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Stoffel NU, Drakesmith H. Effects of Iron Status on Adaptive Immunity and Vaccine Efficacy: A Review. Adv Nutr 2024; 15:100238. [PMID: 38729263 PMCID: PMC11251406 DOI: 10.1016/j.advnut.2024.100238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Vaccines can prevent infectious diseases, but their efficacy varies, and factors impacting vaccine effectiveness remain unclear. Iron deficiency is the most common nutrient deficiency, affecting >2 billion individuals. It is particularly common in areas with high infectious disease burden and in groups that are routinely vaccinated, such as infants, pregnant women, and the elderly. Recent evidence suggests that iron deficiency and low serum iron (hypoferremia) not only cause anemia but also may impair adaptive immunity and vaccine efficacy. A report of human immunodeficiency caused by defective iron transport underscored the necessity of iron for adaptive immune responses and spurred research in this area. Sufficient iron is essential for optimal production of plasmablasts and IgG responses by human B-cells in vitro and in vivo. The increased metabolism of activated lymphocytes depends on the high-iron acquisition, and hypoferremia, especially when occurring during lymphocyte expansion, adversely affects multiple facets of adaptive immunity, and may lead to prolonged inhibition of T-cell memory. In mice, hypoferremia suppresses the adaptive immune response to influenza infection, resulting in more severe pulmonary disease. In African infants, anemia and/or iron deficiency at the time of vaccination predict decreased response to diphtheria, pertussis, and pneumococcal vaccines, and response to measles vaccine may be increased by iron supplementation. In this review, we examine the emerging evidence that iron deficiency may limit adaptive immunity and vaccine responses. We discuss the molecular mechanisms and evidence from animal and human studies, highlight important unknowns, and propose a framework of key research questions to better understand iron-vaccine interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole U Stoffel
- Medical Research Council Translational Immune Discovery Unit, Medical Research Council Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.
| | - Hal Drakesmith
- Medical Research Council Translational Immune Discovery Unit, Medical Research Council Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Alqatari S, Ismail M, Hasan M, Bukhari R, Al Argan R, Alwaheed A, Alkhafaji D, Ahmed SE, Hadhiah K, Alamri T, Nemer A, Albeladi F, Bumurah NN, Sharofna K, Albaggal Z, Alghamdi R, AlSulaiman RS. Emergence of Post COVID-19 Vaccine Autoimmune Diseases: A Single Center Study. Infect Drug Resist 2023; 16:1263-1278. [PMID: 36910517 PMCID: PMC9994665 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s394602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV-2) became a major concern since the announcement that it is a pandemic in early 2020. Vaccine trials were started in November 2020, and completed rapidly due to the urgency to get over the infection. Side effects to vaccines started to be reported. There were minor side effects including site of injection pain and heaviness and constitutional symptoms like fever which are considered minor. One of the rare adverse events is post vaccine new onset autoimmune diseases. Methods Data were obtained from one center in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia (King Fahd Hospital of University). All patient events reported occurred in the study period March 2021 to February 2022. We identified patients presenting with autoimmune diseases with exclusively new onset presentations. Results We identified 31 cases of immune-mediated disease: 18 females (58%); 13 males (42%). Only 4 of them (13%) had an autoimmune background before COVID-19 vaccination. The average time between vaccination and new-onset disease symptoms was 7 days. Among all the cases in our study, 7 patients (22.5%) had new-onset vasculitis, 2 cases had IgA vasculitis and 5 cases had ANCA vasculitis, 6 cases had neurological diseases (19.3%), 4 cases (12.9%) had new-onset systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), 3 cases (9.6%) presented with new-onset inflammatory arthritis, and one had Sjogren's syndrome (3.2%). Conclusion Our study is unique as it is the first study to include the largest number (31 patients) of new onsets of confirmed autoimmune diseases related to Covid-19 vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Safi Alqatari
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mona Ismail
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Manal Hasan
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Raed Bukhari
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Reem Al Argan
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abrar Alwaheed
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Dania Alkhafaji
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Syed Essam Ahmed
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Kawther Hadhiah
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Turki Alamri
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ameera Nemer
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fedaa Albeladi
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Noor N Bumurah
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Khalid Sharofna
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Zainab Albaggal
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Raghad Alghamdi
