups (P=0.002 and P<0.001). The rs1800629 A allele was protective factor for cervical squamous cell carcinoma (OR=0.66; 95% CI=0.50–0.86). The rs361525 A allele was a risk factor for cervical squamous cell carcinoma (OR=1.87; 95% CI=1.32–2.65). Moreover, the genotypic frequency of rs361525 was significantly different between cervical cancer stage I and stage II (P=0.003).

Conclusion

The rs1800629 and rs361525 in the TNF-α promoter are associated with susceptibility to CC in the Chinese Han population.

Gamma-Oryzanol-Rich Fraction from Purple Rice Extract Attenuates Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Inflammatory Responses, Migration and VEGFA Production in SW480 Cells via Modulation of TLR4 and NF-κB Pathways

Inflammatory response facilitating colorectal cancer (CRC) progression is a serious event following operative infection, which can occur in CRC patients. This event is mainly mediated by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), via a toll like receptor 4 (TLR4) and NF-κB. Hexane soluble fraction (HSF) from purple rice extract (PRE) has been identified as a γ-oryzanol (OR)-rich fraction. Recently, HSF possessed inhibitory effect of LPS-stimulated metastasis of human colon cancer SW480 cells, however the related mechanism was unknown. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effect of HSF on inflammatory response-associated cancer progression of LPS-stimulated SW480 cells. The various inflammatory mediators, vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGFA) and related pathways were evaluated by Western blot and ELISA. Furthermore, cell migration was also determined by migration assays. Of all, HSF seemed to be stronger than OR to attenuate the responsiveness of LPS on various inflammatory mediators, which was related to an obvious reduction of cancer cell migration as well as indistinct disruption on VEGFA production in SW480 cells, via downregulation of TLR4 and NF-κB. Therefore, OR-rich fraction from PRE, against the subsequent inflammatory response and CRC progression following surgery, which could be combined with conventional treatments to increase the survival rate.

NHS-IL12, a Tumor-Targeting Immunocytokine

NHS-IL12 is a novel immunocytokine designed for delivery of IL-12 to the tumor microenvironment (TME). NHS-IL12 consists of two molecules of IL-12 fused to a human IgG1 (NHS76) recognizing DNA/histone complexes, which are often exposed in the necrotic portions of tumors. Preclinical studies demonstrated the tumor-targeting ability and longer plasma half-life for NHS-IL12 when compared with recombinant IL-12 (rIL-12). NHS-IL12 outperformed rIL-12 in enhancing the proliferation and activation of immune as well as antigen-presenting cells, resulting in a more robust primary immune response. NHS-IL12 also reduced the number and function of suppressive myeloid cells (myeloid derived suppressor cells/macrophages) within the TME. In a murine bladder tumor model, NHS-IL12 administration led to a coordinated increase in host immunity with a reduction of immunosuppressive myeloid cells in the TME resulting in substantial reduction in tumor growth. Several preclinical studies have demonstrated increased overall anti-tumor efficacy when NHS-IL12 was combined with either immune-based therapeutics or chemotherapeutic approaches.

The Role of Tumor Inflammatory Microenvironment in Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is the most common and fatal malignant tumor in the world. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is closely related to the occurrence and development of lung cancer, in which the inflammatory microenvironment plays an important role. Inflammatory cells and inflammatory factors in the tumor inflammatory microenvironment promote the activation of the NF-κB and STAT3 inflammatory pathways and the occurrence, development, and metastasis of lung cancer by promoting immune escape, tumor angiogenesis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, apoptosis, and other mechanisms. Clinical and epidemiological studies have also shown a strong relationship among chronic infection, inflammation, inflammatory microenvironment, and lung cancer. The relationship between inflammation and lung cancer can be better understood through the gradual understanding of the tumor inflammatory microenvironment, which is advantageous to find more therapeutic targets for lung cancer.

Prophylactic Cancer Vaccines Engineered to Elicit Specific Adaptive Immune Response

Vaccines have been used to prevent and eradicate different diseases for over 200 years, and new vaccine technologies have the potential to prevent many common illnesses. Cancer, despite many advances in therapeutics, is still the second leading causes of death in the United States. Prophylactic, or preventative, cancer vaccines have the potential to reduce cancer prevalence by initiating a specific immune response that will target cancer before it can develop. Cancer vaccines can include many different components, such as peptides and carbohydrates, and be fabricated for delivery using a variety of means including through incorporation of stabilizing chemicals like polyethylene glycol (PEG) and pan-DR helper T-lymphocyte epitope (PADRE), fusion with antigen-presenting cells (APCs), microneedle patches, and liposomal encapsulation. There are currently five cancer vaccines used in the clinic, protecting against either human papillomavirus (HPV) or hepatitis B virus (HBV), and preventing several different types of cancer including cervical and oral cancer. Prophylactic cancer vaccines can promote three different types of adaptive responses: humoral (B cell, or antibody-mediated), cellular (T cell) or a combination of the two types. Each vaccine has its advantages and challenges at eliciting an adaptive immune response, but these prophylactic cancer vaccines in development have the potential to prevent or delay tumor development, and reduce the incidence of many common cancers.

Defensive impact of propolis against CCl4 actuated rats' testicular damage

Objective:

The paper’s primary goal is to report the devastating impact of carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) on rat testicular tissue and the possible protecting function of propolis against CCl₄ based on its free radical scavenging and inflammatory relief properties.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 24 adult male albino rats had been classified into four groups (six rats/group). Rats of group 1 served as control, whereas groups 2–4 received propolis (200 mg/kg/day), CCl₄ (3 ml/kg/day), and propolis/CCl₄, respectively. After 4 weeks, the collected sera were applied for the estimation of lipid profile and sex hormones. Also, histopathological picture, malondialdehyde, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) gene profile was measured in collected testicular tissues.

