Toxicity profile of ethanolic extract of Azadirachta indica stem bark in male Wistar rats

Toward a greener multifunctional pharmaceutical excipient: in vivo safety evaluation of nanofibrillated cellulose from tobacco stalk

Tobacco stalk is a cellulose-rich material and a sustainable alternative to be applied as a plant-based nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) source. NFC use has garnered attention in the development of oral pharmaceutical forms, despite concerns about its safety due to the adverse effects of nicotine on health. Therefore, we aimed at establishing the safety of NFC derived from tobacco stalk for its potential use as a novel pharmaceutical excipient, exploring its potential functions for tablet production. We conducted acute and subchronic oral toxicity tests in adult female Wistar rats. Initially, individual animals received sequential doses (175-5,000 mg·kg-1) for 24 hours followed by a careful observation of any toxic effects. Subsequently, 20 rats were divided into four groups for a subchronic assay, evaluating toxicity signs, body weight changes, hematological, biochemical, and histopathological parameters. No deaths or other clinical toxicity signs were observed in either the acute or the subchronic assays. We noticed a significant reduction in body weight gain (p < 0.05) after 14 days. We found statistical differences for hematological and biochemical parameters, unrelated to dosage. There were no observed toxic effects, and tobacco stalk ingestion did not adversely affect organ morphology in the histopathological evaluation. The oral administration of NFC at 5,000 mg·kg-1 per day for 28 days was well-tolerated by treated rats, with no reported deaths. In conclusion, NFC derived from tobacco stalk has shown to be a sustainable and safe alternative for use as an excipient at experimental doses, demonstrating compatibility with its proposed applications.

Dermal repeated dose toxicity study of the anti-breast cancer drug Formestane cream in Bama minipig

Formestane (4-OHA) has been proven to be highly effective with high systemic tolerability in treating ER⁺ breast cancer. However, its intramuscular administration and associated side effects make it unsuitable for adjuvant treatment, leading to its withdrawal from the market. In contrast, Formestane cream may offer a solution by providing a more convenient route of administration and retaining its tumor-shrinking effects. This suggests that 4-OHA cream could have promising clinical applications. However, before clinical application, it is necessary to evaluate the potential toxicity of the cream in animals. This study evaluated the toxicity of 4-OHA cream on female Bama minipigs in vivo by analyzing hematology, biochemistry, and histopathology. The results showed that there was no significant difference between the cream-treated group and the control normal group for each parameter analyzed, indicating that 4-OHA cream was non-dermal toxic to minipigs. This finding provides a basis for the safe clinical use of the cream.

An Investigation into the Acute and Subacute Toxicity of Extracts of Cassipourea flanaganii Stem Bark In Vivo

The conventional use of medicinal plants is in part based on the widespread belief that plant crude extracts are non-toxic. In South Africa, traditional preparations of Cassipourea flanaganii used to treat hypermelanosis have accordingly been regarded by many as non-toxic. Whether that is so impacts on the potential of bark extracts to be developed as a commercial drug to treathypermelanosis, given their documented capacity to inhibit tyrosinase activity. Our study investigated the acute and subacute toxicity of the methanol extract of C. flanaganii bark in rats. Wistar rats were randomly assigned into different treatment groups. The rats received a daily oral gavage of crude extract for acute and subacute toxicity tests. Haematological, biomechanical, clinical and histopathology examinations were carried out to evaluate the possible toxicity of C. flanaganii. The results were subjected to the Student's t-test and ANOVA. For both acute and subacute toxicity, there was no statistical difference between the groups. There were no clinical or behavioral signs of toxicity observed in the rats. No treatment-related gross pathology lesions and no histopathology were observed. The findings of this study demonstrate the absence of acute or subacute toxicity after oral treatment with C. flanaganii stem bark extracts in Wistar rats at the levels administered. Chemical profiling of the total extract using LC-MS tentatively identified eleven (11) compounds as the major chemical constituents.

Histological, haematological, and thyroid hormones toxicity of female rats orally exposed to CuO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles synthesized by Ar plasma jets

Advancements in nanomedicine helped scientists design a new class of nanoparticles known as hybrid nanoparticles (core/shell) for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. An essential requirement for the successful use of nanoparticles in biomedical applications is their low toxicity. Therefore, toxicological profiling is necessary to understand the mechanism of nanoparticles. The current study aimed to assess the toxicological potential of CuO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles with a size of 32 nm in Albino female rats. In vivo toxicity was evaluated by oral administration of 0, 5, 10, 20, and 40 (mg/L) of CuO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles to a female rate for 30 consecutive days. During the time of treatment, no deaths were observed. The toxicological evaluation revealed significant (p < 0.01) alteration in white blood cells (WBC) at a 5 (mg/L) dose. Also, increase in red blood cells (RBC) at 5, 10 (mg/L) doses, while hemoglobin (Hb) levels and hematocrit (HCT) increased at all doses. This maybe indicates that the CuO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles stimulated the rate of blood corpuscle generation. The anaemia diagnostic indices (mean corpuscular volume MCV and mean corpuscular haemoglobin MCH) remained unchanged throughout the experiment for all the doses tested 5, 10, 20, and 40 (mg/L). According to the results of this study, exposure to CuO/ZnO core/shell NPs deteriorates the Triiodothyronine hormone (T3) and a Thyroxine hormone (T4) activated by Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH), which is generated and secreted from the pituitary gland. There is possibly related to an increase in free radicals and a decrease in antioxidant activity. Significant (p < 0.01) growth retardation in all groups treated due to rats' infection by Hyperthyroidism induced by thyroxine (T4) level increase. Hyperthyroidism is a catabolic state related to increased energy consumption, protein turnover, and lipolysis. Usually, these metabolic effects result in weight reduction and a decrease in fat storage and lean body mass. The histological examination indicates that the low concentrations of CuO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles are safe for desired biomedical applications.