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
| | - Reem S AlSulaiman
- Department of Internal Medicine- College of Medicine-Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University -King Fahad Hospital of the University, Khobar, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
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Macaluso FS, Principi M, Facciotti F, Contaldo A, Todeschini A, Saibeni S, Bezzio C, Castiglione F, Nardone OM, Spagnuolo R, Fantini MC, Riguccio G, Caprioli F, Viganò C, Felice C, Fiorino G, Correale C, Bodini G, Milla M, Scardino G, Vernero M, Desideri F, Mannino M, Rizzo G, Orlando A. Reduced humoral response to two doses of COVID-19 vaccine in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: Data from ESCAPE-IBD, an IG-IBD study. Dig Liver Dis 2023; 55:154-159. [PMID: 36127228 PMCID: PMC9420701 DOI: 10.1016/j.dld.2022.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients on immunosuppressive drugs have been excluded from COVID-19 vaccines trials, creating concerns regarding their efficacy. AIMS To explore the humoral response to COVID-19 vaccines in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) METHODS: Effectiveness and Safety of COVID-19 Vaccine in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) Treated with Immunomodulatory or Biological Drugs (ESCAPE-IBD) is a prospective, multicentre study promoted by the Italian Group for the study of Inflammatory Bowel Disease. We present data on serological response eight weeks after the second dose of COVID-19 vaccination in IBD patients and healthy controls (HCs). RESULTS 1076 patients with IBD and 1126 HCs were analyzed. Seropositivity for anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG was reported for most IBD patients, even if with a lesser rate compared with HCs (92.1% vs. 97.9%; p<0.001). HCs had higher antibody concentrations (median OD 8.72 [IQR 5.2-14-2]) compared to the whole cohort of IBD patients (median OD 1.54 [IQR 0.8-3.6]; p<0.001) and the subgroup of IBD patients (n=280) without any treatment or on aminosalicylates only (median OD 1.72 [IQR 1.0-4.1]; p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS Although most IBD patients showed seropositivity after COVID-19 vaccines, the magnitude of the humoral response was significantly lower than in HCs. Differently from other studies, these findings seem to be mostly unrelated to the use of immune-modifying treatments (ClinicalTrials.govID:NCT04769258).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Federica Facciotti
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Istituto Europeo di Oncologia IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Contaldo
- Gastroenterology 2 Unit, IRCCS "S. De Bellis", Castellana Grotte, Bari, Italy
| | | | - Simone Saibeni
- Gastroenterology Unit, Rho Hospital, ASST Rhodense, Rho, Milan, Italy
| | - Cristina Bezzio
- Gastroenterology Unit, Rho Hospital, ASST Rhodense, Rho, Milan, Italy
| | - Fabiana Castiglione
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Federico II University, Naples, Italy
| | - Olga Maria Nardone
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Federico II University, Naples, Italy
| | - Rocco Spagnuolo
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, "Mater Domini" University Hospital, Catanzaro, Italy; Department of Experimental Medicine and Clinic, "Magna Graecia" University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Massimo Claudio Fantini
- Policlinico Monserrato University Hospital, Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - Gaia Riguccio
- IBD Unit, "Santa Maria del Prato" Hospital, Feltre, Italy
| | - Flavio Caprioli
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico di Milano, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Viganò
- Division of Gastroenterology and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Carla Felice
- GastroenterologY Unit, "Ca'Foncello" Hospital, Treviso, Italy
| | - Gionata Fiorino
- Department of Gastroenterology and Endoscopy, IRCCS "San Raffaele" Hospital and "Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele", Milan, Italia
| | - Carmen Correale
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center - IRCCS, Rozzano, Italy
| | - Giorgia Bodini
- IRCCS Policlinico San Martino, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Monica Milla
- IBD Referral Center, Gastroenterology Unit, University Hospital "Careggi", Florence, Italy
| | - Giulia Scardino
- Gastroenterology Department, "Valduce" Hospital, Como, Italy
| | - Marta Vernero
- Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | | | | | - Giuseppe Rizzo
- IBD Unit, "Villa Sofia-Cervello" Hospital, Palermo, Italy
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Hadi Y, Kochhar GS. Letter: association between COVID-19 and inflammatory bowel disease-Authors' reply. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2022; 55:1228-1229. [PMID: 35429037 PMCID: PMC9111504 DOI: 10.1111/apt.16900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
This article is linked to Hadi et al papers. To view these articles, visit https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.16730 and https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.16814
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousaf Hadi
- Department of Gastroenterology & HepatologyWest Virginia UniversityMorgantownWest VirginiaUSA
| | - Gursimran S. Kochhar
- Department of Gastroenterology & HepatologyAllegheny Health NetworkPittsburghPennsylvaniaUSA
