Early weaning causes undernutrition for a short period and programmes some metabolic syndrome components and leptin resistance in adult rat offspring

The Impact of Maternal Obesity on Adipose Progenitor Cells

The concept of Developmental Origin of Health and Disease (DOHaD) postulates that adult-onset metabolic disorders may originate from suboptimal conditions during critical embryonic and fetal programming windows. In particular, nutritional disturbance during key developmental stages may program the set point of adiposity and its associated metabolic diseases later in life. Numerous studies in mammals have reported that maternal obesity and the resulting accelerated growth in neonates may affect adipocyte development, resulting in persistent alterations in adipose tissue plasticity (i.e., adipocyte proliferation and storage) and adipocyte function (i.e., insulin resistance, impaired adipokine secretion, reduced thermogenesis, and higher inflammation) in a sex- and depot-specific manner. Over recent years, adipose progenitor cells (APCs) have been shown to play a crucial role in adipose tissue plasticity, essential for its development, maintenance, and expansion. In this review, we aim to provide insights into the developmental timeline of lineage commitment and differentiation of APCs and their role in predisposing individuals to obesity and metabolic diseases. We present data supporting the possible implication of dysregulated APCs and aberrant perinatal adipogenesis through epigenetic mechanisms as a primary mechanism responsible for long-lasting adipose tissue dysfunction in offspring born to obese mothers.

Leucine Supplementation Ameliorates Early-Life Programming of Obesity in Rats

The advanced cessation of lactation elevates the risk of programmed obesity and obesity-related metabolic disorders in adulthood. This study used multiomic analysis to investigate the mechanism behind this phenomenon and the effects of leucine supplementation on ameliorating programmed obesity development. Wistar/SD rat offspring were subjected to early weaning (EW) at day 17 (EWWIS and EWSD groups) or normal weaning at day 21 (CWIS and CSD groups). Half of the rats from the EWSD group were selected to create a new group with 2-month leucine supplementation at day 150. The results showed that EW impaired lipid metabolic gene expression and increased insulin, neuropeptide Y, and feed intake, inducing obesity in adulthood. Six lipid metabolism-related genes (Acot1, Acot2, Acot4, Scd, Abcg8, and Cyp8b1) were influenced by EW during the entire experimental period. Additionally, adult early-weaned rats exhibited cholesterol and fatty acid β-oxidation disorders, liver taurine reduction, cholestasis, and insulin and leptin resistance. Leucine supplementation partly alleviated these metabolic disorders and increased liver L-carnitine, retarding programmed obesity development. This study provides new insights into the mechanism of programmed obesity development and the potential benefits of leucine supplementation, which may offer suggestions for life planning and programmed obesity prevention.

ARTICLE HIGHLIGHTS

Early-weaned adult rats showed excess lipid accumulation and metabolic defects. Early weaning disrupts lipid metabolism and secretion of neuropeptide Y and insulin. The altered lipid metabolic gene expression in this study is vital in programming. Leucine mitigates metabolic disorders and hampers programmed obesity development.

Programming of metabolism by adipokines during development

The intrauterine and early postnatal periods represent key developmental stages in which an organism is highly susceptible to being permanently influenced by maternal factors and nutritional status. Strong evidence indicates that either undernutrition or overnutrition during development can predispose individuals to disease later in life, especially type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity, a concept known as metabolic programming. Adipose tissue produces important signalling molecules that control energy and glucose homeostasis, including leptin and adiponectin. In addition to their well-characterized metabolic effects in adults, adipokines have been associated with metabolic programming by affecting different aspects of development. Therefore, alterations in the secretion or signalling of adipokines, caused by nutritional insults in early life, might lead to metabolic diseases in adulthood. This Review summarizes and discusses the potential role of several adipokines in inducing metabolic programming through their effects during development. The identification of the endocrine factors that act in early life to permanently influence metabolism represents a key step in understanding the mechanisms behind metabolic programming. Thus, future strategies aiming to prevent and treat these metabolic diseases can be designed, taking into consideration the relationship between adipokines and the developmental origins of health and disease.

Adverse perinatal conditions and the developmental origins of thyroid dysfunction-Lessons from Animal Models

PURPOSE

Nutritional, hormonal, and environmental status during development can predispose the individual to obesity and endocrine diseases later in life, an association known as metabolic programming. In general, weight loss or gain are seen in thyroid disorders, and thyroid function can be affected by body adiposity. In addition, hyper- and hypothyroidism can be related to metabolic programming. Our aim was to gather evidence that regardless of the type or critical window of metabolic imprinting, offspring exposed to certain adverse perinatal conditions have a higher risk of developing thyroid dysfunction.

METHODS

We reviewed literature data that relate insults occurring during pregnancy and/or lactation to short- and long-term offspring thyroid dysfunction in animal models.