Estimation of in vivo toxicity of MgO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles synthesized by eco-friendly non-thermal plasma technology

MgO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles were synthesized using the atmosphere plasma jets technique. The physical properties of the synthesized nanoparticles were investigated by a series of techniques, including X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). XRD and EDS analyses confirmed the purity of the nanoparticles synthesized with an average nanoparticle crystallite size of 36 nm. TEM confirmed the successful synthesis of spindle-shaped MgO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles with an average size of 70 nm. To evaluate their toxicity, the MgO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles were tested in vivo. Twenty-five albino female rats were randomly divided into five groups (five rats in each group); one was used as the control group and the other four as the experimental groups. Doses of the MgO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles solution were orally administered to the test groups to examine the toxicity. For 30 consecutive days, each rat in test groups 2–5 received 1 mL of the MgO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles solution at the respective doses of 1.25, 2.5, 5, and 10 mg L⁻¹. The rats’ growth, hematology, thyroid gland function, and histopathology were examined after 30 days. Findings indicate that the growth retardation in the rats treated with MgO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles may be due to their infection by Hyperthyroidism. The hematology results show the nonsignificant effect of MgO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles on white blood cells, implying that these nanoparticles have no harmful impact on the immune system. Moreover, the levels of the thyroxine and thyroid‐stimulating hormones increased, and that of the triiodothyronine hormone decreased. The histological analysis results show that low concentrations of MgO/ZnO core/shell nanoparticles are safe for desired biomedical applications.

The Antimicrobial Potential of the Neem Tree Azadirachta indica

Azadirachta indica (A. Juss), also known as the neem tree, has been used for millennia as a traditional remedy for a multitude of human ailments. Also recognized around the world as a broad-spectrum pesticide and fertilizer, neem has applications in agriculture and beyond. Currently, the extensive antimicrobial activities of A. indica are being explored through research in the fields of dentistry, food safety, bacteriology, mycology, virology, and parasitology. Herein, some of the most recent studies that demonstrate the potential of neem as a previously untapped source of novel therapeutics are summarized as they relate to the aforementioned research topics. Additionally, the capacity of neem extracts and compounds to act against drug-resistant and biofilm-forming organisms, both of which represent large groups of pathogens for which there are limited treatment options, are highlighted. Updated information on the phytochemistry and safety of neem-derived products are discussed as well. Although there is a growing body of exciting evidence that supports the use of A. indica as an antimicrobial, additional studies are clearly needed to determine the specific mechanisms of action, clinical efficacy, and in vivo safety of neem as a treatment for human pathogens of interest. Moreover, the various ongoing studies and the diverse properties of neem discussed herein may serve as a guide for the discovery of new antimicrobials that may exist in other herbal panaceas across the globe.

A Systematic Review of Medicinal Plants of Kenya used in the Management of Bacterial Infections

Kenya’s vision 2030 partly aims at ensuring adequate health care for all, and the integration of traditional healthcare practices into the national healthcare system would present a more rapid alternative towards the realization of universal health coverage in Kenya. Currently, research on Kenyan medicinal plants with potential antibacterial activity remains vastly fragmented across numerous literature studies and databases; thus, it is imperative to collate and appraise these data for the ease of future research and possible clinical application. Objective. This review aims at exploring and compiling research evidence on medicinal plants used in the management of bacterial infections in Kenya, with a focus on their efficacy and safety. Methodology. A comprehensive web-based systematic review using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines was executed to highlight the Kenyan medicinal plants used for the management of bacterial infections in Kenya. This review includes studies published until January 2021 from the PubMed, Science Direct, AJOL, and Google Scholar databases. Results. A total of 105 Kenyan medicinal plants belonging to 43 families have their in vitro activity against various human pathogenic bacteria evaluated. Plants from the Lamiaceae, Rutaceae, and Fabaceae families were the most commonly studied. Aloe secundiflora, Toddalia asiatica, Senna didymobotrya, Warbugia ugandensis, Tithonia diversifolia, Fuerstia africana, Olea africana, and Harrisonia abyssinica were the plants frequently evaluated within Kenya. The plants with the strongest antimicrobial activities were Toddalia asiatica, Hagenia abyssinica, Ocimum gratissimum, Harrisonia abyssinica, Senna didymobotrya, Olea Africana, Camellia sinensis, and Tarmarindus indica. Conclusion. Based on a published work, it is evident that traditional medicine is seemingly an acceptable and efficient system among Kenyan communities in the management of bacterial infections. Kenya’s rich biodiversity with diverse secondary metabolites presents a promising source of new therapeutic alternatives with possibly different mechanisms of action against bacteria.

Traditional medicinal plants used for treating emerging and re-emerging viral diseases in northern Nigeria

Introduction

For decades, viral diseases have been treated using medicinal plants and herbal practices in the northern part of Nigeria. Though scarcely investigated, these medicinal plants could serve as potential sources for novel antiviral drugs against emerging and remerging viral diseases. Therefore, this study is aimed at investigating the medicinal practices and plants used to treat emerging and re-emerging viral diseases including hepatitis, poliomyelitis, monkeypox, smallpox, yellow fever, Lassa fever, meningitis, and COVID-19 in some northern states; Katsina, Kebbi, Kwara and Sokoto states.

