Structure, function, and localization of Gβ5-RGS complexes

Signal profiles and spatial regulation of β-arrestin recruitment through Gβ5 and GRK3 at the μ-opioid receptor

The μ-opioid receptor (MOR) is a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that mediates both analgesic effects and adverse effects of opioid drugs. Despite extensive efforts to develop a signal-biased drug, drugs with sufficiently reduced side effects have not been established, in part owing to lack of comprehensive signal transducer profiles of MOR. In this study, by profiling the activity of signal transducers including G proteins and GPCR kinases (GRKs), we revealed an unprecedented mechanism of selective GRK3 activation by Gβ5, leading to β-arrestin recruitment. By utilizing multiple genome-edited cell lines and functional assays, we found that oliceridine, an FDA-approved G-protein-biased agonist, selectively activates Gαz- and GRK3-mediated signaling. Notably, among the five Gβ subtypes, only Gβ5 distinguishes GRK3 from GRK2. Using single-molecule imaging, we found that GRK3 is recruited to the plasma membrane upon MOR agonist stimulation by Gβ1 and Gβ5, yet their interaction dynamics with GRK3 and mechanisms of action are different. Furthermore, particle diffusion analysis suggests that Gβ5 is enriched in confined membrane domains, through which GRK3 is recruited to the plasma membrane in a freely diffusible state, thereby allowing GRK3 to efficiently interact with MOR. These findings provide a mechanism by which MOR agonists rely on a specific Gα-Gβ-GRK axis to induce β-arrestin recruitment.

Receptor-dependent influence of R7 RGS proteins on neuronal GIRK channel signaling dynamics

Most neurons are influenced by multiple neuromodulatory inputs that converge on common effectors. Mechanisms that route these signals are key to selective neuromodulation but are poorly understood. G protein-gated inwardly rectifying K+ (GIRK or Kir3) channels mediate postsynaptic inhibition evoked by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that signal via inhibitory G proteins. GIRK-dependent signaling is modulated by Regulator of G protein Signaling proteins RGS6 and RGS7, but their selectivity for distinct GPCR-GIRK signaling pathways in defined neurons is unclear. We compared how RGS6 and RGS7 impact GIRK channel regulation by the GABAB receptor (GABABR), 5HT1A receptor (5HT1AR), and A1 adenosine receptor (A1R) in hippocampal neurons. Our data show that RGS6 and RGS7 make non-redundant contributions to GABABR- and 5HT1AR-GIRK signaling and compartmentalization and suggest that GPCR-G protein preferences and the substrate bias of RGS proteins, as well as receptor-dependent differences in Gαo engagement and effector access, shape GPCR-GIRK signaling dynamics in hippocampal neurons.

The roles of RGS proteins in cardiometabolic disease

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the most prominent receptors on the surface of the cell and play a central role in the regulation of cardiac and metabolic functions. GPCRs transmit extracellular stimuli to the interior of the cells by activating one or more heterotrimeric G proteins. The duration and intensity of G protein-mediated signalling are tightly controlled by a large array of intracellular mediators, including the regulator of G protein signalling (RGS) proteins. RGS proteins selectively promote the GTPase activity of a subset of Gα subunits, thus serving as negative regulators in a pathway-dependent manner. In the current review, we summarise the involvement of RGS proteins in cardiometabolic function with a focus on their tissue distribution, mechanisms of action and dysregulation under various disease conditions. We also discuss the potential therapeutic applications for targeting RGS proteins in treating cardiometabolic conditions and current progress in developing RGS modulators. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue Therapeutic Targeting of G Protein-Coupled Receptors: hot topics from the Australasian Society of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacologists and Toxicologists 2021 Virtual Annual Scientific Meeting. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v181.14/issuetoc.

Direct modulation of G protein-gated inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels

Ion channels play a pivotal role in regulating cellular excitability and signal transduction processes. Among the various ion channels, G-protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels serve as key mediators of neurotransmission and cellular responses to extracellular signals. GIRK channels are members of the larger family of inwardly-rectifying potassium (Kir) channels. Typically, GIRK channels are activated via the direct binding of G-protein βγ subunits upon the activation of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). GIRK channel activation requires the presence of the lipid signaling molecule, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2). GIRK channels are also modulated by endogenous proteins and other molecules, including RGS proteins, cholesterol, and SNX27 as well as exogenous compounds, such as alcohol. In the last decade or so, several groups have developed novel drugs and small molecules, such as ML297, GAT1508 and GiGA1, that activate GIRK channels in a G-protein independent manner. Here, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview focusing on the direct modulation of GIRK channels by G-proteins, PIP2, cholesterol, and novel modulatory compounds. These studies offer valuable insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms of channel function, and have potential implications for both basic research and therapeutic development.