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Ghavami SB, Shahrokh S, Asadzadeh Aghdaei H, Khoramjoo SM, Farmani M, Kazemifard N, Parigi TL, Danese S, Balaii H, Sherkat G, Ebrahimi Daryani N, Alborzi F, Vossoughinia H, Zali MR. Serological response to
SARS‐CoV
‐2 is attenuated in patients with inflammatory bowel disease and can affect immunization. JGH Open 2022; 6:266-269. [PMID: 35475199 PMCID: PMC9021711 DOI: 10.1002/jgh3.12725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shaghayegh Baradaran Ghavami
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Shabnam Shahrokh
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Hamid Asadzadeh Aghdaei
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Seyed Mobin Khoramjoo
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Maryam Farmani
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Nesa Kazemifard
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Tommaso Lorenzo Parigi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences Humanitas University Milan Italy
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy University of Birmingham Birmingham UK
| | - Silivio Danese
- Department of Biomedical Sciences Humanitas University Milan Italy
- IBD Center, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center IRCCS, Rozzano Milan Italy
| | - Hedieh Balaii
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Ghazal Sherkat
- Medicine Faculty of Mashhad Branch Islamic Azad University Mashhad Mashhad Iran
| | | | - Foroogh Alborzi
- Imam Khomeini Hospital Complex Tehran University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Hassan Vossoughinia
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology Mashhad University of Medical Sciences Mashhad Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Zali
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
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6
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Elkharsawi A, Arnim UV, Schmelz R, Sander C, Stallmach A, Teich N, Walldorf J, Reuken PA. SARS-CoV-2 vaccination does not induce relapses of patients with inflammatory bowel disease. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR GASTROENTEROLOGIE 2022; 60:77-80. [PMID: 35042256 DOI: 10.1055/a-1710-3861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 is a promising strategy to protect immunocompromised IBD patients from a severe course of COVID-19. As these patients were excluded from initial clinical vaccination trials, patients frequently express concerns regarding the safety of these vaccines, especially whether vaccination might trigger IBD flares ("hit-and-run-hypothesis"). METHODS In order to assess the risk of an IBD flare after vaccination against SARS-CoV-2, an anonymous survey was performed at five German IBD centers and one patient organization (Deutsche Morbus Crohn/Colitis ulcerosa Vereinigung (DCCV) e.V.) in August and October 2021. RESULTS The questionnaire was answered by 914 patients, 781 of whom reported a previous vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 (85.4%). Vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 was not associated with an increased risk of IBD flares (p=0.319) or unscheduled visits to the IBD physician (p=0.848). Furthermore, typical symptoms of an IBD flare including abdominal pain, increases in stool frequency, or rectal bleeding were not influenced by the vaccination. CONCLUSION Vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 is safe in IBD patients. These results may help to reduce fears regarding the vaccination in IBD patients. Our results can help to reduce fears in IBD patients regarding the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. A close communication between patients and physicians before and after the vaccination may be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Elkharsawi
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Ulrike von Arnim
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious diseases, Universitätsklinikum Magdeburg AöR, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Renate Schmelz
- Universitätsklinikum Carl Gustav Carus Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Cornelia Sander
- Deutsche Morbus Crohn/Colitis Ulcerosa Vereinigung e.V., Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Stallmach
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Niels Teich
- Internistische Gemeinschaftspraxis für Verdauungs- und Stoffwechselkrankheiten, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jens Walldorf
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Philipp A Reuken
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
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Kantarcioglu B, Iqbal O, Lewis J, Carter CA, Singh M, Lievano F, Ligocki M, Jeske W, Adiguzel C, Gerotziafas GT, Fareed J. An Update on the Status of Vaccine Development for SARS-CoV-2 Including Variants. Practical Considerations for COVID-19 Special Populations. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2022; 28:10760296211056648. [PMID: 35167393 PMCID: PMC8851053 DOI: 10.1177/10760296211056648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 09/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The progress in the development of various vaccine platforms against SARS-CoV-2 have been rather remarkable owing to advancement in molecular and biologic sciences. Most of the current vaccines and those in development focus on targeting the viral spike proteins by generating antibodies of varying spectrum. These vaccines represent a variety of platforms including whole virus vaccines, viral vector vaccines, nucleic acid vaccines representing RNA, DNA, and their hybrid forms.The therapeutic efficacy of these vaccines varies owing to their pharmacodynamic individualities. COVID-19 variants are capable of inducing different pathologic responses and some of which may be resistant to antibodies generated by current vaccines. The current clinical use of these vaccines has been through emergency use authorization until recently. Moreover, the efficacy and safety of these vaccines have been tested in substantial numbers of individuals but studies in special populations that better reflect the global population are pending results. These specialized populations include young children, immunocompromised patients, pregnant individuals, and other specialized groups. Combination approaches, molecularly modified vaccination approaches, and vaccines conferring longer periods of immunity are being currently being investigated, as well as pharmacovigilance studies.The continual transformation of SARS-CoV-2 and its variants are of concern along with the breakthrough infections. These considerations pose new challenges for the development of vaccination platforms. For this purpose, booster doses, combination vaccine approaches, and other modalities are being discussed. This review provides an updated account of currently available vaccines and those in advanced development with reference to their composition and mechanisms of action.A discussion on the use of vaccines in special populations including immunocompromised patients, pregnant women and other specialized populations are also included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bulent Kantarcioglu
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Omer Iqbal
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Joseph Lewis
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Charles A. Carter
- Campbell University College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Campbell University, Buies Creek, NC, USA
| | - Meharvan Singh
- Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, IL, USA
| | | | | | - Walter Jeske
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL, USA
| | | | - Grigoris T. Gerotziafas
- Sorbonne Université, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Thrombosis Center, Service D’Hématologie Biologique Hôpital Tenon, Paris, France
| | - Jawed Fareed
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL, USA
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Wu X, Lin J, Buch H, Ding Q, Zhang F, Cui B, Ji G. The COVID-19 Vaccination Hesitancy Among the People With Inflammatory Bowel Disease in China: A Questionnaire Study. Front Public Health 2021; 9:731578. [PMID: 34708016 PMCID: PMC8542757 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.731578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: To explore the attitudes and views of patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) on COVID-19 vaccination. Methods: An online interview questionnaire concerning the acceptance or hesitancy toward vaccination for COVID-19 was designed and 543 patients with IBD in China were invited to complete the structured self-administered anonymous questionnaire. Results: Of all the participants, 50.7% were indecisive about the vaccination and only 16.0% opted for it. Vaccination hesitancy was significantly associated with women and those without medical or biomedical backgrounds. The acceptance of COVID-19 vaccination was higher in participants with no history of immune-modifying therapies, especially in those without immunosuppressants. Participants who considered vaccination critically important to self-health or the health of others were more likely to choose immediately or later vaccination. Safety and potential adverse reactions, personal hypoimmunity, efficacy, and reliability of COVID-19 vaccines were the top three concerns of the participants that were independent of their willingness for vaccination. Conclusions: This study discloses the presence of hesitancy for COVID-19 vaccination in patients with IBD. Further studies are warranted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of COVID-19 vaccines in IBD individuals, with a specific focus on the impact of immune-modifying therapies. Health education and recommendation from authoritative sources may facilitate COVID-19 vaccination efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Wu
- Medical Center for Digestive Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Key Lab of Holistic Integrative Enterology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jue Lin
- Medical Center for Digestive Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Key Lab of Holistic Integrative Enterology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Heena Buch
- Medical Center for Digestive Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Key Lab of Holistic Integrative Enterology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Quchen Ding
- Medical Center for Digestive Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Key Lab of Holistic Integrative Enterology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Faming Zhang
- Medical Center for Digestive Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Key Lab of Holistic Integrative Enterology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Bota Cui
- Medical Center for Digestive Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Key Lab of Holistic Integrative Enterology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Guozhong Ji