RESULTS

Few studies have addressed the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis and thyroid dysfunction related to metabolic programming. The literature shows that under- and overnutrition, exposure to endocrine disruptors, early weaning, maternal thyroid disease and maternal high-fat diet can induce alterations in offspring thyroid function in a sex-dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

Based on the few available data, mainly in rodent models, we can conclude that diet, hormones, and environmental contaminants are related to the developmental origins of later thyroid dysfunction by interrupting the normal maturation of the thyroid gland.

[Influence of intranasally administered insulin on metabolic and hormonal parameters in adult male rats, impaired due to three-day fasting in the early postnatal period]

Temporary cessation or restriction of breastfeeding can lead to metabolic disorders in adulthood. However, data on the effect of fasting in the early postnatal period on the functions of the endocrine system in adulthood are rare and contradictory. Approaches for the correction of metabolic and hormonal disorders caused by premature cessation of breastfeeding have not been developed yet. The aim of the work was to study the metabolic and hormonal parameters and changes in the hormonal status of the gonadal and thyroid systems in 10-month-old male rats with interruption of breastfeeding on days P19-P21, as well as to evaluate the restorative effect on them of four weeks of treatment with intranasal insulin (II) administered in the postnatal period (P28-P55) or in adulthood (P183-P210). Lactation interruption has been induced by treatment of lactating females with bromocriptine (10 mg/day/rat, P19-P21). Male rats with temporary cessation of breastfeeding developed characteristic signs of the metabolic syndrome (obesity, dyslipidemia, impaired glucose tolerance, hyperleptinemia), decreased levels of testosterone and thyroid hormones (fT4, tT3) and weakened the synthesis of testosterone and thyroxine, stimulated respectively by GnRH and thyroliberin. This was due to a decrease in the sensitivity of the testes to luteinizing hormone (LH) and the thyroid gland to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Treatment with II in early ontogenesis reduced body weight and fat, improved lipid profile, sensitivity to insulin, leptin, LH and TSH, restored the levels of testosterone and thyroid hormones and their stimulation by releasing factors. Treatment with II in adulthood normalized the levels of testosterone, thyroid hormones, their stimulation by releasing factors, but had a little effect on metabolic and hormonal parameters. The obtained data point to a wide range of metabolic and hormonal disorders in adult male rats with the "neonatal" model of metabolic syndrome and to the effectiveness of various strategies for their correction using long-term II treatment.

Prolonged breastfeeding protects from obesity by hypothalamic action of hepatic FGF21

Early-life determinants are thought to be a major factor in the rapid increase of obesity. However, while maternal nutrition has been extensively studied, the effects of breastfeeding by the infant on the reprogramming of energy balance in childhood and throughout adulthood remain largely unknown. Here we show that delayed weaning in rat pups protects them against diet-induced obesity in adulthood, through enhanced brown adipose tissue thermogenesis and energy expenditure. In-depth metabolic phenotyping in this rat model as well as in transgenic mice reveals that the effects of prolonged suckling are mediated by increased hepatic fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) production and tanycyte-controlled access to the hypothalamus in adulthood. Specifically, FGF21 activates GABA-containing neurons expressing dopamine receptor 2 in the lateral hypothalamic area and zona incerta. Prolonged breastfeeding thus constitutes a protective mechanism against obesity by affecting long-lasting physiological changes in liver-to-hypothalamus communication and hypothalamic metabolic regulation.

Effects of Early Weaning Associated with Alimentary Stress on Emotional and Feeding Behavior of Female Adult Wistar Rats

Maternal lactation proves crucial for mammals’ nutrition during their early development, influencing the development of adult physiological mechanisms. Its premature termination has been associated with several disorders, but these have been primarily documented in males, when they are most prevalent in women. Therefore, we subjected adult female Wistar rats to Early Weaning through maternal separation at age 15 days to acute alimentary stress in the form of visual and olfactory exposition to a cafeteria diet sans consumption for 22 days. We measured standard diet intake and water intake daily and cafeteria diet intake every 7 days. Additionally, we evaluated anxiety using the elevated plus maze and measured body weight in similar intervals. Results showed less consumption of the cafeteria diet among Early Weaning rats on day 2 and more time spent in the maze’s central area by the Early Weaning rats during the basal evaluation and in the maze’s open arms by control rats on day 7 when compared to the same group’s basal time. No other significant differences were found. These results show the importance of determining the impact that female steroidal gonadal hormones such as estradiol have upon feeding behavior and anxiety and determining to what degree these parameters are influenced by hormonal action.