Non-canonical G protein signaling

The original paradigm of classical - also referred to as canonical - cellular signal transduction of heterotrimeric G proteins (G protein) is defined by a hierarchical, orthograde interaction of three players: the agonist-activated G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), which activates the transducing G protein, that in turn regulates its intracellular effectors. This receptor-transducer-effector concept was extended by the identification of regulators and adapters such as the regulators of G protein signaling (RGS), receptor kinases like βARK, or GPCR-interacting arrestin adapters that are integrated into this canonical signaling process at different levels to enable fine-tuning. Finally, the identification of atypical signaling mechanisms of classical regulators, together with the discovery of novel modulators, added a new and fascinating dimension to the cellular G protein signal transduction. This heterogeneous group of accessory G protein modulators was coined "activators of G protein signaling" (AGS) proteins and plays distinct roles in canonical and non-canonical G protein signaling pathways. AGS proteins contribute to the control of essential cellular functions such as cell development and division, intracellular transport processes, secretion, autophagy or cell movements. As such, they are involved in numerous biological processes that are crucial for diseases, like diabetes mellitus, cancer, and stroke, which represent major health burdens. Although the identification of a large number of non-canonical G protein signaling pathways has broadened the spectrum of this cellular communication system, their underlying mechanisms, functions, and biological effects are poorly understood. In this review, we highlight and discuss atypical G protein-dependent signaling mechanisms with a focus on inhibitory G proteins (Gi) involved in canonical and non-canonical signal transduction, review recent developments and open questions, address the potential of new approaches for targeted pharmacological interventions.

Specific regulation of mechanical nociception by Gβ5 involves GABA-B receptors

Mechanical, thermal, and chemical pain sensation is conveyed by primary nociceptors, a subset of sensory afferent neurons. The intracellular regulation of the primary nociceptive signal is an area of active study. We report here the discovery of a Gβ5-dependent regulatory pathway within mechanical nociceptors that restrains antinociceptive input from metabotropic GABA-B receptors. In mice with conditional knockout (cKO) of the gene that encodes Gβ5 (Gnb5) targeted to peripheral sensory neurons, we demonstrate the impairment of mechanical, thermal, and chemical nociception. We further report the specific loss of mechanical nociception in Rgs7-Cre+/- Gnb5fl/fl mice but not in Rgs9-Cre+/- Gnb5fl/fl mice, suggesting that Gβ5 might specifically regulate mechanical pain in regulator of G protein signaling 7-positive (Rgs7+) cells. Additionally, Gβ5-dependent and Rgs7-associated mechanical nociception is dependent upon GABA-B receptor signaling since both were abolished by treatment with a GABA-B receptor antagonist and since cKO of Gβ5 from sensory cells or from Rgs7+ cells potentiated the analgesic effects of GABA-B agonists. Following activation by the G protein-coupled receptor Mrgprd agonist β-alanine, enhanced sensitivity to inhibition by baclofen was observed in primary cultures of Rgs7+ sensory neurons harvested from Rgs7-Cre+/- Gnb5fl/fl mice. Taken together, these results suggest that the targeted inhibition of Gβ5 function in Rgs7+ sensory neurons might provide specific relief for mechanical allodynia, including that contributing to chronic neuropathic pain, without reliance on exogenous opioids.

Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenesis Underlying Inherited Retinal Dystrophies

Inherited retinal dystrophies (IRDs) are congenital retinal degenerative diseases that have various inheritance patterns, including dominant, recessive, X-linked, and mitochondrial. These diseases are most often the result of defects in rod and/or cone photoreceptor and retinal pigment epithelium function, development, or both. The genes associated with these diseases, when mutated, produce altered protein products that have downstream effects in pathways critical to vision, including phototransduction, the visual cycle, photoreceptor development, cellular respiration, and retinal homeostasis. The aim of this manuscript is to provide a comprehensive review of the underlying molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis of IRDs by delving into many of the genes associated with IRD development, their protein products, and the pathways interrupted by genetic mutation.

The Potential Role of R4 Regulators of G Protein Signaling (RGS) Proteins in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a complex and heterogeneous disease that primarily results from impaired insulin secretion or insulin resistance (IR). G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are proposed as therapeutic targets for T2DM. GPCRs transduce signals via the Gα protein, playing an integral role in insulin secretion and IR. The regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) family proteins can bind to Gα proteins and function as GTPase-activating proteins (GAP) to accelerate GTP hydrolysis, thereby terminating Gα protein signaling. Thus, RGS proteins determine the size and duration of cellular responses to GPCR stimulation. RGSs are becoming popular targeting sites for modulating the signaling of GPCRs and related diseases. The R4 subfamily is the largest RGS family. This review will summarize the research progress on the mechanisms of R4 RGS subfamily proteins in insulin secretion and insulin resistance and analyze their potential value in the treatment of T2DM.