Method

Administered questionnaires and oral interviews were used to collect information on medicinal plants, method of preparation of herbal formulations, diagnosis, and treatment of viral diseases. Medicinal plants were collected, botanically identified, and assigned voucher numbers. The plant names were verified using www.theplantlist.org, www.worldfloraonline.org and the international plant names index.

Result

A total of 280 participating herbal medicine practitioners (HMPs) mentioned 131 plants belonging to 65 families. Plant parts such as roots, bark, leaf, seed, and fruit were prepared as a decoction, concoction, infusion, or ointment for oral and topical treatment of viral diseases. Moringa oleifera (75.3%), Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (80%), and Acacia nilotica (70%) were the most frequently mentioned plants in Kebbi, Kwara and Sokoto states, respectively.

Conclusion

The study revealed scarcely investigated and uninvestigated medicinal plants used to treat hepatitis, poliomyelitis, monkeypox, smallpox, yellow fever, Lassa fever, meningitis, and COVID-19. Future studies should be conducted to determine the antiviral potency and isolate novel bioactive agents from these plants against viral diseases.

Preclinical Trial of Traditional Plant Remedies for the Treatment of Complications of Gestational Malaria

Background: Most pregnant women living in high malaria endemic regions of Nigeria use herbal remedies for the management of malaria-in-pregnancy, rather than the commonly prescribed drugs. Remedies common to this area involve a suspension of A. indica (AI) leaves and in some cases, a suspension containing a mixture of AI and D.edulis (PS). Aim: This study examined the therapeutic efficacies of AI, PS, or a combination of AI and PS in a pregnant rat model for exoerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum parasite. Method: A predetermined sample size of 30 dams was used (for a power level and confidence interval of 95%), and divided equally into six groups made up of non-malarous dams, untreated malarous dams, and malarous dams either treated exclusively with 1 mL of 3000 mg/kg b.w AI, 1000 mg/kg b.w PS, AI + PS (50% v/v), or 25 mg/kg b.w CQ. Result: No maternal mortality was recorded. AI significantly improved maternal weight gain from 32.4 to 82.2 g and placental weight from 0.44 to 0.53 g. In the curative test, AI and AI + PS significantly reduced the average percentage parasitemia (APP) in the pregnant rats from >80% to <20%. No significant difference in the APP was found between the pregnant rats treated with any of CQ or AI during the suppressive test. Results for the prophylactic test of the study groups showed that the APP was significantly reduced from 24.69% to 3.90% when treated with AI and 3.67% when combined with PS. AI + PS reduced diastolic blood pressure from 89.0 to 81.0 mm/Hg and compared with that of the non malarous dams. AI or AI + PS significantly increased the platelet counts (103 µL) from 214.1 to 364.5 and 351.2, respectively. AI and AI + PS improved birth weight from 2.5 to 3.9 g and crown rump length from 2.6 to 4.1 cm. For biomarkers of preeclampsia, combining AI and PS led to the reversal of the altered levels of creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, cardiac troponin, soluble Fms-Like Tyrosine Kinase-1, and placental growth factor. Conclusions: This study validates the use of A. indica for the treatment of gestational malaria due to its antiplasmodial and related therapeutic effects and in combination with pear seeds for the management of malaria-in-pregnancy-induced preeclampsia.

Protective effect of isosteviol sodium against LPS-induced multiple organ injury by regulating of glycerophospholipid metabolism and reducing macrophage-driven inflammation

Sepsis is a severe inflammatory disorder that can lead to multiple organ injury. Isosteviol sodium (STV-Na) is a terpenoid derived from stevioside that exerts anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antiapoptotic activities. However, the influence of STV-Na on sepsis remains unknown. Here, we assessed the potential effects of STV-Na on sepsis and multiple organ injury induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We found that STV-Na increased the survival rate of mice treat with LPS, significantly improved the functions of the heart, lung, liver, and kidney, reduced the production of inflammatory cytokines and decreased macrophage infiltration. Moreover, Multiorgan metabolomics analysis demonstrated that glutathione metabolism, purine metabolism, glycerophospholipid metabolism and pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis, were significantly altered by STV-Na. This study provides novel insights into the metabolite changes of multiple organ injury in septic mice, which may help characterize the underlying mechanism and provide an improved understanding of the therapeutic effects of STV-Na on sepsis.

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. In Vivo Toxicity-An Updated Review

The Neem tree, Azadirachta indica A. Juss., is known for its large spectrum of compounds with biological and pharmacological interest. These include, among others, activities that are anticancer, antibacterial, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory. Some neem compounds are also used as insecticides, herbicides, and/or antifeedants. The safety of these compounds is not always taken into consideration and few in vivo toxicity studies have been performed. The current study is a literature review of the latest in vivo toxicity of A. indica. It is divided in two major sections-aquatic animals toxicity and mammalian toxicity-each related to neem's application as a pesticide or a potential new therapeutic drug, respectively.