Early postnatal exposure of rat pups to methylglyoxal induces oxidative stress, inflammation and dysmetabolism at adulthood

This work aimed to investigate the effects of early progeny exposure to methylglyoxal (MG), programming for metabolic dysfunction and diabetes-like complications later in life. At delivery (PN1), the animals were separated into two groups: control group (CO), treated with saline, and MG group, treated with MG (20 mg/kg of BW; i.p.) during the first 2 weeks of the lactation period. In vivo experiments and tissue collection were done at PN90. Early MG exposure decreased body weight, adipose tissue, liver and kidney weight at adulthood. On the other hand, MG group showed increased relative food intake, blood fructosamine, blood insulin and HOMA-IR, which is correlated with insulin resistance. Besides, MG-treated animals presented dyslipidaemia, increased oxidative stress and inflammation. Likewise, MG group showed steatosis and perivascular fibrosis in the liver, pancreatic islet hypertrophy, increased glomerular area and pericapsular fibrosis, but reduced capsular space. This study shows that early postnatal exposure to MG induces oxidative stress, inflammation and fibrosis markers in pancreas, liver and kidney, which are related to metabolic dysfunction features. Thus, nutritional disruptors during lactation period may be an important risk factor for metabolic alterations at adulthood.

Can breastfeeding affect the rest of our life?

The breastfeeding period is one of the most important critical windows in our development, since milk, our first food after birth, contains several compounds, such as macronutrients, micronutrients, antibodies, growth factors and hormones that benefit human health. Indeed, nutritional, and environmental alterations during lactation, change the composition of breast milk and induce alterations in the child's development, such as obesity, leading to the metabolic dysfunctions, cardiovascular diseases and neurobehavioral disorders. This review is based on experimental animal models, most of them in rodents, and summarizes the impact of an adequate breast milk supply in view of the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) concept, which has been proposed by researchers in the areas of epidemiology and basic science from around the world. Here, experimental advances in understanding the programming during breastfeeding were compiled with the purpose of generating knowledge about the genesis of chronic noncommunicable diseases and to guide the development of public policies to deal with and prevent the problems arising from this phenomenon. This review article is part of the special issue on "Cross talk between periphery and brain".

Effect of Polyphenols Intake on Obesity-Induced Maternal Programming

Excess caloric intake and body fat accumulation lead to obesity, a complex chronic disease that represents a significant public health problem due to the health-related risk factors. There is growing evidence showing that maternal obesity can program the offspring, which influences neonatal phenotype and predispose offspring to metabolic disorders such as obesity. This increased risk may also be epigenetically transmitted across generations. Thus, there is an imperative need to find effective reprogramming approaches in order to resume normal fetal development. Polyphenols are bioactive compounds found in vegetables and fruits that exert its anti-obesity effect through its powerful anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Polyphenol supplementation has been proven to counteract the prejudicial effects of maternal obesity programming on progeny. Indeed, some polyphenols can cross the placenta and protect the fetal predisposition against obesity. The present review summarizes the effects of dietary polyphenols on obesity-induced maternal reprogramming as an offspring anti-obesity approach.

Late effects of early weaning on food preference and the dopaminergic and endocannabinoid systems in male and female rats

Early weaning (EW) is associated with obesity later in life. Here, using an EW model in rats, we investigated changes in feeding behavior and the dopaminergic and endocannabinoid systems (ECS) in the adult offspring. Lactating Wistar rats were divided into two groups: EW, dams were wrapped with a bandage to interrupt suckling during the last 3 days of breastfeeding; CONT; dams fed the pups throughout the period without hindrances. EW animals were compared with CONT animals of the same sex. At PN175, male and female offspring of both groups could freely self-select between high-fat and high-sugar diets (food challenge test). EW males preferred the high-fat diet at 30 min and more of the high-sugar diet after 12 h compared to CONT males. EW females did not show differences in their preference for the palatable diets compared to CONT females. Total intake of standard diet from PN30-PN180 was higher in both male and female EW animals, indicating hyperphagia. At PN180, EW males showed lower type 2 dopamine receptor (D2r) in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and dorsal striatum, while EW females had lower tyrosine hydroxylase in the ventral tegmental area and NAc, D1r in the NAc, and D2r in the prefrontal cortex. In the lateral hypothalamus, EW males had lower fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase, whereas EW females showed lower N-arachidonoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine phospholipase-D and increased FAAH. Early weaning altered both the dopaminergic and ECS parameters at adulthood, contributing to the eating behavior changes of the progeny in a sex-dependent manner.