Results:

The present information revealed a noteworthy change (p < 0.05) in lipid profile, decrease in testicular weight, testosterone, antioxidants values along with a prominent increase (p < 0.05) in estradiol, lipid peroxidation values, and expression of TNFα in rats administrated with CCl₄ compared to control. Moreover, the histopathological profile showed the degeneration of the epithelium. Interestingly, propolis attenuated the destructive effect of CCl₄ on rat testes.

Conclusion:

The examined dose of propolis reduced oxidation, and inflammatory reactions resulted from CCl₄ exposure and proved that it might have a helpful part in free radicals interceded diseases.

Benzene-associated immunosuppression and chronic inflammation in humans: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Recent evidence has accumulated that the immune system is intimately intertwined with cancer development. Two key characteristics of carcinogens in which the immune system plays a central role are chronic inflammation and immunosuppression. In this systematic review, we investigated the association of chronic inflammatory and immunosuppressive outcomes with benzene, a widely used industrial chemical. Benzene has been confirmed to cause acute myeloid leukaemia and suspected to cause non-Hodgkin lymphoma, two cancers of the blood-forming system that affect immune cells.

METHODS

We systematically searched PubMed and Embase for all relevant studies using a combination of Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and selected key words. The detailed review protocol, including search strategy, was registered with PROSPERO, the international prospective register of systematic reviews (#CRD42019138611).

RESULTS

Based on all human studies selected in the final review, we report new evidence of a benzene-induced immunosuppressive effect on the adaptive immune system and activation of the innate immune system to cause inflammation. In particular, benzene significantly lowers the number of white blood cells, particularly lymphocytes such as CD4+ T-cells, B-cells and natural killer cells, and increases proinflammatory biomarkers at low levels of exposure.

CONCLUSION

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive review of benzene's immunotoxicity in humans. Based on results obtained from this review, we propose two potential immunotoxic mechanisms of how benzene induces leukaemia/lymphoma: (1) cancer invasion caused by proinflammatory cytokine production, and (2) cancer promotion via impaired immunosurveillance. Further studies will be required to confirm the connection between benzene exposure and its effects on the immune system.

TNF, IL-6, and IL-10 cytokines levels and their polymorphisms in renal function and time after transplantation

Cytokine polymorphisms can influence their plasma levels and thus affect the immune response in renal transplantation. A total of 146 renal transplant recipients (RTR) were classified into groups according to the estimated glomerular filtration rate (R1: < 60 and R2: ≥ 60 mL/min/1.73 m²) and time after transplantation (T1: 1 to 24, T2: 25 to 60, T3: 61 to 120, and T4: > 120 months after transplantation). The polymorphisms were genotyped by single specific primer-polymerase chain reaction. IL-10 was measured by ELISA and IL-6, and TNF levels were determined using Miliplex®. A higher frequency of the - 308G allele and the - 308G/G genotype, low-producer, was observed in the R1 group compared with R2. In addition, a higher frequency of the - 308A carriers, high-producer, was found in the R2 group. However, no significant difference was observed in cytokine levels when both groups were compared. Higher levels of IL-6 were observed in T1 compared with T2 and T4 groups. Lower IL-6 levels were found in T2 compared with T3 group. Lower levels of IL-10 were also found in T1 group in relation to T2, while higher levels of this cytokine were observed in T2 group compared with T3. The results suggest that the - 308G > A polymorphism in the TNF gene is associated with filtration function after renal transplantation, and IL-6 and IL-10 levels change according to the time after transplantation. Thus, the joint evaluation of - 308G > A polymorphism in TNF gene and IL-6 and IL-10 levels would provide a broader and effective view on the clinical monitoring of RTR.

Polymorphisms in the Tumor Necrosis Factor Genes Are Associated with Breast Cancer in the Moroccan Population

Background: The multifunctional cytokines of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family have been found to be involved in the promotion of inflammatory responses, and to play critical roles in the pathogenesis of inflammatory, autoimmune, and malignant diseases. The aim of the present study was to assess the associations among the TNFα -238 G > A (rs361525), TNFα -308 G > A (rs1800629), and TNFβ +252 A>G (rs909253) polymorphisms, and the breast cancer (BC) susceptibility in the Moroccan population. Materials and Methods: We conducted a case-control study, including 492 participants made up of 264 pathologically confirmed BC subjects, and 228 healthy women as controls. The samples were genotyped by means of polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses. Results: The TNFα -238 G > A and TNFα -308 G > A polymorphisms were significantly associated with increased risk of BC for the AA genotype, while, the AG genotype of TNFβ +252 A>G may offer a protective effect in this population. Haplotypic analyses showed that the GAA and AAG haplotypes increased the risk significantly for BC. Moreover, a significant association was observed between polymorphisms at the TNFα -238 A>G locus and the clinical profiles of the patients with regard to their estrogen-and progesterone-positive receptor status. Conclusion: These findings indicate that TNF gene polymorphisms are linked with the risk of BC in the Moroccan population. Further studies implementing a larger sample size are needed to support our findings.