- Medical Center for Digestive Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Key Lab of Holistic Integrative Enterology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
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9
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Negahdaripour M, Shafiekhani M, Moezzi SMI, Amiri S, Rasekh S, Bagheri A, Mosaddeghi P, Vazin A. Administration of COVID-19 vaccines in immunocompromised patients. Int Immunopharmacol 2021; 99:108021. [PMID: 34352567 PMCID: PMC8316069 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2021.108021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Revised: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Since the beginning of vaccination programs against COVID-19 in different countries, several populations such as patients with specific immunological conditions have been considered as the priorities for immunization. In this regard, patients with autoimmune diseases or those receiving immunosuppressive agents and anti-cancer therapies, need special attention. However, no confirmed data is presently available regarding COVID-19 vaccines in these populations due to exclusion from the conducted clinical trials. Given the probable suppression or over-activation of the immune system in such patients, reaching a consensus for their vaccination is critical, besides gathering data and conducting trials, which could probably clarify this matter in the future. In this review, besides a brief on the available COVID-19 vaccines, considerations and available knowledge about administering similar vaccines in patients with cancer, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, solid organ transplantation, multiple sclerosis (MS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and rheumatologic and dermatologic autoimmune disorders are summarized to help in decision making. As discussed, live-attenuated viruses, which should be avoided in these groups, are not employed in the present COVID-19 vaccines. Thus, the main concern regarding efficacy could be met using a potent COVID-19 vaccine. Moreover, the vaccination timing for maximum efficacy could be decided according to the patient’s condition, indicated medications, and the guides provided here. Post-vaccination monitoring is also advised to ensure an adequate immune response. Further studies in this area are urgently warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manica Negahdaripour
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mojtaba Shafiekhani
- Shiraz Transplant Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Seyed Mohammad Iman Moezzi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Sogand Amiri
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Shiva Rasekh
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Ashkan Bagheri
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Pouria Mosaddeghi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Afsaneh Vazin
- Clinical Pharmacy Department, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
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10
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Ferretti F, Cannatelli R, Benucci M, Carmagnola S, Clementi E, Danelli P, Dilillo D, Fiorina P, Galli M, Gallieni M, Genovese G, Giorgi V, Invernizzi A, Maconi G, Maier JA, Marzano AV, Morpurgo PS, Nebuloni M, Radovanovic D, Riva A, Rizzardini G, Sabiu G, Santus P, Staurenghi G, Zuccotti G, Sarzi-Puttini PC, Ardizzone S. How to Manage COVID-19 Vaccination in Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Diseases: An Expert Opinion by IMIDs Study Group. Front Immunol 2021; 12:656362. [PMID: 33936084 PMCID: PMC8082137 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.656362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Since March 2020, the outbreak of Sars-CoV-2 pandemic has changed medical practice and daily routine around the world. Huge efforts from pharmacological industries have led to the development of COVID-19 vaccines. In particular two mRNA vaccines, namely the BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) and the mRNA-1273 (Moderna), and a viral-vectored vaccine, i.e. ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AstraZeneca), have recently been approved in Europe. Clinical trials on these vaccines have been published on the general population showing a high efficacy with minor adverse events. However, specific data about the efficacy and safety of these vaccines in patients with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs) are still lacking. Moreover, the limited availability of these vaccines requires prioritizing some vulnerable categories of patients compared to others. In this position paper, we propose the point of view about the management of COVID-19 vaccination from Italian experts on IMIDs and the identification of high-risk groups according to the different diseases and their chronic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Ferretti
- Gastroenterology Unit, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Rosanna Cannatelli
- Gastroenterology Unit, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Maurizio Benucci
- Rheumatology Unit, S. Giovanni di Dio Hospital, Azienda USL-Toscana Centro, Florence, Italy
| | - Stefania Carmagnola
- Gastroenterology Unit, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Emilio Clementi
- Unit of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.,Scientific Institute IRCCS E. Medea, Lecco, Italy
| | - Piergiorgio Danelli
- Surgery Unit, ASST Fatebenefratelli Sacco, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Dario Dilillo