Biometric, nutritional, biochemical, and cardiovascular outcomes in male rats submitted to an experimental model of early weaning that mimics mother abandoning

Literature describes breast milk as the best food for the newborn, recommending exclusive breastfeeding for up to 6 months of age. However, it is not available for more than 40% of children worldwide. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological models of 3-day early weaning were developed in rodents to investigate later outcomes related solely to this nutritional insult. Thus, the present work aimed to describe biometric, nutritional, biochemical, and cardiovascular outcomes in adult male rats submitted to 3-day early weaning achieved by maternal deprivation. This experimental model comprises not only nutritional insult but also emotional stress, simulating mother abandoning. Male offspring were physically separated from their mothers at 21st (control) or 18th (early weaning) postnatal day, receiving water/food ad libitum. Analysis performed at postnatal days 30, 90, 150, and 365 encompassed body mass and food intake monitoring and serum biochemistry determination. Further assessments included hemodynamic, echocardiographic, and cardiorespiratory evaluation. Early-weaned males presented higher body weight when compared to control as well as dyslipidemia, higher blood pressure, diastolic dysfunction, and cardiac hypertrophy in adult life. Animals early deprived of their mothers have also presented a worse performance on the maximal effort ergometer test. This work shows that 3-day early maternal deprivation favors the development of cardiovascular disease in male rats.

Early weaning alters redox status in the hippocampus and hypothalamus of rat pups

Exposure to environmental factors can program the metabolism, conferring resistance or increasing the risk to chronic disease development in childhood and adulthood. In this sense, lactation is an important period in this window of development. Herein, we investigated the effect of early weaning on neurochemical and behavioral changes in offspring at weaning and adulthood. Female and male pups were divided into four groups: (1) Control weaning (weaning on the PND21, pups were kept with the biological mother); (2) Early Weaning Bromocriptine group (EWB) (pharmacological weaning on PND16); (3) Early Weaning Cross-Fostering group (EWCF) (pups housed with a foster mother on PND16 up to PND21); (4) Early Weaning Without Care group (EWWC) (weaning on PND16, maternal separation). Weight control of pups was recorded from postnatal Day 16 to 59. On the 21st day, part of the pups was euthanized and the hippocampus and hypothalamus were removed for biochemical evaluation. The remaining pups were submitted to behavioral tests on the 60th postnatal day. Early weaning reduced the pups' body weight, in a sex-dependent way. At 60 days of age, male pups of EWCF and EWWC groups have lower body weight compared to control male, and female body weight was lower than male pups. In relation to biochemical changes in the brain, weaning altered the levels of oxidants, increased the enzymatic activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), as well as induced lipid peroxidation. Weaning was also able to alter long-term memory and induce anxious behavior in pups. Our results demonstrate that the different types of early weaning changed the parameters of redox status in the hippocampus and hypothalamus of pups (21 days old), suggesting a prooxidative profile, in addition, to alter learning/memory and inducing an anxious behavior in male offspring (60 days old).

Hepatic lipid metabolism in adult rats using early weaning models: sex-related differences

Non-pharmacological early weaning (NPEW) induces liver damage in male progeny at adulthood; however, pharmacological early weaning (PEW) does not cause this dysfunction. To elucidate this difference in liver dysfunction between these two models and determine the phenotype of female offspring, de novo lipogenesis, β-oxidation, very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) export, and gluconeogenesis in both sexes were investigated in the adult Wistar rats that were weaned after a normal period of lactation (control group) or early weaned either by restriction of access to the dams' teats (NPEW group) or by reduction of dams' milk production with bromocriptine (PEW group). The offspring received standard diet from weaning to euthanasia (PN180). NPEW males had higher plasma triglycerides and TyG index, liver triglycerides, and cholesterol by de novo lipogenesis, which leads to intracellular lipids accumulation. As expected, hepatic morphology was preserved in PEW males, but they showed increased liver triglycerides. The only molecular difference between PEW and NPEW males was in acetyl-CoA carboxylase-1 (ACC-1) and stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD-1), which were lower in PEW animals. Both early weaning (EW) females had no changes in liver cholesterol and triglyceride contents, and the hepatic cytoarchitecture was preserved. The expression of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein was increased in both the female EW groups, which could constitute a protective factor. The changes in hepatic lipid metabolism in EW offspring were less marked in females. EW impacted in the hepatic cytoarchitecture only in NPEW males, which showed higher ACC-1 and SCD-1 when compared to the PEW group. As these enzymes are lipogenic, it could explain a worsened liver function in NPEW males.

Does early weaning shape future endocrine and metabolic disorders? Lessons from animal models

Obesity and its complications occur at alarming rates worldwide. Epidemiological data have associated perinatal conditions, such as malnutrition, with the development of some disorders, such as obesity, dyslipidemia, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases, in childhood and adulthood. Exclusive breastfeeding has been associated with protection against long-term chronic diseases. However, in humans, the interruption of breastfeeding before the recommended period of 6 months is a common practice and can increase the risk of several metabolic disturbances. Nutritional and environmental changes within a critical window of development, such as pregnancy and breastfeeding, can induce permanent changes in metabolism through epigenetic mechanisms, leading to diseases later in life via a phenomenon known as programming or developmental plasticity. However, little is known regarding the underlying mechanisms by which precocious weaning can result in adipose tissue dysfunction and endocrine profile alterations. Here, the authors give a comprehensive report of the different animal models of early weaning and programming that can result in the development of metabolic syndrome. In rats, for example, pharmacological and nonpharmacological early weaning models are associated with the development of overweight and visceral fat accumulation, leptin and insulin resistance, and neuroendocrine and hepatic changes in adult progeny. Sex-related differences seem to influence this phenotype. Therefore, precocious weaning seems to be obesogenic for offspring. A better understanding of this condition seems essential to reducing the risk for diseases. Additionally, this knowledge can generate new insights into therapeutic strategies for obesity management, improving health outcomes.

