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Borgatta M, Wild P, Delobel J, Renella R, Hopf NB. Hematological variations in healthy participants exposed 2 h to propylene glycol ethers under controlled conditions. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 879:162865. [PMID: 36933710 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Glycol ethers are solvents used in a plethora of occupational and household products exposing the users to potential toxic effects. Several glycol ethers derived from ethylene glycol induce hematological toxicity, such as anemia in workers. The exposure effects on blood cells of glycol ethers derived from propylene glycol are unknown in humans. The aim of our study was to evaluate blood parameters indicative of red blood cell (RBC) hemolysis and oxidative stress in participants exposed to propylene glycol (propylene glycol monobutyl ether (PGBE) and propylene glycol monomethyl ether (PGME)), two extensively used propylene glycol derivatives worldwide. Seventeen participants were exposed 2 h in a control inhalation exposure chamber to low PGME (35 ppm) and PGBE (15 ppm) air concentrations. Blood was regularly collected before, during (15, 30, 60, and 120 min), and 60 min after exposure for RBC and oxidative stress analyses. Urine was also collected for clinical effects related to hemolysis. Under the study conditions, our results showed that the blood parameters such as RBCs, hemoglobin concentration, and white blood cells tended to increase in response to PGME and PGBE exposures. These results raise questions about the possible effects in people regularly exposed to higher concentrations, such as workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Borgatta
- Center for Primary Care and Public Health (Unisanté), University of Lausanne, Epalinges-Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Pascal Wild
- Center for Primary Care and Public Health (Unisanté), University of Lausanne, Epalinges-Lausanne, Switzerland; PW Statistical Consulting, 54520 Laxou, France.
| | - Julien Delobel
- Pediatric Hematology-Oncology Research Laboratory, Division of Pediatrics, Department "Woman-Mother-Child", Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Raffaele Renella
- Pediatric Hematology-Oncology Research Laboratory, Division of Pediatrics, Department "Woman-Mother-Child", Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Nancy B Hopf
- Center for Primary Care and Public Health (Unisanté), University of Lausanne, Epalinges-Lausanne, Switzerland.
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Kwon M, Park JB, Kwon M, Song J, Yeo CS, Bae SH. Pharmacokinetics of 2-phenoxyethanol and its major metabolite, phenoxyacetic acid, after dermal and inhaled routes of exposure: application to development PBPK model in rats. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:2019-2036. [PMID: 33844041 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03041-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
2-Phenoxyethanol (PE), ethylene glycol monophenyl ether, is widely used as a preservative in cosmetic products as well as in non-cosmetics. Since PE has been used in many types of products, it can be absorbed via dermal or inhaled route for systemic exposures. In this study, the pharmacokinetic (PK) studies of PE and its major metabolite, phenoxyacetic acid (PAA), after dermal (30 mg and 100 mg) and inhaled administration (77 mg) of PE in rats were performed. PE was administered daily for 4 days and blood samples were collected at day 1 and day 4 for PK analysis. PE was rapidly absorbed and extensively metabolized to form PAA. After multiple dosing, the exposures of PE and PAA were decreased presumably due to the induction of metabolizing enzymes of PE and PAA. In dermal mass balance study using [14C]-phenoxyethanol ([14C]PE) as a microtracer, most of the PE and its derivatives were excreted in urine (73.03%) and rarely found in feces (0.66%). Based on these PK results, a whole-body physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model of PE and PAA after dermal application and inhalation in rats was successfully developed. Most of parameters were obtained from the literatures and experiments, and intrinsic clearance at steady-state (CLint,ss) were optimized based on the observed multiple PK data. With the developed model, systemic exposures of PE and PAA after dermal application and inhalation were simulated following no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of 500 mg/kg/day for dermal application and that of 12.7 mg/kg/day for inhalation provided by the Environmental Protection Agency. The area under the concentration-time curve at steady state (AUCss) in kidney and liver (and lung for inhalations), which are known target organs of exhibiting toxicity of PE, as well as AUCss in plasma of PE and PAA were obtained from the model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihye Kwon
- Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences Seoul, Nowon-ro 75, Nowon-Gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jung Bae Park
- Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences Seoul, Nowon-ro 75, Nowon-Gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Miwha Kwon
- Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences Seoul, Nowon-ro 75, Nowon-Gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jinho Song
- Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences Seoul, Nowon-ro 75, Nowon-Gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Chang Su Yeo
- Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences Seoul, Nowon-ro 75, Nowon-Gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Soo Hyeon Bae
- Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences Seoul, Nowon-ro 75, Nowon-Gu, Seoul, Korea. .,Q-Fitter Inc., 56-24 Banpo-daero 39-gil, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06578, Korea.