- Pediatric Department, Ospedale dei Bambini, ASST Fatebenefratelli Sacco, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Fiorina
- Division of Endocrinology, ASST Fatebenefratelli - Sacco, Milan, Italy.,International Center for T1D, Pediatric Clinical Research Center Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, DIBIC, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.,Nephrology Division, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Massimo Galli
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, III Infectious Diseases unit, University Hospital "Luigi Sacco", Milan, Italy
| | - Maurizio Gallieni
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.,Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, "L. Sacco" Hospital, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Milano, Italy
| | - Giovanni Genovese
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.,Dermatology Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Valeria Giorgi
- Rheumatology Unit, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandro Invernizzi
- Eye Clinic, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Luigi Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.,The University of Sydney, Save Sight Institute, Discipline of Ophthalmology, Sydney Medical School, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Giovanni Maconi
- Gastroenterology Unit, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Jeanette A Maier
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Angelo V Marzano
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.,Dermatology Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Paola S Morpurgo
- Division of Endocrinology, ASST Fatebenefratelli - Sacco, Milan, Italy
| | - Manuela Nebuloni
- Pathology Unit, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Dejan Radovanovic
- Division of Respiratory Diseases, Ospedale L. Sacco, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Milan, Italy
| | - Agostino Riva
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Giuliano Rizzardini
- Department of Infectious Diseases, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.,School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Gianmarco Sabiu
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.,Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, "L. Sacco" Hospital, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Milano, Italy
| | - Pierachille Santus
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.,Division of Respiratory Diseases, Ospedale L. Sacco, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanni Staurenghi
- Eye Clinic, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Luigi Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Gianvincenzo Zuccotti
- Pediatric Department, Ospedale dei Bambini, ASST Fatebenefratelli Sacco, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Pier Carlo Sarzi-Puttini
- Rheumatology Unit, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Sandro Ardizzone
- Gastroenterology Unit, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (DIBIC) L. Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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11
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A practical approach for vaccinations including COVID-19 in autoimmune/autoinflammatory rheumatic diseases: a non-systematic review. Clin Rheumatol 2021. [PMID: 33751280 DOI: 10.1007/s10067‐021‐05700‐z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has occupied the world agenda since December 2019. With no effective treatment yet, vaccination seems to be the most effective method of prevention. Recently developed vaccines have been approved for emergency use only and are currently applied to large populations. Considering both the underlying pathogenic mechanisms of autoimmune/autoinflammatory rheumatological diseases (AIIRDs) and the immunosuppressive drugs used in treatment, vaccination for COVID-19 deserves special attention in such patients. In this article, we aimed to give simple messages to the clinicians for COVID-19 vaccination in patients with AIIRDs based upon the current evidence regarding the use of other vaccines in this patient group. For this purpose, we conducted a "Pubmed search" using the following keywords: Influenza, Hepatitis B, Pneumococcal, and Shingles vaccines and the frequently used conventional and biologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs). Likewise, an additional search was performed for the COVID-19 immunization in patients with AIIRDs and considering such drugs. In summary, patients with AIIRDs should also be vaccinated against COVID-19, preferably when disease activity is under control and when there is no concurrent infection. Low-degree immunosuppression does not appear to decrease antibody responses to vaccines. Ideally, vaccinations should be done before the initiation of any biological DMARDs. Patients receiving rituximab should be vaccinated at least 4 weeks before or 6 months after treatment. Since tofacitinib may also reduce antibody responses, especially in combination with methotrexate, it may be appropriate to discontinue this drug before vaccination and to restart after 14 days of immunization. Key points • COVID-19 vaccinations should preferably be made during remission in patients with autoimmune/autoinflammatory rheumatological diseases. • Low-degree immunosuppression may not interfere with antibody response to vaccines. • Ideally, vaccinations should be made before the initiation of any biological DMARDs. • Timing of vaccination is especially important in the case of rituximab.