Early weaning induces short- and long-term effects on pancreatic islets in Wistar rats of both sexes

KEY POINTS

The World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding until 6 months of age as an important strategy to reduce child morbidity and mortality. Studies have associated early weaning with the development of obesity and type 2 diabetes in adulthood. In our model, we demonstrated that early weaning leads to increased insulin secretion in adolescent males and reduced insulin secretion in adult offspring. Early weaned males exhibit insulin resistance in skeletal muscle. Early weaning did not change insulin signalling in the muscle of female offspring. Taking into account that insulin resistance is one of the primary factors for the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus, this work demonstrates the importance of breastfeeding in the fight against this disease.

ABSTRACT

Early weaning (EW) leads to short- and long-term obesity and diabetes. This phenotype is also observed in experimental models, in which early-weaned males exhibit abnormal insulinaemia in adulthood. However, studies regarding the effect of EW on pancreatic islets are rare. We investigated the mechanisms by which glycaemic homeostasis is altered in EW models through evaluations of insulin secretion and its signalling pathway in offspring. Lactating Wistar rats and their pups were divided into the following groups: non-pharmacological EW (NPEW): mothers were wrapped with an adhesive bandage on the last 3 days of lactation; pharmacological EW (PEW): mothers received bromocriptine to inhibit prolactin (1 mg/kg body mass/day) on the last 3 days of lactation; and control (C): pups underwent standard weaning at PN21. Offspring of both sexes were euthanized at PN45 and PN180. At PN45, EW males showed higher insulin secretion (vs. C). At PN170, PEW males exhibited hyperglycaemia in an oral glucose tolerance test (vs. C and NPEW). At PN180, EW male offspring were heavier; however, both sexes showed higher visceral fat. Insulin secretion was lower in EW offspring of both sexes. Males from both EW groups had lower glucokinase in islets, but unexpectedly, PEW males showed higher GLUT2, than did C. EW males exhibited lower insulin signalling in muscle. EW females exhibited no changes in these parameters compared with C. We demonstrated distinct alterations in the insulin secretion of EW rats at different ages. Despite the sex dimorphism in insulin secretion in adolescence, both sexes showed impaired insulin secretion in adulthood due to EW.

Early weaning leads to specific glucocorticoid signalling in fat depots of adult rats

PURPOSE

Early weaning (EW) is a stressful condition that programmes a child to be overweight in adult life. Fat mass depends on glucocorticoids (GC) to regulate adipogenesis and lipogenesis. We hypothesised that the increased adiposity in models of EW was due to a disturbed HPA axis and/or disrupted GC function.

METHODS

We used two experimental models, pharmacological early weaning (PEW, dams were bromocriptine-treated) and non-pharmacological early weaning (NPEW, dams' teats were wrapped with a bandage), which were initiated during the last 3 days of lactation. Offspring from both genders was analysed on postnatal day 180.

RESULTS

Offspring in both models were overweight with increased visceral fat mass, but plasma corticosterone was increased in both genders in the PEW group but not the NPEW group. NPEW males had increased GRα expression in visceral adipose tissue (VAT), and GRα expression decreased in PEW males in subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT). Females in both EW groups had increased 11βHSD1 expression in SAT. PEW males had increased C/EBPβ expression in SAT. PEW females had lower PPARy and FAS expression in VAT than the NPEW females. We detected a sex dimorphism in VAT and SAT in the EW groups regarding 11βHSD1, GRα and C/EBPβ expression.

CONCLUSIONS

The accumulated adiposity induced by EW exhibited distinct mechanisms depending on gender, specific fat deposition and GC metabolism and action. The higher proportion of VAT/SAT in both sets of EW males may be related to the action of GC in these tissues, and the higher conversion of GC in SAT in females may explain the differences in the fat distribution.

The influence of dietary conditions in the effects of resveratrol on hepatic steatosis

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is considered the major cause for the development of chronic liver alterations.