Nanotechnology improves the therapeutic efficacy of gemcitabine against a human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line and minimizes its in vivo side effects

Nanotechnology has become a promising approach for addressing cancer therapy limitations because it reduces side effects and increases the efficacy of antineoplastic agents. Therefore, this research was designed to compare the in vitro therapeutic efficacy and in vivo adverse effects of gemcitabine (GEM) and gemcitabine-loaded silver nanoparticles (GEM-AgNPs). GEM molecules were successfully attached to AgNP surfaces with a homogenous and spherical shape. The zeta size of AgNPs and GEM-AgNPs was 79.35 ± 3.2 and 75.1 ± 7 nm, respectively. The anticancer effect of AgNPs and GEM-AgNPs was investigated against a human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (HepG2), and cytotoxic activity was evaluated by MTT assay. Apoptosis/necrosis and cell cycle arrest were also assessed. The cytotoxic activity was recorded in a concentration-dependent way. The findings have shown that GEM-AgNPs induced a better cytotoxic effect with an IC₅₀ value of 13.63 μg/mL compared to GEM (IC₅₀ value of 24.19 μg/mL) or AgNPs alone (IC₅₀ value of 50.6 μg/mL). GEM-AgNPs induced pre-G1 arrest and apoptotic/necrotic cell death. Our in vivo analysis involved the use of 40 male rats assigned equally into the control rats, and rats injected intraperitoneally with GEM (134 mg/kg), AgNPs (1 mg/kg), and GEM-AgNPs (134 mg/kg). GEM and GEM-AgNPs were administered on the 1st, 7th, and 14th day of the experiment. Intraperitoneal GEM injection induced marked hematological, biochemical, hepatorenal, and histopathological alterations, while the loading of GEM in AgNPs to some extent ameliorated these alterations and significantly improved its therapeutic efficacy against HepG2 cells. These findings indicate the potential use of GEM-AgNPs in the clinical setting for anticancer treatment.

Biochemical and toxicological effects of methanolic extract of Asparagus africanus Lam in Sprague-Dawley rats

Asparagus africanus Lam. is a plant used traditionally to treat different ailments. Currently, scanty information is available on its safety. The aim of this study is to determine the acute toxicity of the methanolic extract on vital organs and its associated biochemical parameters. Fifteen female Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into five groups. Group I served as normal control, groups II, III, IV, and V were orally administered single dose of crude extract dissolved in distilled water at 5 mg/kg BW, 50 mg/kg BW, 300 mg/kg BW and 2,000 mg/kg BW. Rats were observed for 14 days and body weights were recorded. On day 15, the rats were sacrificed and blood samples were collected for biochemical and haematological analyses, while the liver and kidneys were sampled for histopathological examination. Body weight and haematology parameters results showed significance difference (p < 0.05) among means of HGB, RDW, RBC, and MCHC; likewise, (p < 0.001) for WBC and platelet among treated groups. Histopathology result showed that kidneys appeared normal while livers were congested with mildly swollen hepatocytes and occasional binucleation. Focal lobular hepatitis was observed in all treated animals. However, hepatic enzymes were not significantly affected and no histopathological harmful effects were observed in kidney. In conclusion, methanolic extracts of A. africanus are safe up to 2,000 mg/kg BW. The obtained results could be used as a justification for the traditional application of the plant for treatment of various ailments.

Evaluating bioactive constituents and toxicological effects of aqueous extract of fermented Pentaclethra macrophylla seeds in rats

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed at evaluating the bioactive constituents and the toxicological profile of the aqueous fermented seed extract of P. macrophylla.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The chemical constituents of fermented P. macrophylla were assessed using GC-MS. For acute toxicity study, one-time doses of up to 5000 mg/kg of the extract were orally administered to male and female rats whereas 200, 400 and 800 mg/kg of the P. macrophylla extract were orally administered daily for 14 days in sub-acute toxicity investigation. Biochemical, haematological and lipid profiles were assessed following standard methods.

RESULTS

Bioactive compounds such as citronellol and oxirane, tetradecyl- (hexadecylene oxide) were identified in the extract. In acute toxicity test, no death or sign of toxicity was identified. For sub-acute study, ALT decreased significantly (p<0.05) while HDL-C had dose-dependent increases. No effect (p<0.05) on haematological parameters except on platelets was found. No histopathological changes were observed.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrated that the extract of fermented P. macrophylla caused no toxic effects in the rats at the tested doses. Therefore, they may be termed safe for consumption and therapeutic uses.

New biological trends on cell and callus growth and azadirachtin production in Azadirachta indica

Azadirachtin is an important secondary metabolite from Azadirachta indica used as a natural biopesticide. This study is the first comprehensive report concerning the influence of plant growth regulators on callus induction, cell suspension growth, and azadirachtin accumulation and production in cell suspension cultures of A. indica. We investigated the effect of plant growth regulators including different types of auxins and cytokinins and their combinations on callus induction, cell suspension growth, and azadirachtin accumulation and production. The highest percentage of callusing (100%) obtained at different combinations of plant growth regulators on MS medium supplemented with 1 mg/L picloram and 2 mg/L kinetin and the highest fresh weight of callus (264.50 mg) was observed in MS medium containing 1.5 mg/L NAA and 3 mg/L kinetin. In cell suspension cultures, the maximum cell density, SCV, and PCV were 2.44 × 10⁶ cells per mL, 97.95%, and 81.46%, respectively, obtained in the MS medium containing 1.5 mg/L 2,4-D and 3 mg/L zeatin riboside. The highest average growth rate (0.25 days) was on MS medium containing 1.5 mg/L NAA and 3 mg/L zeatin riboside. The MS medium supplemented with 1 mg/L picloram and 2 mg/L kinetin produced the highest amount of fresh cell weight (493.02 g/L), dry cell weight (77.27 g/L), azadirachtin accumulation (3.69 mg/gDW), and azadirachtin production (285.64 mg/L). The results showed that all measured indices had positive correlation with together except FCW and DCW with azadirachtin accumulation.