The impact of vitamin D supplementation on VDR gene expression and body composition in monozygotic twins: randomized controlled trial

Vitamin D supplementation is widely used. However, there is no consensus on the use and dosage of this supplement and the existing recommendations arise from studies based on the benefits that this nutrient can facilitate in bones. In addition, individual genetics can influence the response to supplementation, therefore, research involving monozygotic twins aims to reduce these differences in phenotypic responses. The objective of this randomised controlled study is to examine the effect of vitamin D supplementation on body composition and the expression of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) mRNA. An intervention was performed through supplementation with cholecalciferol at the concentration of 2000 IU in 90 healthy adult monozygotic twins (male or female pairs) for 2 months. The findings showed that serum vitamin D concentration increased by 65% and VDR gene expression sixty times (p = 0.001). Changes in body composition parameters were observed regarding body fat and lean mass. Our results indicate that an increase in serum vitamin D concentration may have potential therapeutic implications.

Sex Hormones and Inflammation Role in Oral Cancer Progression: A Molecular and Biological Point of View

Oral cancers have been proven to arise from precursors lesions and to be related to risk behaviour such as alcohol consumption and smoke. However, the present paper focuses on the role of chronic inflammation, related to chronical oral infections and/or altered immune responses occurring during dysimmune and autoimmune diseases, in the oral cancerogenesis. Particularly, oral candidiasis and periodontal diseases introduce a vicious circle of nonhealing and perpetuation of the inflammatory processes, thus leading toward cancer occurrence via local and systemic inflammatory modulators and via genetic and epigenetic factors.

Effects of Melatonin and Flavonoid-Rich Fractions of Chromolaena odorata on the Alteration of Proinflammatory Cytokines and Nitric Oxide Induced by Aflatoxin B1 in the Gastric Mucosa of Wistar Rats

In this study, we investigated serum interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) after ingestion of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in rats. We also studied the effects of nitric oxide (NO) on the stomach after consumption of AFB1. Therefore, we hypothesized that a standard anti-inflammatory agent-melatonin (MEL), and the flavonoid-rich fractions from Chromolaena odorata (FRFC) could counteract the deleterious effects of IL-1β, TNF-α, and NO after consumption of AFB1. Thirty-five Wistar rats (211.86 ± 27.23 g) were randomly selected into 5 groups, with 7 rats in each group. Group A (control); all rats in groups B, C, D, and E received 2.5 mg/kg AFB1 each orally on day 5, whereas those of groups C, D, and E received oral administration of 10 mg/kg MEL, 50 mg/kg FRFC₁, and 100 mg/kg FRFC₂, respectively, for 7 days. All of them were killed on the 8th day, 24 h after last treatment. Serum samples were analyzed for IL-1β and TNF-α, whereas stomach tissue was evaluated for NO level. Significant (P < 0.5) increase in serum IL-1β and TNF-α in rats given AFB1 only was recorded when compared with those in the control group. Conversely, we observed significant reduction in serum IL-1β and TNF-α in all the groups that received MEL, FRFC₁, and FRFC₂ after pretreatment with AFB1 when compared with those that were given AFB1 only. In addition, there was a significant increase in NO in rats given AFB1 only when compared with control, whereas reduction in NO was significant in the groups C, D, and E that were given MEL, FRFC₁, and FRFC₂, respectively, when compared with AFB1 group. MEL and FRFC may be responsible for the prevention of increased gastric mucosal NO and inflammatory effects of proinflammatory cytokines induced by AFB1.

TRIM59 loss in M2 macrophages promotes melanoma migration and invasion by upregulating MMP-9 and Madcam1

The culture supernatant from macrophages overexpressing TRIM59 has a cytotoxic effect on melanoma, but the mechanism remains unclear. To investigate whether deletion of TRIM59 in macrophages affects the metastatic potential of melanoma cells, we polarized control and TRIM59-deficient bone marrow-derived macrophages to the M2 phenotype and collected the respective conditioned media (CM). Exposure to CM from TRIM59^-/--M2 cultures significantly promoted migration and invasion by B16-F0 and B16-F10 cells. Cytokine profiling indicated a ~15-fold increase in TNF-α production in CM from TRIM59^-/--M2 cultures, and neutralizing TNF-α activity abrogated the referred stimulatory effects on cell motility. Transcriptome analysis revealed significant upregulation of MMP-9 and Madcam1 in melanoma cells exposed to TRIM59^-/--M2 CM. Inhibitory experiments determined that these changes were also TNF-α-dependent and mediated by activation of ERK signaling. Independent knockdown of MMP9 and Madcam1 in B16-F10 cells impeded epithelial-mesenchymal transition and inhibited subcutaneous tumor growth and formation of metastatic lung nodules in vivo. These data suggest TRIM59 expression attenuates the tumor-promoting effect of tumor-associated macrophages, most of which resemble the M2 phenotype. Moreover, they highlight the relevance of TRIM59 in macrophages as a potential regulator of tumor metastasis and suggest TRIM59 could serve as a novel target for cancer immunotherapy.

Immunity, Hypoxia, and Metabolism-the Ménage à Trois of Cancer: Implications for Immunotherapy

It is generally accepted that metabolism is able to shape the immune response. Only recently we are gaining awareness that the metabolic crosstalk between different tumor compartments strongly contributes to the harsh tumor microenvironment (TME) and ultimately impairs immune cell fitness and effector functions. The major aims of this review are to provide an overview on the immune system in cancer; to position oxygen shortage and metabolic competition as the ground of a restrictive TME and as important players in the anti-tumor immune response; to define how immunotherapies affect hypoxia/oxygen delivery and the metabolic landscape of the tumor; and vice versa, how oxygen and metabolites within the TME impinge on the success of immunotherapies. By analyzing preclinical and clinical endeavors, we will discuss how a metabolic characterization of the TME can identify novel targets and signatures that could be exploited in combination with standard immunotherapies and can help to predict the benefit of new and traditional immunotherapeutic drugs.