Extended Phenotyping and Functional Validation Facilitate Diagnosis of a Complex Patient Harboring Genetic Variants in MCCC1 and GNB5 Causing Overlapping Phenotypes

Identifying multiple ultra-rare genetic syndromes with overlapping phenotypes is a diagnostic conundrum in clinical genetics. This study investigated the pathogenicity of a homozygous missense variant in GNB5 (GNB5L; NM_016194.4: c.920T > G (p. Leu307Arg); GNB5S; NM_006578.4: c.794T > G (p. Leu265Arg)) identified through exome sequencing in a female child who also had 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (3-MCC) deficiency (newborn screening positive) and hemoglobin E trait. The proband presented with early-onset intellectual disability, the severity of which was more in keeping with GNB5-related disorder than 3-MCC deficiency. She later developed bradycardia and cardiac arrest, and upon re-phenotyping showed cone photo-transduction recovery deficit, all known only to GNB5-related disorders. Patient-derived fibroblast assays showed preserved GNB5S expression, but bioluminescence resonance energy transfer assay showed abolished function of the variant reconstituted Gβ5S containing RGS complexes for deactivation of D2 dopamine receptor activity, confirming variant pathogenicity. This study highlights the need for precise phenotyping and functional assays to facilitate variant classification and clinical diagnosis in patients with complex medical conditions.

Gβγ signaling from an eponymous past to a specific future

An abiding issue has been parsing out the cellular impact of multiple Gβ and Gγ subtypes. In an article in this issue of Cell Systems, Masuho et al. use a system developed to probe how distinct Gβγ combinations respond to GPCR stimulation and adopt distinct trafficking itineraries in the cell.

Subtype-dependent regulation of Gβγ signalling

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) transmit information to the cell interior by transducing external signals to heterotrimeric G protein subunits, Gα and Gβγ subunits, localized on the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. Though the initial focus was mainly on Gα-mediated events, Gβγ subunits were later identified as major contributors to GPCR-G protein signalling. A broad functional array of Gβγ signalling has recently been attributed to Gβ and Gγ subtype diversity, comprising 5 Gβ and 12 Gγ subtypes, respectively. In addition to displaying selectivity towards each other to form the Gβγ dimer, numerous studies have identified preferences of distinct Gβγ combinations for specific GPCRs, Gα subtypes and effector molecules. Importantly, Gβ and Gγ subtype-dependent regulation of downstream effectors, representing a diverse range of signalling pathways and physiological functions have been found. Here, we review the literature on the repercussions of Gβ and Gγ subtype diversity on direct and indirect regulation of GPCR/G protein signalling events and their physiological outcomes. Our discussion additionally provides perspective in understanding the intricacies underlying molecular regulation of subtype-specific roles of Gβγ signalling and associated diseases.

The regulatory G protein signaling complex, Gβ5-R7, promotes glucose- and extracellular signal-stimulated insulin secretion

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are important modulators of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, essential for maintaining energy homeostasis. Here we investigated the role of Gβ5-R7, a protein complex consisting of the atypical G protein β subunit Gβ5 and a regulator of G protein signaling of the R7 family. Using the mouse insulinoma MIN6 cell line and pancreatic islets, we investigated the effects of G protein subunit β 5 (Gnb5) knockout on insulin secretion. Consistent with previous work, Gnb5 knockout diminished insulin secretion evoked by the muscarinic cholinergic agonist Oxo-M. We found that the Gnb5 knockout also attenuated the activity of other GPCR agonists, including ADP, arginine vasopressin, glucagon-like peptide 1, and forskolin, and, surprisingly, the response to high glucose. Experiments with MIN6 cells cultured at different densities provided evidence that Gnb5 knockout eliminated the stimulatory effect of cell adhesion on Oxo-M-stimulated glucose-stimulated insulin secretion; this effect likely involved the adhesion GPCR GPR56. Gnb5 knockout did not influence cortical actin depolymerization but affected protein kinase C activity and the 14-3-3ϵ substrate. Importantly, Gnb5-/- islets or MIN6 cells had normal total insulin content and released normal insulin amounts in response to K+-evoked membrane depolarization. These results indicate that Gβ5-R7 plays a role in the insulin secretory pathway downstream of signaling via all GPCRs and glucose. We propose that the Gβ5-R7 complex regulates a phosphorylation event participating in the vesicular trafficking pathway downstream of G protein signaling and actin depolymerization but upstream of insulin granule release.

Development of R7BP inhibitors through cross-linking coupled mass spectrometry and integrated modeling

Protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks are known to be valuable targets for therapeutic intervention; yet the development of PPI modulators as next-generation drugs to target specific vertices, edges, and hubs has been impeded by the lack of structural information of many of the proteins and complexes involved. Building on recent advancements in cross-linking mass spectrometry (XL-MS), we describe an effective approach to obtain relevant structural data on R7BP, a master regulator of itch sensation, and its interfaces with other proteins in its network. This approach integrates XL-MS with a variety of modeling techniques to successfully develop antibody inhibitors of the R7BP and RGS7/Gβ5 duplex interaction. Binding and inhibitory efficiency are studied by surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy and through an R7BP-derived dominant negative construct. This approach may have broader applications as a tool to facilitate the development of PPI modulators in the absence of crystal structures or when structural information is limited.