In vitro and in vivo toxicity assessment of biologically synthesized silver nanoparticles from Elaeodendron croceum

Background The cytotoxic properties of nanoparticles have attracted a great deal of attention in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology due to their small size and ability to penetrate cellular membranes. Methods The silver nanoparticles were synthesized using Elaeodendron croceum stem bark and characterized. The oral acute toxicity studies were carried out by administration of 500, 1000, 2000 mg/kg body weight to Wister rats in respective groups. An in vitro cytotoxicity assay was evaluated in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells using the WST-1 Cell Proliferation assay. The percentage of cell viability after treatment with aqueous extracts of Elaeodendron croceum (ECE) and Elaeodendron croceum silver nanoparticles (ECAgNPs) was compared with that of paclitaxel. Results The in vivo studies revealed that the LD50 was higher than 2000 mg/kg and there was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the treatment groups compared with the control group for mean organ-to-body weight ratio except in the liver and in all hematological parameters except WBC and hematocrit. Similarly, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) for serum electrolytes (Na+, Mg2+ K+, Cl-, and Ca2+), total protein, urea, ɣ-glutamyl transferase (GGT), Aspartate aminotransferase (AST), Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), albumin, total and conjugated bilirubin between the treatment and the control group. However, there were changes in creatinine, urea, and cholesterol. In the in vitro assays, ECE and ECAgNPs showed IC50 values of 70.87±2.99 and 138.8±3.98 µg/mL respectively against MDA-MB-231 cells compared to paclitaxel, which showed an IC50 value of 80 ng/mL. Conclusion The results showed that the LD50 of the ECE and ECAgNPs in Wister rats was determined to be greater than 2000 mg/kg body weight. The aqueous extract also showed more cytotoxic than the ECAgNPs suggesting that the toxic compounds in aqueous extract were involved in the capping of the AgNPs.

Water Extract of Acori Graminei Rhizoma Attenuates Features of Rheumatoid Arthritis in DBA/1 Mice

The dry rhizome of Acorus gramineus Solander, known as Acori Graminei Rhizoma, is used to treat dementia, stroke, eczema, and indigestion in traditional Chinese medicine, traditional Korean medicine, and traditional Japanese Kampo medicine. Previous studies have reported that Acori Graminei Rhizoma extract ameliorated cognitive impairment in Aβ1-42 injected mice. However, the effect of Acori Graminei Rhizoma on type II collagen induced arthritis (CIA) has not been elucidated. Thus, we evaluated the water extract of Acori Graminei Rhizoma (WAG) in CIA mice models. Male DBA/1 mice were separated into five groups (NOR; n=10, CON; n=10, CIA + methotrexate (MTX); n=10, CIA + 100 mg/kg WAG; n=10, CIA + 500 mg/kg WAG; n=10). CIA was induced by injecting the mice with bovine type II collagen, after which the mice were treated with WAG and/or MTX. Hematological parameters and liver and kidney serum toxicity markers were analyzed. Further, serum levels of interleukin (IL)-6, TNF-α, and type II collagen IgG were analyzed via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Treatment with 500 mg/kg WAG decreased serum levels of IL-6, TNF-α, and collagen IgG in a CIA model. Moreover, WAG treatment decreased CIA-induced swelling of mouse hind legs, infiltration of inflammatory cells into the synovial membrane, and blood neutrophil levels. WAG administration did not influence hematological parameters or kidneys and liver toxicity markers. WAG may be used to treat arthritis by reducing the inflammation indicators. However, further experiments are required to determine how WAG affects inflammation mechanisms in vitro and in vivo.

Evaluation of the toxicity of Colocasia esculenta (Aracaceae): Preliminary study of leaves infected by Phytophthora colocasiae on wistar albinos rats

This study was designed to investigate the acute and subacute toxicity of the aqueous extract from colocasia esculenta (CE) leaves infected by Phytophthora colocsiae (PC) in rats. Toxicity of the aqueous extract was evaluated in both male and female wistar rats after a single administration (Acute model) and during 21 days (subacute model). Acute administration of the extract up to a dose 4000 mg/kg did not induce treatment related signs of toxicity or mortality of any rat tested. Therefore, LD₅₀ was estimated to be more than 4000 mg/kg. In the subacute treatment, 3 days before the end of treatment, the male rats treated with the infected Colocasia esculenta leaves extract at doses of 800 mg/kg presented some signs of toxicity such as spiky hair, breathing, paralysis and death. Hematological analysis revealed a significant decrease (p < .05) of platelets for all doses in female rats. Biochemical investigations revealed a significant (p < .01) increase in the serum AST and HDL cholesterol at dose of 800 mg/kg in male rats. A significant decrease (p < .05) in the level of tissue creatinine at a dose of 800 mg/kg in treated female rats has also been observed. Histopathological examination revealed adverse effects on the lungs in male rats at dose of 800 mg/kg. The present findings suggest that CE infected by PC would be no major health risks at the doses tested but could affect their health at higher doses and repeated administration.

A comprehensive review of phytochemical profile, bioactives for pharmaceuticals, and pharmacological attributes of Azadirachta indica

Azadirachta indica L. is a multipurpose medicinal tree of family Meliaceae. It occurs in tropical and semitropical regions of the world. Different parts of this miraculous tree are used to treat pyrexia, headache, ulcer, respiratory disorders, cancer, diabetes, leprosy, malaria, dengue, chicken pox, and dermal complications. The tree is popular for its pharmacological attributes such as hypolipidemic, antifertility, microbicidal, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, antipyretic, hypoglycemic, insecticidal, nematicidal, antiulcer, antioxidant, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, and antileishmaniasis properties. A. indica is also rich in various phytochemicals for pharmaceuticals such as alkaloids, steroids, flavonoids, terpenoids, fatty acids, and carbohydrates. The fungicidal potential of the tree is due to the presence of azadirachtin and nimbin. Herein, we have compiled a comprehensive review of phytochemical profile, pharmacological attributes, and therapeutic prospective of this multipurpose tree.