Resveratrol is a promising agent for colorectal cancer prevention and treatment: focus on molecular mechanisms

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer and one of the main causes of cancer death entire the world. Environmental, dietary, and lifestyle factors including red meat consumption, cigarette smoking, alcohol intake and family history are the most important risk factors of CRC. Multiple pathways including inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis are involved in its incidence and progression. Resveratrol, a polyphenolic compound, has different pharmacologic functions including anti-inflammation, cancer prevention, lipid-lowering effect, and hypoglycemic effect. Many studies have proved that resveratrol might also represent a chemo preventive effect on CRC. Thus, the aim of the current review is to depict the role of resveratrol in treatment of CRC in a molecular manner.

The effect of fenofibrate, a PPARα activator on toll-like receptor-4 signal transduction in melanoma both in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

The anti-cancer effect of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) α ligands on growth and metastatic potential of melanoma cells has been shown previously. However, the mechanism underlying these effects remains to be elucidated. Here, we investigated the effects of fenofibrate (PPAR ligand) on Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4) signaling in mice melanoma.

METHODS

Mice melanoma cells (B16F10) were treated with fenofibrate or LPS or LPS + fenofibrate or pre-treated with CLI-095 (a TLR4 inhibitor), followed by fenofibrate. In in vivo model, C57BL/6 mice were subcutaneously injected with B16F10 cells (with/without LPS pre-treatment), and fenofibrate was administrated after development of palpable tumors. Cell proliferation, the expression level of Tlr4, Myd88, Nf-κb1 genes, TLR-4 protein expression, TNF-α levels, and tumor volume were measured.

RESULT

Our results indicated that fenofibrate significantly inhibited the Tlr-4, Myd-88, and Nf-kb1 mRNA expression and TNF-α concentration in B16F10 LPS-stimulated cells. In addition, blocking TLR-4 signaling increased the anti-inflammatory potential of fenofibrate. Also fenofibrate can reduce LPS-induced tumor volume, Tlr-4, Myd-88, Nf-kb1 mRNA, and TLR-4 protein expression in tumor tissue and also TNF-α level in tumor tissue lysate.

CONCLUSION

Our data indicate that fenofibrate may exert its anti-melanoma effects via interaction with TLR4-dependent signaling pathway (TLR-4/MyD-88/ NF-kB).

Effects of gossypol on apoptosis‑related gene expression in racially distinct triple‑negative breast cancer cells

Apoptosis is a gene‑directed mechanism that regulates cell proliferation and maintains homeostasis. Moreover, an aberrant apoptotic process can lead to several pathological conditions, such as tumorigenesis and cancer metastasis. In the present study, the apoptotic effect of the natural polyphenol compound gossypol GOSS) was investigated in triple‑negative breast cancer TNBC) cells. The effect of GOSS was evaluated in two cell lines representative of a Caucasian‑American and African‑American origin, MDA‑MB‑231 MM‑231) and MDA‑MB‑468 MM‑468), respectively. A similar response to both cytotoxicity and proliferation was observed in the two cell lines. However, MM‑468 cells were 2‑fold more sensitive to the apoptotic effect of the compound, which was accompanied by a longer delay in colony formation. Furthermore, GOSS was found to alter the mRNA expression of many apoptosis‑related genes. The compound significantly upregulated growth arrest and DNA damage‑inducible 45 alpha protein (GADD45A), tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily 9 (TNFRSF9) and BCL2 interacting protein 3 BNIP3) in MM‑231 cells. Similarly, GADD45A and BNIP3 were upregulated in MM‑468 cells. A significant finding in this study is the profound 159‑fold increase in TNF gene expression that was observed in MM‑468 cells. Moreover, the apoptosis‑suppressor gene baculoviral IAP repeat containing 5 BIRC5) was significantly repressed (by more than 90%) in both cell lines, as well as death‑associated protein kinase 1 (DAPK1) in MM‑231 cells and tumor protein 73 (TP73) in MM‑468 cells. In conclusion, the data obtained in this study provide a molecular understanding of the GOSS‑induced apoptosis effect and suggest the importance of this polyphenol compound targeted towards TNBC treatment, particularly in African‑American women.

Co-Detection of miR-21 and TNF-α mRNA in Budding Cancer Cells in Colorectal Cancer

MicroRNA-21 (miR-21) is upregulated in many cancers including colon cancers and is a prognostic indicator of recurrence and poor prognosis. In colon cancers, miR-21 is highly expressed in stromal fibroblastic cells and more weakly in a subset of cancer cells, particularly budding cancer cells. Exploration of the expression of inflammatory markers in colon cancers revealed tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) mRNA expression at the invasive front of colon cancers. Surprisingly, a majority of the TNF-α mRNA expressing cells were found to be cancer cells and not inflammatory cells. Because miR-21 is positively involved in cell survival and TNF-α promotes necrosis, we found it interesting to analyze the presence of miR-21 in areas of TNF-α mRNA expression at the invasive front of colon cancers. For this purpose, we developed an automated procedure for the co-staining of miR-21, TNF-α mRNA and the cancer cell marker cytokeratin based on analysis of frozen colon cancer tissue samples (n = 4) with evident cancer cell budding. In all four cases, TNF-α mRNA was seen in a small subset of cancer cells at the invasive front. Evaluation of miR-21 and TNF-α mRNA expression was performed on digital slides obtained by confocal slide scanning microscopy. Both co-expression and lack of co-expression with miR-21 in the budding cancer cells was noted, suggesting non-correlated expression. miR-21 was more often seen in cancer cells than TNF-α mRNA. In conclusion, we report that miR-21 is not linked to expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α mRNA, but that miR-21 and TNF-α both take part in the cancer expansion at the invasive front of colon cancers. We hypothesize that miR-21 may protect both fibroblasts and cancer cells from cell death directed by TNF-α paracrine and autocrine activity.