Genetic variation in GNB5 causes bradycardia by augmenting the cholinergic response via increased acetylcholine-activated potassium current (I K,ACh)

Mutations in GNB5, encoding the G-protein β5 subunit (Gβ5), have recently been linked to a multisystem disorder that includes severe bradycardia. Here, we investigated the mechanism underlying bradycardia caused by the recessive p.S81L Gβ5 variant. Using CRISPR/Cas9-based targeting, we generated an isogenic series of human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) lines that were either wild type, heterozygous or homozygous for the GNB5 p.S81L variant. These were differentiated into cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) that robustly expressed the acetylcholine-activated potassium channel [I(KACh); also known as I_K,ACh]. Baseline electrophysiological properties of the lines did not differ. Upon application of carbachol (CCh), homozygous p.S81L hiPSC-CMs displayed an increased acetylcholine-activated potassium current (I _K,ACh) density and a more pronounced decrease of spontaneous activity as compared to wild-type and heterozygous p.S81L hiPSC-CMs, explaining the bradycardia in homozygous carriers. Application of the specific I(KACh) blocker XEN-R0703 resulted in near-complete reversal of the phenotype. Our results provide mechanistic insights and proof of principle for potential therapy in patients carrying GNB5 mutations.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Regulator of G-protein signaling Gβ5-R7 is a crucial activator of muscarinic M3 receptor-stimulated insulin secretion

In pancreatic β cells, muscarinic cholinergic receptor M3 (M3R) stimulates glucose-induced secretion of insulin. Regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS) proteins are critical modulators of GPCR activity, yet their role in β cells remains largely unknown. R7 subfamily RGS proteins are stabilized by the G-protein subunit Gβ5, such that the knockout of the Gnb5 gene results in degradation of all R7 subunits. We found that Gnb5 knockout in mice or in the insulin-secreting MIN6 cell line almost completely eliminates insulinotropic activity of M3R. Moreover, overexpression of Gβ5-RGS7 strongly promotes M3R-stimulated insulin secretion. Examination of this noncanonical mechanism in Gnb5^-/- MIN6 cells showed that cAMP, diacylglycerol, or Ca²⁺ levels were not significantly affected. There was no reduction in the amplitude of free Ca²⁺ responses in islets from the Gnb5^-/- mice, but the frequency of Ca²⁺ oscillations induced by cholinergic agonist was lowered by more than 30%. Ablation of Gnb5 impaired M3R-stimulated phosphorylation of ERK1/2. Stimulation of the ERK pathway in Gnb5^-/- cells by epidermal growth factor restored M3R-stimulated insulin release to near normal levels. Identification of the novel role of Gβ5-R7 in insulin secretion may lead to a new therapeutic approach for improving pancreatic β-cell function.-Wang, Q., Pronin, A. N., Levay, K., Almaca, J., Fornoni, A., Caicedo, A., Slepak, V. Z. Regulator of G-protein signaling Gβ5-R7 is a crucial activator of muscarinic M3 receptor-stimulated insulin secretion.

A central role for R7bp in the regulation of itch sensation

Itch is a protective sensation producing a desire to scratch. Pathologic itch can be a chronic symptom of illnesses such as uremia, cholestatic liver disease, neuropathies and dermatitis, however current therapeutic options are limited. Many types of cell surface receptors, including those present on cells in the skin, on sensory neurons and on neurons in the spinal cord, have been implicated in itch signaling. The role of G protein signaling in the regulation of pruriception is poorly understood. We identify here 2 G protein signaling components whose mutation impairs itch sensation. R7bp (a.k.a. Rgs7bp) is a palmitoylated membrane anchoring protein expressed in neurons that facilitates Gαi/o -directed GTPase activating protein activity mediated by the Gβ5/R7-RGS complex. Knockout of R7bp diminishes scratching responses to multiple cutaneously applied and intrathecally-administered pruritogens in mice. Knock-in to mice of a GTPase activating protein-insensitive mutant of Gαo (Gnao1 G184S/+) produces a similar pruriceptive phenotype. The pruriceptive defect in R7bp knockout mice was rescued in double knockout mice also lacking Oprk1, encoding the G protein-coupled kappa-opioid receptor whose activation is known to inhibit itch sensation. In a model of atopic dermatitis (eczema), R7bp knockout mice showed diminished scratching behavior and enhanced sensitivity to kappa opioid agonists. Taken together, our results indicate that R7bp is a key regulator of itch sensation and suggest the potential targeting of R7bp-dependent GTPase activating protein activity as a novel therapeutic strategy for pathological itch.