Subacute Oral Toxicity Assesment of Ethanol Extract of Mariposa christia vespertilionis Leaves in Male Sprague Dawley Rats

The term Butterfly tea refers to decoction of Mariposa christia vespertilionis leaves which is widely consumed by cancer patients throughout Malaysia and has gained a huge popularity among Malaysians, not only cancer patients but also researchers to discover the real potential of this plant. Herein, the study is aimed at evaluating the possible toxicity in 28-day subacute oral toxicity of ethanolic extract M. christia vespertilionis in male Sprague Dawley rats. The 28-day subacute toxicity study was conducted to detect the no-observed adverse effect level (NOAEL). In this study, a total of 30 rats were divided into the control, 5% DMSO (vehicle), low dose (75 mg/kg), medium dose (125 mg/kg) and high dose (250 mg/kg) groups. The extract was administered daily from day 1 until day 28. At the end of the study, the animals were humanely sacrificed and assessed for the effect extract of Mariposa christia vespertilionis leaves on body weight and relative organ weights and haematological, biochemical and histopathological parameters. The haematological and serum biochemical parameters for the assessment of kidney and liver injuries were carried out. Results of haematological and serum biochemistry results showed no changes in the control and treated groups. In the histopathology, evaluation of kidney tissues in all treated groups showed no significant (p > 0.05) lesions. In contrast to kidney, liver tissues showed significant differences (p < 0.05) in lesions observed in low dose (430 mg), medium dose (700 mg) and high dose (1480 mg) groups with very mild, mild and mild to moderate lesion of hepatic necrosis, in the respective groups, and very mild hepatic degeneration and hepatitis were scored in all three groups.

Antibacterial activities of medicinal plants used in Mexican traditional medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

We provide an extensive summary of the in vitro antibacterial properties of medicinal plants popularly used in Mexico to treat infections, and we discuss the ethnomedical information that has been published for these species.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We carried out a bibliographic investigation by analyzing local and international peer-reviewed papers selected by consulting internationally accepted scientific databases from 1995 to 2014. We provide specific information about the evaluated plant parts, the type of extracts, the tested bacterial strains, and the inhibitory concentrations for each one of the species. We recorded the ethnomedical information for the active species, as well as their popular names and local distribution. Information about the plant compounds that has been identified is included in the manuscript. This review also incorporates an extensive summary of the available toxicological reports on the recorded species, as well as the worldwide registries of plant patents used for treating bacterial infections. In addition, we provide a list with the top plant species with antibacterial activities in this review RESULTS: We documented the in vitro antibacterial activities of 343 plant species pertaining to 92 botanical families against 72 bacterial species, focusing particularly on Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The plant families Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae and Euphorbiaceae included the largest number of active species. Information related to popular uses reveals that the majority of the plants, in addition to treating infections, are used to treat other conditions. The distribution of Mexican plants extended from those that were reported to grow in just one state to those that grow in all 32 Mexican states. From 75 plant species, 225 compounds were identified. Out of the total plant species, only 140 (40.57%) had at least one report about their toxic effects. From 1994 to July 2014 a total of 11,836 worldwide antibacterial patents prepared from different sources were recorded; only 36 antibacterial patents from plants were registered over the same time period. We offered some insights on the most important findings regarding the antibacterial effects, current state of the art, and research perspectives of top plant species with antibacterial activities in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Studies of the antibacterial in vitro activity of medicinal plants popularly used in Mexico to treat infections indicate that both the selection of plant material and the investigation methodologies vary. Standardized experimental procedures as well as in vivo pharmacokinetic studies to document the effectiveness of plant extracts and compounds are necessary. This review presents extensive information about the medicinal plants possessing antibacterial activity that has been scientifically studied and are popularly used in Mexico. We anticipate that this review will be of use for future studies because it constitutes a valuable information tool for selecting the most significant plants and their potential antibacterial properties.

Innocuousness of a polyherbal formulation: A case study using a traditional Thai antihypertensive herbal recipe in rodents

Recently, a traditional Thai antihypertensive herbal recipe has reportedly been used in Thailand. Its ingredients have long featured in traditional Thai medicine preparations; however, research indicates that the presence of one of them - Tinospora crispa - may have negative effects on the liver and kidneys. Thus, the safety data of this recipe must be proved in animal models prior to conducting any studies in humans. The present case study aims to evaluate the safety of this recipe in Swiss albino mice and Wistar rats through acute and sub-chronic toxicity studies, respectively. The quality control of this recipe was also achieved to guarantee the chemical consistency throughout the entire experiment. Results showed that this recipe did not cause death or any toxic signs in mice or rats. The oral LD50 value in mice was more than 5.0 g/kg. Some hematological and serum biochemical values of treated rats, such as hematocrit, hemoglobin, platelet, monocytes, aspartate aminotransferase, bilirubin, and creatinine, were found to be statistically different from the control group; however, all values were within the ranges of normal rats. Considering the histological study, no damage on liver and kidney tissues was observed in the treatment.

Toxicological implications and laxative potential of ethanol root extract of Morella serrata in loperamide-induced constipated Wistar rats

CONTEXT

Morella serrata L. (Myricaceae) is commonly used in South Africa to treat several diseases including constipation.

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated toxicological implications and laxative potential of the ethanol root extract of the plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

While normal control animals were placed on sterile placebo, the loperamide-constipated rats were treated with the extract at 75, 150 and 300 mg/kg doses for 7 days, and their feeding patterns and faecal properties were monitored. Gastrointestinal transit ratio and the toxicity profile of the tested doses were thereafter evaluated.