Association of expression of inflammatory response genes and DNA repair genes in colorectal carcinoma

Inflammation is an important etiological factor of colorectal carcinoma and may be related to colorectal carcinoma growth and proliferation. This study aimed to verify whether the presence of chronic inflammation represented by tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-2, interleukin-6, and interleukin-10 gene expression is related to hMLH1, hMSH2, hMSH6, and PMS2 gene expression and the corresponding protein levels of these genes from the DNA repair system. A total of 83 patients were operated on for curative or palliative colorectal carcinoma. Expression of the inflammatory response genes tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-2, interleukin-6, and interleukin-10 as well as expression of the hMLH1, hMSH2, hMSH6, and PMS2 genes of the DNA repair system (mismatch repair) and the expression levels of the corresponding mismatch repair proteins were measured in neoplastic tissue by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Associations were observed between hMSH6 mRNA expression and interleukin-2 mRNA expression (p = 0.026) as well as between hMLH1 and hMSH2 gene expression and tumor necrosis factor-α gene expression (p = 0.042). Higher tissue levels of interleukin-2 and tumor necrosis factor-α gene expression were associated with lower hMSH6, hMLH1, and hMSH2 gene expression.

Leukocyte-mimicking Pluronic-lipid nanovesicle hybrids inhibit the growth and metastasis of breast cancer

Breast cancer is a severe threat to the health of women, and the metastasis of tumor cells leads to high mortality in female patients. Evidence shows that leukocytes are recruited by breast tumors through adhesion to inflammatory endothelial cells as well as tumor cells. Moreover, it is known that Pluronic P123 is effective in the reduction of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which play a key role in the degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM), therefore helping tumor cells to escape from the primary site. Inspired by these mechanisms, we established a leukocyte-mimicking Pluronic-lipid nanovesicle hybrid (LPL) through integrating the membrane proteins extracted from leukocytes with membrane-like vesicles, with Pluronic P123 hybridized in the lipid bilayer, while paclitaxel (PTX) was selected as the model drug. The hybrid vesicles were perfectly incorporated with the leukocyte membrane proteins, and no disruption to the lipid membrane was caused by P123, with the bio-targeting ability of leukocytes and the MMP-9-downregulation effect of P123 fully preserved in LPL. LPL exhibited enhanced cellular uptake and anti-metastasis efficacy in in vitro assays, while significant tumor targeting capabilities were also found through biodistribution assays. Moreover, the in vivo therapeutic effects of PTX-loaded LPL (PTX-LPL) were observed, with an 80.84% inhibition rate of tumor growth and a 10.62% metastatic rate of tumor foci in lung tissue. Furthermore, the amounts of MMP-9 and neutrophils in the tumor as well as in the lung were greatly reduced with PTX-LPL. In summary, LPL may have potential applications in metastatic breast cancer therapy.

Pro-inflammatory Cytokines Alter the Immunopeptidome Landscape by Modulation of HLA-B Expression

Antigen presentation on HLA molecules is a major mechanism by which the immune system monitors self and non-self-recognition. Importantly, HLA-I presentation has gained much attention through its role in eliciting anti-tumor immunity. Several determinants controlling the peptides presented on HLA have been uncovered, mainly through the study of model substrates and large-scale immunopeptidome analyses. These determinants include the relative abundances of proteins in the cell, the stability or turnover rate of these proteins and the binding affinities of a given peptide to the HLA haplotypes found in a cell. However, the regulatory principles involved in selection and regulation of specific antigens in response to tumor pro-inflammatory signals remain largely unknown. Here, we chose to examine the effect that TNFα and IFNγ stimulation may exert on the immunopeptidome landscape of lung cancer cells. We show that the expression of many of the proteins involved in the class I antigen presentation pathway are changed by pro-inflammatory cytokines. Further, we could show that increased expression of the HLA-B allomorph drives a significant change in HLA-bound antigens, independently of the significant changes observed in the cellular proteome. Finally, we observed increased HLA-B levels in correlation with tumor infiltration across the TCGA lung cancer cohorts. Taken together, our results suggest that the immunopeptidome landscape should be examined in the context of anti-tumor immunity whereby signals in the microenvironment may be critical in shaping and modulating this important aspect of host-tumor interactions.