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Somade OT, Ajayi BO, Adeyi OE, Adeshina AA, James AS, Ayodele PF. Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether-induced testicular oxidative stress and time-dependent up-regulation of apoptotic, pro-inflammatory, and oncogenic markers in rats. Metabol Open 2020; 7:100051. [PMID: 32924002 PMCID: PMC7451700 DOI: 10.1016/j.metop.2020.100051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 08/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether (EGME) is a major component of paints, lacquers, inks, and automobile brake fluids. As a result, exposures to humans are inevitable. We therefore, investigated in this study, its effect on testicular cells in a time-course manner in male Wistar rats. Animals were orally administered 50 mg/kg body weight of EGME for duration of 7, 14, and 21 days. Following 7 days of the administration, levels of NO and GSH were significantly reduced, while levels of c-Myc, K-Ras, caspase-3, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β were significantly increased compared with control. At the end of 14 days exposure, GPx, and SOD activities, as well as IL-10 level were significantly decreased, while levels of c-Myc, K-Ras, p53, Bax, caspase-3, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, and GST activity were significantly elevated compared with control. After 21 days of EGME administration, Bcl-2, IL-10, and NO levels were significantly decreased, while levels of c-Myc, K-Ras, p53, Bax, caspase-3, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, MDA and GST activity were significantly increased compared with control. After 7, 14, and 21 days of EGME administrations, testis histopathology showed severe loss of seminiferous tubules, the seminiferous epithelium revealed very few spermatocytes, spermatids, spermatogonia, spermatozoa, and Sertoli cells, while the interstitial tissue is eroded, with scanty abnormal Leydig cells, compared with the control that appeared normal. We therefore, concluded that EGME-induced testicular toxicity as a result of EGME administration could be via the disorganization of the endogenous antioxidant systems as well as up-regulation of pro-inflammatory, apoptotic and oncogenic mediators in rats.
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Key Words
- Apoptosis
- Bax, Bcl-2 associated X
- Bcl-2, B-cell lymphoma 2
- CAT, catalase
- Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether
- GPx, glutathione peroxidase
- GSH, reduced glutathione
- GST, glutathione S-transferase
- Histopathology
- IL-1β, interleukin-1 beta
- IL-6, interleukin-6
- Inflammation
- K-Ras, Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene
- MDA, malondialdehyde
- NO, nitric oxide
- Oncogenes
- Oxidative stress
- SOD, superoxide dismutase
- TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha
- Testis
- c-Myc, myelocytomatosis
- p53, tumor suppressor protein
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwatobi T Somade
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Biosciences, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
| | - Babajide O Ajayi
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo, Nigeria
| | - Olubisi E Adeyi
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Biosciences, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
| | | | - Adewale S James
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Biosciences, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
| | - Peter F Ayodele
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Biosciences, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
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Xu YQ, Liu SS, Li K, Wang ZJ, Xiao QF. Polyethylene glycol 400 significantly enhances the stimulation of 2-phenoxyethanol on Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67 bioluminescence. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2019; 171:240-246. [PMID: 30612011 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.12.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies demonstrated long-term stimulation of some commercial personal care products (PCPs) on freshwater luminescent bacteria Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67 (Q67). However, whether a certain component can affect mixture's hormetic effect is still unknown. In this paper, two of ingredients in PCPs, 2-phenoxyethanol (PhE) and polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG400), were selected as object compounds to explore the relationship between concentration-response (CR) of mixtures and that of a single component. It was found that PEG400 has monotonic CR (MCR) on Q67 both at the short-term (0.25 h) and long-term (12 h) exposures while PhE has MCR at 0.25 h and hormetic CR (HCR) at 12 h. Here, the concentration-response curves (CRCs) of PEG400 at 0.25 and 12 h are overlapped each other and the CRCs of PEG400 are on the right of PhE. If the pEC50 is taken as a toxic index, the toxicities of PEG400 at two times are basically the same, and those of PhE are the same, too, but PhE is twice as toxic as PEG400. For the mixtures of PEG400 and PhE, all rays except R1 have MCRs at 0.25 h while all rays have HCRs at 12 h where the higher the mixture ratio of PhE is, the more negative the maximum stimulation effect is. More importantly, the Emin values of all rays are more negative (1.79-3.17-fold) than that of PhE worked alone, which implies that the introduction of PEG400 significantly enhances stimulative effect of PhE. At 0.25 h, all binary mixture rays but R1 produce a low-concentration additive action and high-concentration synergism. At 12 h, all rays display additive action, antagonism, additive action, and synergism in turn when the concentration changes from low to high. The overall findings suggested toxicological interactions should be considered in the risk assessment of PCPs and their potential impacts on ecological balances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Qian Xu
- Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Shu-Shen Liu
- Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | - Kai Li
- Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Ze-Jun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Qian-Fen Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
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Kim HY, Cho ES. 28-day inhalation toxicity of 3-methoxybutyl chloroformate in rats. Toxicol Rep 2018; 5:213-219. [PMID: 29854591 PMCID: PMC5977156 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2017.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Revised: 09/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
3-MBCF up to 6 ppm induced mortality in 28-day inhalation study of rats. The NOAEL of 3-MBCF in 28 day inhalation toxicity study, was less than 3 ppm. 3-MBCF under 12 ppm did not induce micronucleus formation in the bone marrow of rats.