RESULTS

The significantly increased faecal volume (192.08%), feed (63.63%), water intake (55.97%) and improved intestinal motility (95.05%) in the constipated rats following treatment with the extract (at 300 mg/kg) suggested laxative potential of the extract. The 1.5-2.0-fold normalization of the platelets, erythrocytes and leukocytes counts in the extract-treated constipated rats suggests its non-haematotoxic tendency. Furthermore, the extract (at the highest investigated dose) reversed the attenuation in the concentrations of the electrolytes (0.5-2-fold), total protein (62.12%) and albumin (55.88%) in the constipated animals as well as attenuated activities of hepatic enzymes (0.5-3.0-fold) and levels of urea (126.67%), creatinine (40.32%), cholesterol (3-fold) and triglycerides (9-fold). These further support its non-toxic and therapeutic attributes against constipation.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the effect exhibited by M. serrata in this study competed well with Senokot (standard drug) and proved that it may be relatively safe and with excellent laxative potential, thus, supporting its pharmacological applications in South Africa.

Anti-inflammatory and toxicological evaluation of Moussonia deppeana (Schldl. & Cham) Hanst and Verbascoside as a main active metabolite

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Moussonia deppeana, known as Tlachichinole, is a Mexican medicinal plant used for treatment of inflammatory diseases, influenza, diarrhea, gastrointestinal disorders and arthritis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this paper the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities as well as the acute and sub-acute toxicological effects were evaluated for the ethanolic extract from aerial parts of M. deppeana, also its phytochemical analysis is described.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Phytochemical analysis and compound isolation were performed with thin layer chromatography. The chemical identification of the main compound was performed by (1)H NMR (COSY, NOESY, HSQC and HMBC) spectra. In vitro antioxidant capacity and total phenolic content for the ethanolic extract and its primary fractions was determined by DPPH and Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Acute and subacute toxicity tests were evaluated on Balb/C mice. Finally acute anti-inflammatory evaluation was tested for a local (TPA) and systemic (carrageenan) murine model.

RESULTS

The main compound isolated from the ethanolic extract of M. deppeana was Verbascoside, which was isolated from F3 and was identified by (1)H NMR and COSY data. Furthermore oleanolic and ursolic acids were isolated from primary fractions F1 and F2. Ethanolic extract showed IC50 = 6.71mg/mL for DPPH test and 664.12µg QE/mL for the total phenolic content. The LD50 value was >2g/kg by i.g. route in male and female mice. Sub-acute administration (28 days) of the ethanolic extract (1g/kg) did not cause lethality or alter any hematological and biochemical parameters, in addition, histological analysis of the major organs exhibited no structural changes. Anti-inflammatory activity of the ethanolic extract showed an ED50 = 1.5mg/ear and 450mg/kg for TPA and carrageenan test, respectively. Primary fractions generated moderate local and systemic anti-inflammatory activity.

CONCLUSION

The ethanolic extract from the aerial parts of M. deppeana did not cause any lethality or adverse effect in either of the acute and sub-acute toxicity tests. This exhibited an important local and systemic anti-inflammatory activity and also moderate antioxidant capacity. Moreover, the primary fraction F2 was more active for the TPA model while the primary fraction F3 was most active in the carrageenan model in vivo. The main compound isolated from F3 was verbascoside; on the other hand also ursolic and oleanolic acids were isolated from F1 and F2.

Antiatherogenic and Cardioprotective Effects of Black Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) Juice in Aging Rats

Age-related diseases are a social problem of global significance and their prevention by natural products is a research area of particular interest. The present study is an approach to counteract the risk factors for atherosclerosis arising in the aging process by supplementation of chokeberry juice. It employed a model of healthy adult rats monitored for a number of somatometric, serum lipidogram, and histopathological parameters, related to risk factors and their response to supplementation with antioxidant-rich chokeberry juice. The results were used to calculate different atherogenic and cardioprotective indices, and all results were compared to those of young healthy rats. Chokeberry juice proved an extremely rich source of polyphenols resulting in very high antioxidant activity. Treatment with Aronia juice significantly lowered the proatherogenic low-density lipoprotein fraction of the animals studied and led to a 16.5% decrease in their total cholesterol. Atherogenic indices in Aronia-supplemented animals clearly showed lower atherogenic risk and cardioprotective indices indicated protection of the cardiovascular system. Besides that, chokeberry juice retarded the age-related changes in the aortic wall and can be recommended as a prophylactic tool for healthy aging.

Ethnobotanical study of Loloh: Traditional herbal drinks from Bali (Indonesia)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Loloh are herbal drinks produced and consumed exclusively in Bali (Indonesia) to prevent and treat different ailments. This is the first study to document plants species used as Loloh, reporting the phytochemical components and pharmacological properties of the most cited plants. Documenting the plants used in herbal drinks in Bali by local communities to treat various ailments (providing some information on phytochemistry and pharmacology of the most interesting plants).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnobotanical data were obtained through semi-structured interviews (individual and group discussions) and questionnaires. Plant specimens were collected, identified and made into herbarium vouchers.

RESULTS

A total of 51 plants species (belonging to 32 families) have been documented for their use in the various preparation of Loloh. Different plants and plant parts are used to prepare Loloh to treat heartburn, fever, diarrhea, hypertension, aphthous stomatitis (canker sores), and other minor health problems. These plants are mainly prepared as decoctions, are juiced or simply added to the preparation. The most cited plants (>30 informants) are Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br., Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC., Cinnamomum burmanni Nees ex Bl., and Piper betle L. These plants are well studied with multiple demonstrated pharmacological activities (e.g., antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic).