Cellular and Subcellular Localization of the RGS7/Gβ5/R7BP Complex in the Cerebellar Cortex

A member of regulator of G-protein signaling family, RGS7, is an essential modulator of signaling through GABA_B receptors. RGS7 functions as a macromolecular complex with type 5 G protein β (Gβ5) and R7 binding protein (R7BP) to control the localization and function of the resultant heterotrimeric complexes. Here, we used co-immunoprecipitation, in situ hybridization, histoblot and immunohistochemical techniques at the light and electron microscopic level to advance understanding of RGS7-Gβ5-R7BP complexes in the central nervous system, focusing on distinct neuronal populations in the cerebellar cortex. Histoblot analysis showed that RGS7, Gβ5 and R7BP proteins were widely expressed in the brain, with mostly an overlapping pattern and showing a high expression level in the molecular layer of the cerebellar cortex. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments established that the RGS7/Gβ5 forms complexes with R7BP in the cerebellum. At the cellular level, RGS7 and R7BP mRNAs were expressed at the highest level in Purkinje cells (PCs) and Golgi cells, and at low levels in granule cells. Immunohistochemistry confirmed that labeling for RGS7, Gβ5 and R7BP were present in the three neuronal populations and concentrated in dendrites and spines. At the electron microscopic level, immunolabeling for RGS7, Gβ5 and R7BP proteins was found both at postsynaptic and presynaptic sites and showed similar distribution patterns. Immunoreactivity for the three proteins was mostly localized along the extrasynaptic plasma membrane of dendritic shafts and spines of PCs and to a lesser extent, in axon terminals (AT) establishing excitatory synapses. Quantitative analysis of immunogold particles for RGS7, Gβ5 and R7BP revealed that they are non-uniformly distributed along the surface of PCs, and show enrichment around excitatory synapses on dendritic spines. We further report that deletion of R7BP in mice reduced the targeting of both RGS7 and Gβ5 to the plasma membrane. Altogether, these data support the existence of macromolecular complexes composed of RGS7-Gβ5-R7BP in PCs. The location at post- and pre-synaptic sites in PCs spines-parallel fiber synapses suggests their involvement in the modulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission in the cerebellar cortex.

Regulator of G Protein Signaling 7 (RGS7) Can Exist in a Homo-oligomeric Form That Is Regulated by Gαo and R7-binding Protein

RGS (regulator of G protein signaling) proteins of the R7 subfamily (RGS6, -7, -9, and -11) are highly expressed in neurons where they regulate many physiological processes. R7 RGS proteins contain several distinct domains and form obligatory dimers with the atypical Gβ subunit, Gβ5 They also interact with other proteins such as R7-binding protein, R9-anchoring protein, and the orphan receptors GPR158 and GPR179. These interactions facilitate plasma membrane targeting and stability of R7 proteins and modulate their activity. Here, we investigated RGS7 complexes using in situ chemical cross-linking. We found that in mouse brain and transfected cells cross-linking causes formation of distinct RGS7 complexes. One of the products had the apparent molecular mass of ∼150 kDa on SDS-PAGE and did not contain Gβ5 Mass spectrometry analysis showed no other proteins to be present within the 150-kDa complex in the amount close to stoichiometric with RGS7. This finding suggested that RGS7 could form a homo-oligomer. Indeed, co-immunoprecipitation of differentially tagged RGS7 constructs, with or without chemical cross-linking, demonstrated RGS7 self-association. RGS7-RGS7 interaction required the DEP domain but not the RGS and DHEX domains or the Gβ5 subunit. Using transfected cells and knock-out mice, we demonstrated that R7-binding protein had a strong inhibitory effect on homo-oligomerization of RGS7. In contrast, our data indicated that GPR158 could bind to the RGS7 homo-oligomer without causing its dissociation. Co-expression of constitutively active Gαo prevented the RGS7-RGS7 interaction. These results reveal the existence of RGS protein homo-oligomers and show regulation of their assembly by R7 RGS-binding partners.

RGS Redundancy and Implications in GPCR-GIRK Signaling

Regulators of G protein signaling (RGS proteins) are key components of GPCR complexes, interacting directly with G protein α-subunits to enhance their intrinsic GTPase activity. The functional consequence is an accelerated termination of G protein effectors including certain ion channels. RGS proteins have a profound impact on the membrane-delimited gating behavior of G-protein-activated inwardly rectifying K(+) (GIRK) channels as demonstrated in reconstitution assays and recent RGS knockout mice studies. Akin to GPCRs and G protein αβγ subunits, multiple RGS isoforms are expressed within single GIRK-expressing neurons, suggesting functional redundancy and/or specificity in GPCR-GIRK channel signaling. The extent and impact of RGS redundancy in neuronal GPCR-GIRK channel signaling is currently not fully appreciated; however, recent studies from RGS knockout mice are providing important new clues on the impact of individual endogenous RGS proteins and the extent of RGS functional redundancy. Incorporating "tools" such as engineered RGS-resistant Gαi/o subunits provide an important assessment method for determining the impact of all endogenous RGS proteins on a given GPCR response and an accounting benchmark to assess the impact of individual RGS knockouts on overall RGS redundancy within a given neuron. Elucidating the degree of regulation attributable to specific RGS proteins in GIRK channel function will aid in the assessment of individual RGS proteins as viable therapeutic targets in epilepsy, ataxia's, memory disorders, and a growing list of neurological disorders.