The 28-day repeated inhalation study was applied for hazard assessment of 3-methoxybutyl chloroformate (3-MBCF) in Sprague Dawley rats. Groups of five rats per sex were exposed 6 h/day, 5 days per week for 4 weeks to test substance concentration (ranging from 3 to 12 ppm) using a whole-body exposure system. At the terminal sacrifice, following blood collection and gross pathological examination, organ weights were determined and fixed organs were examined. The micronucleus test was performed using bone marrow cells. Exposure of 3-MBCF induced mortality at concentrations above 6 ppm. Decreases in body weight and food intake, hematologic alterations, organ weight changes, and gross and microscopic findings were seen even at the lowest concentrations of 3 ppm. Histopathology revealed principal test substance exposure correlated with lesions in the respiratory tract in both male and female rats above 3 ppm. Groups of male rats exposed above 6 ppm show microscopic lesions in spleens, livers, testes and epididymides; however, the micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes frequency in bone marrow cells was not changed. Based on histopathology of the respiratory tract and other organs, the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of 3-MBCF in the present study was less than 3 ppm.
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Key Words
- 3-MBCF, 3-methoxy butyl chloroformate
- 3-Methoxybutyl chloroformate
- ANOVA, analysis of variance
- CT, computed tomography
- EDTA, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
- GHS, Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
- GLP, Good Laboratory Practice
- HCT, hematocrit
- HGB, hemoglobin concentration
- Inhalation toxicity
- MCH, mean corpuscular hemoglobin
- MCHC, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration
- MCV, mean corpuscular volume
- MNPCE, micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes
- MOE, The Ministry of Environment
- NCE, normochromatic erythrocytes
- NOAEL, no observed adverse effect level
- OECD, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
- PCE, polychromatic erythrocytes
- PLT, platelets
- RBC, red blood cell counts
- RDW, red cell distribution width
- REACH, Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals
- SD, Sprague-Dawley
- SPF, specific-pathogen-free
- Sprague Dawley rats
- WBC, white blood cell counts
- occupational hazard
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Troutman JA, Rick DL, Stuard SB, Fisher J, Bartels MJ. Development of a physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model of 2-phenoxyethanol and its metabolite phenoxyacetic acid in rats and humans to address toxicokinetic uncertainty in risk assessment. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2015; 73:530-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Revised: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Starek-Świechowicz B, Szymczak W, Budziszewska B, Starek A. Testicular effect of a mixture of 2-methoxyethanol and 2-ethoxyethanol in rats. Pharmacol Rep 2014; 67:289-93. [PMID: 25712652 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2014.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2014] [Revised: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 2-Methoxyethanol (ME) and 2-ethoxyethanol (EE) represent a large group of chemicals which are used separately or as mixtures. These compounds exert multidirectional toxic effects. The present studies aimed to demonstrate the effects of ME and EE alone and their mixture on the reproductive organs in the rats. METHODS Male Wistar rats were treated subcutaneously with ME and EE alone (1.25-5.0mM/kg/day) or with their mixture (1:1) for 4 weeks. After completion of the experiment, the testes, epididymides, and prostate were weighed. In post-mitochondrial supernatant of the testes, the level of total protein, non-protein and protein sulfhydryl groups, malondialdehyde, total antioxidant status, and glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase activities were determined. RESULTS Exposure to ME alone resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in the organ weights, the total protein, non-protein and protein sulfhydryl groups. EE alone led to less marked alterations. Co-exposure to ME and EE caused alterations similar as in the rats treated with ME alone. CONCLUSIONS Marked testicular atrophy, decrease in epididymis and prostate weights are predominant effects of the repeated exposure to relatively low doses of ME and EE. A decrease in the total protein level, and protein sulfhydryl groups may be responsible for testicular atrophy. A significant depletion of non-protein sulfhydryl groups and occasionally elevated glutathione peroxidase activity may indicate that ME and EE resulted in disturbances of pro-oxidant/antioxidant balance. The study suggests that testicular toxicity in male rats co-exposed to ME and EE is mainly caused by the former compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beata Starek-Świechowicz
- Department of Biochemical Toxicology, Chair of Toxicology, Medical College, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland.
| | | | - Bogusława Budziszewska
- Department of Biochemical Toxicology, Chair of Toxicology, Medical College, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland; Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Andrzej Starek
- Department of Biochemical Toxicology, Chair of Toxicology, Medical College, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
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Potential neurotoxic effect of ethylene glycol ethers mixtures. Pharmacol Rep 2013; 65:1415-21. [DOI: 10.1016/s1734-1140(13)71501-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2013] [Revised: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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