CONCLUSION

The Balinese communities still preserve a rich ethnobotanical knowledge. Several species are well known for their pharmacological properties, but some [such as Pneumatopteris callosa (Blume) Nakai and Dendrocnide stimulans (L. f.) Chew] are understudied and could be promising candidates for further research.

Toxicological evaluations of Stigma maydis (corn silk) aqueous extract on hematological and lipid parameters in Wistar rats

Despite the acclaimed phytotherapeutic attributes of Stigma maydis in folkloric medicine, there is paucity of information on its toxicity profile on hematological and lipid parameters. The toxicological effect of aqueous extract of corn silk at 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight on hematological indices in Wistar rats were evaluated progressively at 24 h after 1, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. Lipid parameters were also analyzed at the end of the experimental period. We observed that the extract did not exhibit any significant (p > 0.05) effect on red blood cells, hematocrit, hemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, and mean platelet volume at all the tested doses. The study however showed a significant increase in the serum levels of white blood cell, platelet, lymphocytes, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; as well as feeding pattern in the animals, while the concentrations of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and artherogenic index value were significantly lowered. These findings are suggestive of non-hematotoxic potential of the extract. Overall, the effect exhibited by corn silk extract in this study proved that, it is unlikely to be hematotoxic and could be a good candidature in the management of coronary heart diseases if consumed at the doses investigated.

Ethnomedicinal plants used to treat skin diseases by Tharu community of district Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand, India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tharu community is the largest primitive indigenous community of the Uttarakhand, India. In this article we have scientifically enumerated medicinal plants and herbal preparations used by the Tharu community to treat various skin diseases, and discussed dermatological properties of these plants in the light of previous ethnomedicinal, microbiological, pharmacological, toxicological, phytochemical and clinical studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnomedicinal survey was conducted in different villages of Tharu community located in district Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand, India. Ethnomedicinal information on plants used to treat various skin diseases was collected from 122 individuals (93 males and 29 females), including 35 experienced herbal practitioners and 87 local villagers. For each of the recorded plant species the use value (UV) and fidelity level (FL) was calculated. The informant consensus factor (Fic) was also calculated to find out the homogeneity in the information given by the informants.

RESULTS

A total of 90 plant species belonging to 86 genera and 48 families were used by the Tharu community to treat various skin diseases viz., wounds (38 spp.), boils (32 spp.), cuts (18 spp.), leprosy (11 spp.), eczema (10 spp.), itching (7 spp.), ringworm (5 spp.), burns (4 spp.), leucoderma (4 spp.), cracked heels (2 spp.), dandruff (3 spp.), body infection (2 spp.), chilblains (2 spp.), hair fall (2 spp.) and toes infection (2 spp.). Information on botanical name, family, vernacular name, ailments treated, mode and dose of herbal preparations, UV and FL values are provided for each of the recorded species. According to UV value most preferred plant species used to treat skin diseases by Tharu community was Ricinus communis L. followed by Tridax procumbens (L.) L., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Ageratum conyzoides and Allium cepa L.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study has revealed significant information on various medicinal plants used to treat skin diseases by Tharu community. Literature review has confirmed most of the claims made by the Tharu community regarding treatment of various skin diseases by the reported plants. The literature review has also revealed that products from very few of the reported plants are available in market, while most of the reported plants are still under preclinical or clinical trials. There are various known phytochemicals, and antibiotic, antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal agents present in these plants which may be synthesized or transformed to make pharmaceuticals. Some of the reported plants have shown promising results in preclinical trails and there is a need of clinical trials to see their safety and efficacy in treating various skin diseases. These plants may be targeted for development of new medicines, ointments or drugs for the treatment of skin diseases. However further toxicological, preclinical and clinical studies are needed to validate claims about little worked out plant species reported in the present study viz., Sida cordata (Burm. F.) Borss. Waalk., Millettia extensa (Benth.) Baker, Caesulia axillaris Roxb., Ehretia laevis Roxb., Vanda tessellate (Roxb.) Hook. Ex G.Don. and Eualaliopsis binata (Retz.) C.E. Hubb. Further studies on these plants are recommended to assess their potential in development of new skin care products.

Anti-trypanosomal effect of Peristrophe bicalyculata extract on Trypanosoma brucei brucei-infected rats

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the in vitro and in vivo effect of whole plant extracts of Peristrophe bicalyculata on Trypanosoma brucei brucei-infected rats.

METHODS

THE EXPERIMENT WAS DIVIDED INTO TWO PHASES: In the first phase, the anti-trypanosomal activity of the hot water, cold water, methanol and butanol extracts of the whole plant were determined by incubating with Trypanosoma brucei brucei. The cold water extract was partially-purified and the anti-trypanosomal activity of the fractions determined. In the second phase, Trypanosoma brucei brucei-infected rats were treated with fraction 2c for nine days. Packed cell volume (PCV), high density lipoprotein (HDL), low density lipoprotein (LDL), total cholesterol (TC), triacylglycerol (TAG), aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferases (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total and direct bilirubin levels were determined at the end of the experiment.

RESULTS

Cold water extract immobilized 90% of the parasites after 60 min of incubation, and fraction 2c completely immobilized the parasites after 35 min. It significantly increased PCV in Trypanosoma brucei brucei-infected rats. Decreased TC, TAG, HDL and LDL levels of infected rats increased significantly when rats were treated with the fraction, while elevated levels of total bilirubin and ALT also decreased. The difference in urea, direct bilirubin and ALP was not significant when infected rats were compared to rats in other groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The ability of the plant to ameliorate the infection-induced biochemical changes calls for detailed investigation of the potentials of the plant for antitrypanosomiasis drug delivery.