Helix 8 and the i3 loop of the muscarinic M3 receptor are crucial sites for its regulation by the Gβ5-RGS7 complex

The muscarinic M3 receptor (M3R) is a Gq-coupled receptor and is known to interact with many intracellular regulatory proteins. One of these molecules is Gβ5-RGS7, the permanently associated heterodimer of G protein β-subunit Gβ5 and RGS7, a regulator of G protein signaling. Gβ5-RGS7 can attenuate M3R-stimulated release of Ca²⁺ from intracellular stores or enhance the influx of Ca²⁺ across the plasma membrane. Here we show that deletion of amino acids 304–345 from the central portion of the i3 loop renders M3R insensitive to regulation by Gβ5-RGS7. In addition to the i3 loop, interaction of M3R with Gβ5-RGS7 requires helix 8. According to circular dichroism spectroscopy, the peptide corresponding to amino acids 548–567 in the C-terminus of M3R assumes an α-helical conformation. Substitution of Thr553 and Leu558 with Pro residues disrupts this α-helix and abolished binding to Gβ5-RGS7. Introduction of the double Pro substitution into full-length M3R (M3R^TP/LP) prevents trafficking of the receptor to the cell surface. Using atropine or other antagonists as pharmacologic chaperones, we were able to increase the level of surface expression of the TP/LP mutant to levels comparable to that of wild-type M3R. However, M3R-stimulated calcium signaling is still severely compromised. These results show that the interaction of M3R with Gβ5-RGS7 requires helix 8 and the central portion of the i3 loop.

G protein beta 5 is targeted to D2-dopamine receptor-containing biochemical compartments and blocks dopamine-dependent receptor internalization

G beta 5 (Gbeta5, Gβ5) is a unique G protein β subunit that is thought to be expressed as an obligate heterodimer with R7 regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins instead of with G gamma (Gγ) subunits. We found that D2-dopamine receptor (D2R) coexpression enhances the expression of Gβ5, but not that of the G beta 1 (Gβ1) subunit, in HEK293 cells, and that the enhancement of expression occurs through a stabilization of Gβ5 protein. We had previously demonstrated that the vast majority of D2R either expressed endogenously in the brain or exogenously in cell lines segregates into detergent-resistant biochemical fractions. We report that when expressed alone in HEK293 cells, Gβ5 is highly soluble, but is retargeted to the detergent-resistant fraction after D2R coexpression. Furthermore, an in-cell biotin transfer proximity assay indicated that D2R and Gβ5 segregating into the detergent-resistant fraction specifically interacted in intact living cell membranes. Dopamine-induced D2R internalization was blocked by coexpression of Gβ5, but not Gβ1. However, the same Gβ5 coexpression levels had no effect on agonist-induced internalization of the mu opioid receptor (MOR), cell surface D2R levels, dopamine-mediated recruitment of β-arrestin to D2R, the amplitude of D2R-G protein coupling, or the deactivation kinetics of D2R-activated G protein signals. The latter data suggest that the interactions between D2R and Gβ5 are not mediated by endogenously expressed R7 RGS proteins.

The Gβ5 protein regulates sensitivity to TRAIL-induced cell death in colon carcinoma

Aberrant signaling via G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is implicated in numerous diseases including colon cancer. The heterotrimeric G proteins transduce signals from GPCRs to various effectors. So far, the G protein subunit Gβ5 has not been studied in the context of cancer. Here we demonstrate that Gβ5 protects colon carcinoma cells from apoptosis induced by the death ligand TRAIL via different routes. The Gβ5 protein (i) causes a decrease in the cell surface expression of the TRAIL-R2 death receptor, (ii) induces the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein XIAP and (iii) activates the NF-κB signaling pathway. The intrinsic resistance to TRAIL-triggered apoptosis of colon cancer cells is overcome by antagonization of Gβ5. Based on these results, targeting of G proteins emerges as a novel therapeutic approach in the experimental treatment of colon cancer.

Inhibitory signaling by CB1 receptors in smooth muscle mediated by GRK5/β-arrestin activation of ERK1/2 and Src kinase

We examined whether CB1 receptors in smooth muscle conform to the signaling pattern observed with other Gi-coupled receptors that stimulate contraction via two Gβγ-dependent pathways (PLC-β3 and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/integrin-linked kinase). Here we show that the anticipated Gβγ-dependent signaling was abrogated. Except for inhibition of adenylyl cyclase via Gαi, signaling resulted from Gβγ-independent phosphorylation of CB1 receptors by GRK5, recruitment of β-arrestin1/2, and activation of ERK1/2 and Src kinase. Neither uncoupling of CB1 receptors from Gi by pertussis toxin (PTx) or Gi minigene nor expression of a Gβγ-scavenging peptide had any effect on ERK1/2 activity. The latter was abolished in muscle cells expressing β-arrestin1/2 siRNA. CB1 receptor internalization and both ERK1/2 and Src kinase activities were abolished in cells expressing kinase-deficient GRK5(K215R). Activation of ERK1/2 and Src kinase endowed CB1 receptors with the ability to inhibit concurrent contractile activity. We identified a consensus sequence (102KSPSKLSP109) for phosphorylation of RGS4 by ERK1/2 and showed that expression of a RGS4 mutant lacking Ser103/Ser108 blocked the ability of anandamide to inhibit acetylcholine-mediated phosphoinositide hydrolysis or enhance Gαq:RGS4 association and inactivation of Gαq. Activation of Src kinase by anandamide enhanced both myosin phosphatase RhoA-interacting protein (M-RIP):RhoA and M-RIP:MYPT1 association and inhibited Rho kinase activity, leading to increase of myosin light chain (MLC) phosphatase activity and inhibition of sustained muscle contraction. Thus, unlike other Gi-coupled receptors in smooth muscle, CB1 receptors did not engage Gβγ but signaled via GRK5/β-arrestin activation of ERK1/2 and Src kinase: ERK1/2 accelerated inactivation of Gαq by RGS4, and Src kinase enhanced MLC phosphatase activity, leading to inhibition of ACh-stimulated contraction.