Immediate and Late Effects of Early Weaning on Rat Gastric Cell Differentiation

Background: Gastric glands grow and cells reach differentiation at weaning in rats. By considering that early weaning (EW) can affect the timing of development, we aimed to compare molecular and cellular markers of differentiation in pups and adults. Methods: Wistar rats were separated into suckling-control (S) and EW groups at 15 days. Stomachs were collected at 15, 18, and 60 days for RNA and protein extraction, and morphology. Results: After EW, the expression of genes involved in differentiation (Atp4b, Bhlha15 and Pgc) augmented (18 days), and Atp4b and Gif were high at 60 days. EW increased the number of zymogenic cells (ZC) in pups and adults and augmented mucous neck cells only at 18 days, whereas parietal and transition cells (TC) were unchanged. Conclusions: EW affected the gastric mucosa mostly in a transient manner as the changes in gene expression and distribution of differentiated cells that were detected in pups were not fully maintained in adults, except for the size of ZC population. We concluded that though most of EW effects were immediate, such nutritional change in the infancy might affect part of gastric digestive functions in a permanent manner, as some markers were kept unbalanced in the adulthood.

Early weaning alters the thermogenic capacity of brown adipose tissue in adult male and female rats

PURPOSE

Early weaning (EW) is a risk factor for obesity development. Brown adipose tissue (BAT) hypofunction is related to obesity onset. Here, we evaluated whether sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity in BAT and the thermogenic function of BAT are decreased in adulthood in obese rats from two EW models.

METHODS

At the time of birth, lactating Wistar rats and their pups (three males and three females) were separated into three groups: the control group, in which pups consumed milk throughout lactation; the non-pharmacological EW (NPEW) group, in which suckling was interrupted with a bandage during the last 3 days of lactation; and the pharmacological EW (PEW) group, in which dams were treated with bromocriptine (0.5 mg/twice a day) 3 days before weaning. The offspring were sacrificed on PN180.

RESULTS

Adult male rats from both EW models exhibited lower BAT SNS activity. Female rats from the PEW group showed a decrease in BAT SNS activity. The protein levels of UCP1 were lower in the NPEW males, while PGC1α levels were lower in both PEW and NPEW males. Both groups of EW females showed reductions in the levels of β3-AR, TRβ1, and PGC1α. The UCP1 protein level was reduced only in the NPEW females. The EW groups of both sexes had lower AMPK protein levels in BAT. In the hypothalamus, only the PEW females showed an increase in AMPK protein levels. In both groups of EW males, adrenal catecholamine was increased and tyrosine hydroxylase was decreased, while in EW females, adrenal catecholamine was decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

Early weaning alters the thermogenic capacity of BAT, which partially contributes to obesity in adulthood, and there are sex-related differences in these alterations.

Maternal coconut oil intake on lactation programs for endocannabinoid system dysfunction in adult offspring

Maternal exposure to coconut oil metabolically programs adult offspring for overweight, hyperphagia and hyperleptinemia. We studied the neuroendocrine mechanisms by which coconut oil supplementation during breastfeeding as well as continued exposure of this oil throughout life affect the feeding behavior of the progeny. At birth, pups were divided into two groups: Soybean oil (SO) and Coconut oil (CO). Dams received these oils by gavage (0.5 g/kg body mass/day) during lactation. Half of the CO group continued to receive CO in chow throughout life (CO + C). Adult CO and CO + C groups had overweight; the CO group had hyperphagia, higher visceral adiposity, and hyperleptinemia, while the CO + C group had hypophagia only. The CO group showed higher DAGLα (endocannabinoid synthesis) but no alteration of FAAH (endocannabinoid degradation) or CB1R. Leptin signaling and GLP1R were unchanged in the CO group, which did not explain its phenotype. Hyperphagia in these animals can be due to higher DAGLα, increasing the production of 2-AG, an orexigenic mediator. The CO + C group had higher preference for fat and lower hypothalamic GLP1R content. Continuous exposure to coconut oil prevented an increase in DAGLα. The CO + C group, although hypophagic, showed greater voracity when exposed to a hyperlipidemic diet, maybe due to lower GLP1R, since GLP1 inhibits short-term food intake.

Fish oil supplementation during adolescence attenuates metabolic programming of perinatal maternal high-fat diet in adult offspring