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12
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Soy M, Keser G, Atagunduz P, Mutlu MY, Gunduz A, Koybaşi G, Bes C. A practical approach for vaccinations including COVID-19 in autoimmune/autoinflammatory rheumatic diseases: a non-systematic review. Clin Rheumatol 2021; 40:3533-3545. [PMID: 33751280 PMCID: PMC7982510 DOI: 10.1007/s10067-021-05700-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has occupied the world agenda since December 2019. With no effective treatment yet, vaccination seems to be the most effective method of prevention. Recently developed vaccines have been approved for emergency use only and are currently applied to large populations. Considering both the underlying pathogenic mechanisms of autoimmune/autoinflammatory rheumatological diseases (AIIRDs) and the immunosuppressive drugs used in treatment, vaccination for COVID-19 deserves special attention in such patients. In this article, we aimed to give simple messages to the clinicians for COVID-19 vaccination in patients with AIIRDs based upon the current evidence regarding the use of other vaccines in this patient group. For this purpose, we conducted a “Pubmed search” using the following keywords: Influenza, Hepatitis B, Pneumococcal, and Shingles vaccines and the frequently used conventional and biologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs). Likewise, an additional search was performed for the COVID-19 immunization in patients with AIIRDs and considering such drugs. In summary, patients with AIIRDs should also be vaccinated against COVID-19, preferably when disease activity is under control and when there is no concurrent infection. Low-degree immunosuppression does not appear to decrease antibody responses to vaccines. Ideally, vaccinations should be done before the initiation of any biological DMARDs. Patients receiving rituximab should be vaccinated at least 4 weeks before or 6 months after treatment. Since tofacitinib may also reduce antibody responses, especially in combination with methotrexate, it may be appropriate to discontinue this drug before vaccination and to restart after 14 days of immunization.
Key points • COVID-19 vaccinations should preferably be made during remission in patients with autoimmune/autoinflammatory rheumatological diseases. • Low-degree immunosuppression may not interfere with antibody response to vaccines. • Ideally, vaccinations should be made before the initiation of any biological DMARDs. • Timing of vaccination is especially important in the case of rituximab. |
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehmet Soy
- Altınbas University (previously Kemerbas University) Faculty of Medicine Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Bahcelievler MedicalPark Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey. .,, Altunizade Mah. Atif Bey sk. Gokdeniz Sitesi, E-3; Usküdar, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Gökhan Keser
- Ege University Faculty of Medicine Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Pamir Atagunduz
- Marmara University Faculty of Medicine Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Melek Yalçin Mutlu
- University of Health Sciences, Basaksehir Cam and Sakura City Hospital, Basaksehir, Istanbul, Turkey.,Department of Rheumatology, University of Health Sciences, Bakırköy Dr. Sadi Konuk Training and Research Hospital, İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Alper Gunduz
- Şişli Hamidiye Etfal Training and Research Hospital, Department of Infectious Diseases, İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Gizem Koybaşi
- Yedikule Chest Diseases and Chest Surgery Training and Research Hospital, İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Cemal Bes
- University of Health Sciences, Başakşehir Çam and Sakura City Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey.,Department of Rheumatology, University of Health Sciences, Bakırköy Dr. Sadi Konuk Training and Research Hospital, İstanbul, Turkey
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13
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How to Face the Advent of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination in IBD Patients: Another Task for Gastroenterologists. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9030248. [PMID: 33808983 PMCID: PMC7999188 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9030248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The severity of the COVID-19 pandemic has led to an unprecedented effort to develop vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 infection since this seems to be the most effective strategy to counter the pandemic. In the past weeks, the administration of vaccines has started in different parts of the world sustaining the hype of significantly containing the impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, the rapid time lapse from vaccine development to distribution has raised several concerns on its safety and efficacy. This topic is particularly felt by patients with chronic conditions and immumodulating therapies that could compromise their immune system such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Here, we explore the potential future implications of the SARS-CoV-2 vaccines introduction in the IBD field, touching upon the clinical experience coming from available data on vaccinations against other infections. We also dissect the factors associated with the acceptability of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, describing the possible strategies that gastroenterologist should adopt to reach the highest rate of vaccinations in IBD patients.
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14
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COVID-19-associated gastrointestinal and liver injury: clinical features and potential mechanisms. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2020; 5:256. [PMID: 33139693 PMCID: PMC7605138 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-020-00373-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The infection is spreading globally and poses a huge threat to human health. Besides common respiratory symptoms, some patients with COVID-19 experience gastrointestinal symptoms, such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. SARS-CoV-2 might infect the gastrointestinal tract through its viral receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and there is increasing evidence of a possible fecal–oral transmission route. In addition, there exist multiple abnormalities in liver enzymes. COVID-19-related liver injury may be due to drug-induced liver injury, systemic inflammatory reaction, and hypoxia–ischemia reperfusion injury. The direct toxic attack of SARS-CoV-2 on the liver is still questionable. This review highlights the manifestations and potential mechanisms of gastrointestinal and hepatic injuries in COVID-19 to raise awareness of digestive system injury in COVID-19.
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