Association of Rgs7/Gβ5 complexes with Girk channels and GABAB receptors in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons

In the hippocampus, signaling through G protein-coupled receptors is modulated by Regulators of G protein signaling (Rgs) proteins, which act to stimulate the rate of GTP hydrolysis, and consequently, G protein inactivation. The R7-Rgs subfamily selectively deactivates the G(i/o)-class of Gα subunits that mediate the action of several GPCRs. Here, we used co-immunoprecipitation, electrophysiology and immunoelectron microscopy techniques to investigate the formation of macromolecular complexes and spatial relationship of Rgs7/Gβ5 complexes and its prototypical signaling partners, the GABAB receptor and Girk channel. Co-expression of recombinant GABAB receptors and Girk channels in combination with co-immunoprecipitation experiments established that the Rgs7/Gβ5 forms complexes with GABAB receptors or Girk channels. Using electrophysiological experiments, we found that GABAB -Girk current deactivation kinetics was markedly faster in cells coexpressing Rgs7/Gβ5. At the electron microscopic level, immunolabeling for Rgs7 and Gβ5 proteins was found primarily in the dendritic layers of the hippocampus and showed similar distribution patterns. Immunoreactivity was mostly localized along the extrasynaptic plasma membrane of dendritic shafts and spines of pyramidal cells and, to a lesser extent, to that of presynaptic terminals. Quantitative analysis of immunogold particles for Rgs7 and Gβ5 revealed an enrichment of the two proteins around excitatory synapses on dendritic spines, virtually identical to that of Girk2 and GABAB1 . These data support the existence of macromolecular complexes composed of GABAB receptor-G protein-Rgs7-Girk channels in which Rgs7 and Gβ5 proteins may preferentialy modulate GABAB receptor signaling through the deactivation of Girk channels on dendritic spines. In contrast, Rgs7 and Girk2 were associated but mainly segregated from GABAB1 in dendritic shafts, where Rgs7/Gβ5 signaling complexes might modulate Girk-dependent signaling via a different metabotropic receptor(s).

Cones respond to light in the absence of transducin β subunit

Mammalian cones respond to light by closing a cGMP-gated channel via a cascade that includes a heterotrimeric G-protein, cone transducin, comprising Gαt2, Gβ3 and Gγt2 subunits. The function of Gβγ in this cascade has not been examined. Here, we investigate the role of Gβ3 by assessing cone structure and function in Gβ3-null mouse (Gnb3(-/-)). We found that Gβ3 is required for the normal expression of its partners, because in the Gnb3(-/-) cone outer segments, the levels of Gαt2 and Gγt2 are reduced by fourfold to sixfold, whereas other components of the cascade remain unaltered. Surprisingly, Gnb3(-/-) cones produce stable responses with normal kinetics and saturating response amplitudes similar to that of the wild-type, suggesting that cone phototransduction can function efficiently without a Gβ subunit. However, light sensitivity was reduced by approximately fourfold in the knock-out cones. Because the reduction in sensitivity was similar in magnitude to the reduction in Gαt2 level in the cone outer segment, we conclude that activation of Gαt2 in Gnb3(-/-) cones proceeds at a rate approximately proportional to its outer segment concentration, and that activation of phosphodiesterase and downstream cascade components is normal. These results suggest that the main role of Gβ3 in cones is to establish optimal levels of transducin heteromer in the outer segment, thereby indirectly contributing to robust response properties.

GPR158/179 regulate G protein signaling by controlling localization and activity of the RGS7 complexes

Interaction of RGS proteins with orphan GPCRs promotes signaling compartmentalization and specificity.

The extent and temporal characteristics of G protein–coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling are shaped by the regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins, which promote G protein deactivation. With hundreds of GPCRs and dozens of RGS proteins, compartmentalization plays a key role in establishing signaling specificity. However, the molecular details and mechanisms of this process are poorly understood. In this paper, we report that the R7 group of RGS regulators is controlled by interaction with two previously uncharacterized orphan GPCRs: GPR158 and GPR179. We show that GPR158/179 recruited RGS complexes to the plasma membrane and augmented their ability to regulate GPCR signaling. The loss of GPR179 in a mouse model of night blindness prevented targeting of RGS to the postsynaptic compartment of bipolar neurons in the retina, illuminating the role of GPR179 in night vision. We propose that the interaction of RGS proteins with orphan GPCRs promotes signaling selectivity in G protein pathways.