Perinatal maternal high-fat diet (HFD) increases susceptibility to obesity and fatty liver diseases in adult offspring, which can be attenuated by the potent hypolipidaemic action of fish oil (FO), an n-3 PUFA source, during adult life. Previously, we described that adolescent HFD offspring showed resistance to FO hypolipidaemic effects, although FO promoted hepatic molecular changes suggestive of reduced lipid accumulation. Here, we investigated whether this FO intervention only during the adolescence period could affect offspring metabolism in adulthood. Then, female Wistar rats received isoenergetic, standard (STD: 9 % fat) or high-fat (HFD: 28·6 % fat) diet before mating, and throughout pregnancy and lactation. After weaning, male offspring received the standard diet; and from 25 to 45 d old they received oral administration of soyabean oil or FO. At 150 d old, serum and hepatic metabolic parameters were evaluated. Maternal HFD adult offspring showed increased body weight, visceral adiposity, hyperleptinaemia and decreased hepatic pSTAT3/STAT3 ratio, suggestive of hepatic leptin resistance. FO intake only during the adolescence period reduced visceral adiposity and serum leptin, regardless of maternal diet. Maternal HFD promoted dyslipidaemia and hepatic TAG accumulation, which was correlated with reduced hepatic carnitine palmitoyl transferase-1a content, suggesting lipid oxidation impairment. FO intake did not change serum lipids; however, it restored hepatic TAG content and hepatic markers of lipid oxidation to STD offspring levels. Therefore, we concluded that FO intake exclusively during adolescence programmed STD offspring and reprogrammed HFD offspring male rats to a healthier metabolic phenotype in adult life, reducing visceral adiposity, serum leptin and hepatic TAG content in offspring adulthood.

Treatment with Ilex paraguariensis (yerba mate) aqueous solution prevents hepatic redox imbalance, elevated triglycerides, and microsteatosis in overweight adult rats that were precociously weaned

Early weaning (EW) leads to overweight, visceral obesity, hyperleptinemia, and insulin resistance in adulthood. Treatment with Ilex paraguariensis (yerba mate) improves obesity and insulin resistance in these animals. Here, we evaluated the effects of chronic treatment with yerba mate on the redox balance and liver morphology of overweight early-weaned rats. To induce EW, we wrapped the dams with bandages to interrupt milk access during the last 3 days of lactation. Control pups (C) had free access to maternal milk for the full 21 days of lactation. On postnatal day (PN) 150, EW offspring were subdivided into the EW+YM group, which received the aqueous extract of yerba mate (1 g/kg bw by gavage once a day for 30 days) and the EW group, which received water by gavage for the same period. All rats were euthanized on PN180. The EW group showed higher bound carbonyl (a marker of total protein oxidation), higher TBARS levels (a marker of lipid peroxidation), and lower superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in liver tissue than the C group, as well as higher triglyceride content and microsteatosis. In plasma, the EW offspring showed higher TBARS levels. One month of yerba mate treatment normalized these parameters. Thus, we have shown evidence that yerba mate improved antioxidant defenses and mitigated liver dysfunction in overweight adult rats that were weaned prematurely.

Maternal Food Restriction during Pregnancy and Lactation Adversely Affect Hepatic Growth and Lipid Metabolism in Three-Week-Old Rat Offspring

Maternal malnutrition influences the early development of foetal adaptive changes for survival. We explored the effects of maternal undernutrition during gestation and lactation on hepatic growth and function. Sprague-Dawley rats were fed a normal or a food-restricted (FR) diet during gestation and/or lactation. We performed analyses of covariance (adjusting for the liver weight/body weight ratio) to compare hepatic growth and lipid metabolism among the offspring. Maternal FR during gestation triggered the development of wide spaces between hepatic cells and increased the expression of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in three-week-old male offspring compared with controls (both p < 0.05). Offspring nursed by FR dams exhibited wider spaces between hepatic cells and a lower liver weight/body weight ratio than control offspring, and increased mTOR expression (p < 0.05). Interestingly, the significant decrease in expression of lipogenic-related genes was dependent on carbohydrate-responsive element-binding protein, despite the increased expression of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1) (p < 0.05). This study demonstrated increased expression of key metabolic regulators (mTOR and SREBP1), alterations in lipid metabolism, and deficits in hepatic growth in the offspring of FR-treated dams.

Effects of postnatal bromocriptine injection on thyroid function and prolactinemia of rats at adulthood

Previously, we demonstrated that maternal prolactin inhibition at the end of lactation, using bromocriptine (BRO), leads to an increase in leptin transfer via milk and induces the adult progeny to present hypothyroidism, leptin resistance and metabolic syndrome (obesity, hyperglycemia, hypertriglyceridemia, lower HDL). To test if these alterations are due to direct BRO action on the pups, in the present study we evaluated the long-term effects of direct injection of BRO (0.1μg/once daily) in male Wistar rats from postnatal (PN) day 1 to 10 (early treatment) or from PN11 to 20 (late treatment) on: food intake, body mass, cardiovascular parameters, hormone profile, hypothalamic leptin signaling, glucose homeostasis and thyroid hormone-dependent proteins. The respective controls were injected with methanol-saline. Offspring were killed at adulthood (PN180). Adult PN1-10 BRO-treated animals had lower food intake, hypoprolactinemia, lower leptin action (lower OBR-b, STAT-3 and SOCS-3 mRNA levels in the arcuate nucleus), lower TRH-TSH-thyroid axis as well as lower thyroid hormone markers. On the other hand, adult animals that were BRO-treated during the PN11-20 period showed hyperphagia, higher blood pressure, higher prolactinemia and OBR-b, higher TRH and plasma T3, hypercorticosteronemia as well as higher Dio2 and UCP1 mRNA expression in the brown adipose tissue. Glucose homeostasis was not changed treatment in either period. Our data show that early and late dopamine overexposure during lactation induces diverse metabolic disturbances later in life, increasing the risk of thyroid dysfunction and, consequently, changes in prolactinemia.