Tumor-Associated Macrophages Induce Endocrine Therapy Resistance in ER+ Breast Cancer Cells

Antiestrogenic adjuvant treatments are first-line therapies in patients with breast cancer positive for estrogen receptor (ER+). Improvement of their treatment strategies is needed because most patients eventually acquire endocrine resistance and many others are initially refractory to anti-estrogen treatments. The tumor microenvironment plays essential roles in cancer development and progress; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying such effects remain poorly understood. Breast cancer cell lines co-cultured with TNF-α-conditioned macrophages were used as pro-inflammatory tumor microenvironment models. Proliferation, migration, and colony formation assays were performed to evaluate tamoxifen and ICI 182,780 resistance and confirmed in a mouse-xenograft model. Molecular mechanisms were investigated using cytokine antibody arrays, WB, ELISA, ChIP, siRNA, and qPCR-assays. In our simulated pro-inflammatory tumor microenvironment, tumor-associated macrophages promoted proliferation, migration, invasiveness, and breast tumor growth of ER+ cells, rendering these estrogen-dependent breast cancer cells resistant to estrogen withdrawal and tamoxifen or ICI 182,780 treatment. Crosstalk between breast cancer cells and conditioned macrophages induced sustained release of pro-inflammatory cytokines from both cell types, activation of NF-κB/STAT3/ERK in the cancer cells and hyperphosphorylation of ERα, which resulted constitutively active. Our simulated tumor microenvironment strongly altered endocrine and inflammatory signaling pathways in breast cancer cells, leading to endocrine resistance in these cells.

A trial sequential meta-analysis of TNF-α -308G>A (rs800629) gene polymorphism and susceptibility to colorectal cancer

PURPOSE

Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), secreted by the activated macrophages, may participate in the onset and progression of colorectal cancer (CRC). The association of TNF-α -308 G>A (rs1800629) single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) with CRC risk has been investigated by many studies but the results are inconclusive. A trial sequential meta-analysis was performed for precise estimation of the relationship between TNF-α -308 G>A gene polymorphism with CRC risk.

METHODS

Medline (PubMed), EMBASE (Excerpta-Medica) and Google Scholar were mined for relevant articles. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated to estimate the significance of association.

RESULTS

The pooled analysis indicated no risk associated with TNF-α -308 G>A SNP and overall CRC risk in five genetic comparison models, i.e. allelic (A vs. G: P = 0.524; OR = 1.074, 95% CI = 0.863-1.335), homozygous (AA vs. GG: P = 0.489; OR = 1.227, 95% CI = 0.688-2.188), heterozygous (AG vs. GG: P = 0.811; OR = 1.024, 95% CI = 0.843-1.244), dominant (AA+AG vs. GG: P = 0.630; OR = 1.055, 95% CI = 0.849-1.311) and recessive (AA vs. AG+GG: P = 0.549; OR = 1.181, 95% CI = 0.686-2.033). Subgroup analysis revealed that TNF-α -308 G>A SNP is associated with reduced risk of CRC in Asian ethnicity. The study showed no publication bias.

CONCLUSIONS

No association of TNF-α -308 G>A SNP with overall CRC risk was found. This SNP is likely to be protective against CRC in Asian population when compared with Caucasian population. Larger prospective-epidemiological studies are warranted to elucidate the roles of TNF-α -308 G>A SNP in the etiology of CRC and to endorse the present findings.

Evidence that TNF-β induces proliferation in colorectal cancer cells and resveratrol can down-modulate it

IMPACT STATEMENT

The mechanism by which natural products such as resveratrol suppresses TNF-β-promoted tumor cell proliferation, invasion, and colony formation is unknown. In this study, we explored for the first time the effect of resveratrol on the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-β-, compared to TNF-α-stimulated proliferative and pro-inflammatory signaling in HCT116 cells. Our findings suggest that expression of TNF-β and TNF-β-receptor, like TNF-α, can lead to activation of inflammatory transcription factor (NF-κB) and NF-κB-regulated gene biomarkers, which are involved in the promotion of cancer proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and cell survival of tumor. Resveratrol can block TNF-β/TNF-β-receptor-induced activation of NF-κB, NF-κB-modulated gene products, and inhibition of caspase-3 cleavage. These results highlight the therapeutic effect of resveratrol-mediated anti-tumor activity by multitargeting cellular signaling pathways.

A trial sequential meta-analysis of TNF-α -308G>A (rs800629) gene polymorphism and susceptibility to colorectal cancer

Purpose: Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), secreted by the activated macrophages, may participate in the onset and progression of colorectal cancer (CRC). The association of TNF-α –308 G>A (rs1800629) single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) with CRC risk has been investigated by many studies but the results are inconclusive. A trial sequential meta-analysis was performed for precise estimation of the relationship between TNF-α –308 G>A gene polymorphism with CRC risk.

Methods: Medline (PubMed), EMBASE (Excerpta-Medica) and Google Scholar were mined for relevant articles. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated to estimate the significance of association.

Results: The pooled analysis indicated no risk associated with TNF-α –308 G>A SNP and overall CRC risk in five genetic comparison models, i.e. allelic (A vs. G: P = 0.524; OR = 1.074, 95% CI = 0.863–1.335), homozygous (AA vs. GG: P = 0.489; OR = 1.227, 95% CI = 0.688–2.188), heterozygous (AG vs. GG: P = 0.811; OR = 1.024, 95% CI = 0.843–1.244), dominant (AA+AG vs. GG: P = 0.630; OR = 1.055, 95% CI = 0.849–1.311) and recessive (AA vs. AG+GG: P = 0.549; OR = 1.181, 95% CI = 0.686–2.033). Subgroup analysis revealed that TNF-α –308 G>A SNP is associated with reduced risk of CRC in Asian ethnicity. The study showed no publication bias.

Conclusions: No association of TNF-α –308 G>A SNP with overall CRC risk was found. This SNP is likely to be protective against CRC in Asian population when compared with Caucasian population. Larger prospective-epidemiological studies are warranted to elucidate the roles of TNF-α –308 G>A SNP in the etiology of CRC and to endorse the present findings.