Targeted deletion of one or two copies of the G protein β subunit Gβ5 gene has distinct effects on body weight and behavior in mice

We investigated the physiological role of Gβ5, a unique G protein β subunit that dimerizes with regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins of the R7 family instead of Gγ. Gβ5 is essential for stability of these complexes, so that its knockout (KO)causes degradation of the entire Gβ5-R7 family. We report that the Gβ5-KO mice remain leaner than the wild type (WT) throughout their lifetime and are resistant to a high-fat diet. They have a 5-fold increase in locomotor activity, increased thermogenesis, and lower serum insulin, all of which correlate with a higher level of secreted epinephrine. Heterozygous (HET) mice are 2-fold more active than WT mice. Surprisingly, with respect to body weight, the HET mice display a phenotype opposite to that of the KO mice: by the age of 6 mo, they are ≥ 15% heavier than the WT and have increased adiposity, insulin resistance, and liver steatosis. These changes occur in HET mice fed a normal diet and without apparent hyperphagia, mimicking basic characteristics of human metabolic syndrome. We conclude that even a partial reduction in Gβ5-R7 level can perturb normal animal metabolism and behavior. Our data on Gβ5 haploinsufficient mice may explain earlier observations of genetic linkage between R7 family mutations and obesity in humans.

Type 5 G protein beta subunit (Gbeta5) controls the interaction of regulator of G protein signaling 9 (RGS9) with membrane anchors

The R7 family of regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins, comprising RGS6, RGS7, RGS9, and RGS11, regulate neuronal G protein signaling pathways. All members of the R7 RGS form trimeric complexes with the atypical G protein β subunit, Gβ5, and membrane anchor R7BP or R9AP. Association with Gβ5 and membrane anchors has been shown to be critical for maintaining proteolytic stability of the R7 RGS proteins. However, despite its functional importance, the mechanism of how R7 RGS forms complexes with Gβ5 and membrane anchors remains poorly understood. Here, we used protein-protein interaction, co-localization, and protein stability assays to show that association of RGS9 with membrane anchors requires Gβ5. We further establish that the recruitment of R7BP to the complex requires an intact interface between the N-terminal lobe of RGS9 and protein interaction surface of Gβ5. Site-directed mutational analysis reveals that distinct molecular determinants in the interface between Gβ5 and N-terminal Dishevelled, EGL-10, Pleckstrin/DEP Helical Extension (DEP/DHEY) domains are differentially involved in R7BP binding and proteolytic stabilization. On the basis of these findings, we conclude that Gβ5 contributes to the formation of the binding site to the membrane anchors and thus is playing a central role in the assembly of the proteolytically stable trimeric complex and its correct localization in the cell.

Molecular organization of the complex between the muscarinic M3 receptor and the regulator of G protein signaling, Gbeta(5)-RGS7

The complex of the regulator of G protein signaling (RGS), Gbeta(5)-RGS7, can inhibit signal transduction via the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M3R). RGS7 consists of three distinct structural entities: the DEP domain and its extension DHEX, the Ggamma-like (GGL) domain, which is permanently bound to Gbeta subunit Gbeta(5), and the RGS domain responsible for the interaction with Galpha subunits. Inhibition of the M3R by Gbeta(5)-RGS7 is independent of the RGS domain but requires binding of the DEP domain to the third intracellular loop of the receptor. Recent studies identified the dynamic intramolecular interaction between the Gbeta(5) and DEP domains, which suggested that the Gbeta(5)-RGS7 dimer could alternate between the "open" and "closed" conformations. Here, we identified point mutations that weaken DEP-Gbeta(5) binding, presumably stabilizing the open state, and tested their effects on the interaction of Gbeta(5)-RGS7 with the M3R. We found that these mutations facilitated binding of Gbeta(5)-RGS7 to the recombinant third intracellular loop of the M3R but did not enhance its ability to inhibit M3R-mediated Ca(2+) mobilization. This led us to the idea that the M3R can effectively induce the Gbeta(5)-RGS7 dimer to open; such a mechanism would require a region of the receptor distinct from the third loop. Indeed, we found that the C-terminus of M3R interacts with Gbeta(5)-RGS7. Truncation of the C-terminus rendered the M3R insensitive to inhibition by wild-type Gbeta(5)-RGS7; however, the open mutant of Gbeta(5)-RGS7 was able to inhibit signaling by the truncated M3R. The GST fusion of the M3R C-tail could not bind to wild-type Gbeta(5)-RGS7 but could associate with its open mutant as well as with the separated recombinant DEP domain or Gbeta(5). Taken together, our data are consistent with the following model: interaction of the M3R with Gbeta(5)-RGS7 causes the DEP domain and Gbeta(5) to dissociate from each other and bind to the C-tail, and the DEP domain also binds to the third loop, thereby inhibiting M3R-mediated signaling.