Allium porrum and Bauhinia Variegata Mitigate Acute Liver Failure and Nephrotoxicity Induced by Thioacetamide in Male Rats

The present work has been designed to investigate the hepatoprotective and renoprotective efficiency of alcoholic extract of Allium porrum and Bauhinia variegata leaves in thioacetamide-induced toxicity in adult Wistar rats. Allium porrum leaf extract, Bauhinia variegata leaf extract and their combinations were orally administered for 14 days then TAA (300 mg/kg) i.p. was injected once and the rats were sacrificed 2 days later. Plasma AST, ALT, GGT, total bilirubin, creatinine, urea, uric acid, triglyceride, cholesterol, HDL and LDL were measured. Liver MDA, GSH, CAT, SOD and TNF-α were evaluated. Histological examination was performed. The rats treated with TAA showed a significant increase in AST, ALT, GGT, total bilirubin, creatinine, urea, uric acid, total, triglyceride, cholesterol and HDL while it led to a significant decrease in protein and HDL. The treatment of rats with TAA resulted in a significant decrease of the hepatic GSH, SOD and CAT and a significant elevation of MDA and TNF-α. Allium porrum and Bauhinia variegata extracts alleviated the toxic effects of TAA on the liver and the kidney. In conclusion, treatment with Allium porrum and Bauhinia variegata extracts and their combination reduced deleterious effects of TAA on liver through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

The Role of Tumor Necrosis Factor α in the Biology of Uterine Fibroids and the Related Symptoms

Uterine fibroids (UFs) are the most common benign tumors of the female genital tract. The incidence of UFs has been estimated at 25⁻80% depending on selected population. The pathophysiology of UFs remains poorly understood. The transformation of smooth muscle cells of the uterus into abnormal, immortal cells, capable of clonal division, is the main component of all pathways leading to UF tumor formation and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) is believed to be one of the key factors in this field. TNF-α is a cell signaling protein involved in systemic inflammation and is one of the cytokines responsible for the acute phase reaction. This publication presents current data about the role of tumor necrosis factor α in the biology of UFs and the related symptoms. TNF-α is an extremely important cytokine associated with the biology of UFs, UF-related symptoms and complaints. Its concentration has been proven to be elevated in women with clinically symptomatic UFs. The presented data suggest the presence of an "inflammation-like" state in women with UFs where TNF-α is a potent inflammation inducer. The origin of numerous symptoms reported by women with UFs can be traced back to the TNF-α influence. Nevertheless, our knowledge on this subject remains limited and TNF-α dependent pathways in UF pathophysiology should be investigated further.

The Safety Profile of Tumor Necrosis Factor Inhibitors in Ankylosing Spondylitis: Are TNF Inhibitors Safer Than We Thought?

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) inhibitors significantly improved the treatment options for patients with ankylosing spondylitis. Unfortunately, currently, there is no strategy for sustaining remission of the disease with TNF inhibitors; after discontinuation, a high percentage of patients experience flares in a short time. Therefore, up-to-date, long-term use of TNF inhibitors in patients with ankylosing spondylitis remains necessary. For this reason, the issue of the long-term safety of TNF inhibitors in patients with ankylosing spondylitis raises concerns. Although TNF inhibitors are well established in ankylosing spondylitis treatment, the majority of studies on TNF inhibitors' safety have been performed in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Until recently, there were very few studies of TNF inhibitors' safety in ankylosing spondylitis. Meanwhile, TNF inhibitors appear to have different safety profiles in ankylosing spondylitis and rheumatoid arthritis. In this review, we describe available data on the occurrence of adverse events associated with TNF inhibitor treatment in ankylosing spondylitis, including serious adverse events, infections, serious infections, tuberculosis, opportunistic infections, hepatitis B reactivation, malignancies, laboratory test abnormalities, autoimmune diseases, paradoxical adverse events, and heart failure.

Anticancer Therapy-Induced Atrial Fibrillation: Electrophysiology and Related Mechanisms

Some well-established immunotherapy, radiotherapy, postoperation, anticancer drugs such as anthracyclines, antimetabolites, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 blockers, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, alkylating agents, checkpoint inhibitors, and angiogenesis inhibitors, are significantly linked to cardiotoxicity. Cardiotoxicity is a common complication of several cancer treatments. Some studies observed complications of cardiac arrhythmia associated with the treatment of cancer, including atrial fibrillation (AF), supraventricular arrhythmias, and cardiac repolarization abnormalities. AF increases the risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality; it is associated with an almost doubled risk of mortality and a nearly 5-fold increase in the risk of stroke. The occurrence of AF is also usually researched in patients with advanced cancer and those undergoing active cancer treatments. During cancer treatments, the incidence rate of AF affects the prognosis of tumor treatment and challenges the treatment strategy. The present article is mainly focused on the cardiotoxicity of cancer treatments. In our review, we discuss these anticancer therapies and how they induce AF and consequently provide information on the precaution of AF during cancer treatment.

Protective and therapeutic potential of ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract and [6]-gingerol in cancer: A comprehensive review

Natural dietary agents have attracted considerable attention due to their role in promoting health and reducing the risk of diseases including cancer. Ginger, one of the most ancient known spices, contains bioactive compounds with several health benefits. [6]-Gingerol constitutes the most pharmacologically active among such compounds. The aim of the present work was to review the literature pertaining to the use of ginger extract and [6]-gingerol against tumorigenic and oxidative and inflammatory processes associated with cancer, along with the underlying mechanisms of action involved in signaling pathways. This will shed some light on the protective or therapeutic role of ginger derivatives in oxidative and inflammatory regulations during metabolic disturbance and on the antiproliferative and anticancer properties. Data collected from experimental (in vitro or in vivo) and clinical studies discussed in this review indicate that ginger extract and [6]-gingerol exert their action through important mediators and pathways of cell signaling, including Bax/Bcl2, p38/MAPK, Nrf2, p65/NF-κB, TNF-α, ERK1/2, SAPK/JNK, ROS/NF-κB/COX-2, caspases-3, -9, and p53. This suggests that ginger derivatives, in the form of an extract or isolated compounds, exhibit relevant antiproliferative, antitumor, invasive, and anti-inflammatory activities.

The pleiotropic effects of TNFα in breast cancer subtypes is regulated by TNFAIP3/A20

TNFα is a pleiotropic cytokine which fuels tumor cell growth, invasion, and metastasis in some malignancies, while in others it induces cytotoxic cell death. However, the molecular mechanism by which TNFα exerts its diverse effects on breast cancer subtypes remains elusive. Using in vitro assays and mouse xenografts, we show here that TNFα contributes to the aggressive properties of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell lines via upregulation of TNFAIP3(A20). In a striking contrast, TNFα induces a potent cytotoxic cell death in luminal (ER+) breast cancer cell lines which fail to upregulate A20 expression. Overexpression of A20 not only protects luminal breast cancer cell lines from TNFα-induced cell death via inducing HSP70-mediated anti-apoptotic pathway but also promotes a robust EMT/CSC phenotype by activating the pStat3-mediated inflammatory signaling. Furthermore, A20 overexpression in luminal breast cancer cells induces aggressive metastatic properties in mouse xenografts via generating a permissive inflammatory microenvironment constituted by granulocytic-MDSCs. Collectively, our results reveal a mechanism by which A20 mediates pleiotropic effects of TNFα playing role in aggressive behaviors of TNBC subtype while its deficiency results in TNFα-induced apoptotic cell death in luminal breast cancer subtype.

Roles of ROS, Nrf2, and autophagy in cadmium-carcinogenesis and its prevention by sulforaphane

Environmental and occupational exposures to cadmium increase the risk of various cancers, including lung cancer. The carcinogenic mechanism of cadmium, including its prevention remains to be investigated. Using fluorescence and electron spin resonance spin trapping, the present study shows that in immortalized lung cells (BEAS-2BR cells), exposure cadmium generated reactive oxygen species (ROS). Through ROS generation, cadmium increased the protein level of TNF-α, which activated NF-κB and its target protein COX-2, creating an inflammatory microenvironment. As measured by anchorage-independent colony formation assay, cadmium induced malignant cell transformation. Inhibition of ROS by antioxidants inhibited transformation, showing that ROS were important in the mechanism of this process. The inflammatory microenvironment created by cadmium may also contribute to the mechanism of the transformation. Using tandem fluorescence protein mCherry-GFP-LC3 construct, the present study shows that cadmium-transformed cells had a property of autophagy deficiency, resulting in accumulation of autophagosomes and increased p62. This protein upregulated Nrf2, which also upregulated p62 through positive feed-back mechanism. Constitutive Nrf2 activation increased its downstream anti-apoptotic proteins, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xl, resulting in apoptosis resistance. In untransformed BEAS-2BR cells, sulforaphane, a natural compound, increased autophagy, activated Nrf2, and decreased ROS. In cadmium-transformed BEAS-2BR cells, sulforaphane restored autophagy, decreased Nrf2, and decreased apoptosis resistance. In untransformed cells, this sulforaphane induced inducible Nrf2 to decrease ROS and possibly malignant cell transformation. In cadmium-transformed cells, it decreased constitutive Nrf2 and reduced apoptosis resistance. The dual roles of sulforaphane make this natural compound a valuable agent for prevention against cadmium-induced carcinogenesis.

The Potential Role of TNF-α (rs361525 and rs1800629) in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Multivariate Analysis (Meta-Analysis)

PURPOSE

Tumor necrosis factor-α has been suggested to play a crucial role in the development andprogression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Previous reports have indicated that rs361525 and rs1800629 might be risk factors for various cancers. Increasing studies have been conducted on the association of these two SNPs with HCC risk but the results remain inconclusive.

METHODS

In order to detect association between TNF- α and HCC, a meta-analysis was performed. Five studies with 541 cases and 795 controls were used for rs361525, while six studies including 925 cases and 1307 controls were collected for investigating rs1800629. The grouping of countries from data were obtained was done by Principal Coordinate Analysis plot (PCA). Moreover, association between geographical area and grouping of genotypes was determined by Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA).

RESULTS

Our meta-analysis showed that rs361525 and rs1800629 were not significantly associated with the risk of HCC. CCA analysis illustrated that there was not any correlation between genotype distribution and geographical distance for rs1800629 but there was significant correlation between genotype distribution and geographical features for rs361525. PCA analysis for both SNPs showed India and Korea were placed near each other and also China and Brazil were in same part of PCA plot.

CONCLUSION

To sum up, this meta-analysis suggests that the rs361525 and rs1800629 are not associated with HCC development while geographical distance effect on rs361525 genetic inheritance but not effect on rs1800629. However, it is necessary to conduct further studies with larger sample. Moreover, gene-gene and gene-environment interactions should also be considered.