Effects ofIlex paraguariensis(yerba mate) on the hypothalamic signalling of insulin and leptin and liver dysfunction in adult rats overfed during lactation

Ilex paraguariensis(yerba mate) has a beneficial effect in the management of obesity. Here, we studied the effects of yerba mate on hypothalamic changes in leptin and insulin signalling, oxidative stress and liver morphology and metabolism in postnatal early overfeeding (EO) Wistar rats. To induce EO, the litter size was reduced to three pups per dam, and litters with 10 pups per dam were used as a control (10 litters each). On postnatal day (PN) 150, EO offspring were subdivided into EO and EO+mate groups (10 animals each), which were treated with water or mate tea [1 g/kg body weight (BW)/day, by gavage], respectively, for 30 days. The C offspring received water. On PN180, yerba mate treatment prevented BW gain and reduced total body fat, visceral fat and food intake in comparison with the EO group. Leptin and insulin signalling in the hypothalamus measured by Western blotting was reduced only in the EO group. Yerba mate treatment had a greater impact on insulin signalling normalization. In the liver, yerba mate treatment normalized antioxidant enzyme activities and, consequently, decreased lipid peroxidation, determined by malondialdehyde content. In addition, the steatosis level and the liver triglyceride content were also restored. Thus, for the first time, yerba mate was demonstrated to increase antioxidant defences and improve liver metabolism in adult rats that were overfed during lactation, possibly through improvements in the hypothalamic action of insulin. These findings may be important for the treatment of obesity-related disorders.

HPA axis and vagus nervous function are involved in impaired insulin secretion of MSG-obese rats

Neuroendocrine dysfunctions such as the hyperactivity of the vagus nerve and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis greatly contribute to obesity and hyperinsulinemia; however, little is known about these dysfunctions in the pancreatic β-cells of obese individuals. We used a hypothalamic-obesity model obtained by neonatal treatment with monosodium l-glutamate (MSG) to induce obesity. To assess the role of the HPA axis and vagal tonus in the genesis of hypercorticosteronemia and hyperinsulinemia in an adult MSG-obese rat model, bilateral adrenalectomy (ADX) and subdiaphragmatic vagotomy (VAG) alone or combined surgeries (ADX-VAG) were performed. To study glucose-induced insulin secretion (GIIS) and the cholinergic insulinotropic process, pancreatic islets were incubated with different glucose concentrations with or without oxotremorine-M, a selective agonist of the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M3AChR) subtype. Protein expression of M3AChR in pancreatic islets, corticosteronemia, and vagus nerve activity was also evaluated. Surgeries reduced 80% of the body weight gain. Fasting glucose and insulin were reduced both by ADX and ADX-VAG, whereas VAG was only associated with hyperglycemia. The serum insulin post-glucose stimulation was lower in all animals that underwent an operation. Vagal activity was decreased by 50% in ADX rats. In the highest glucose concentration, both surgeries reduced GIIS by 50%, whereas ADX-VAG decreased by 70%. Additionally, M3AChR activity was recovered by the individual surgeries. M3AChR protein expression was reduced by ADX. Both the adrenal gland and vagus nerve contribute to the hyperinsulinemia in the MSG model, although adrenal is more crucial as it appears to modulate parasympathetic activity and M3AChR expression in obesity.

Ghrelin and GHS-R in the rat gastric mucosa: Are they involved in regulation of growth during early weaning?

OBJECTIVES

Based on previous evidence showing that early weaning disturbs the ontogenesis of rat gastric glands, which are the major site of ghrelin synthesis, we investigated the distribution of ghrelin and its receptor (GHS-R) in the rat gastric epithelium during postnatal development and evaluated the effects of early weaning on their levels. Additionally, we studied the contribution of ghrelin to gastric growth during the abrupt nutrient transition.

METHODS

Wistar rats were submitted to early weaning at 15 d and suckling counterparts were taken as controls.

RESULTS

By running quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, immunoblots, and immunohistochemistry, we detected a variation of ghrelin levels and an increase of expression and number of immunolabeled cells, 3 d after treatment (P < 0.05). Through confocal microscopy, we identified GHS-R in the neck region of the gland and did not observe changes in protein levels. Growth was evaluated after ghrelin antagonist ([D-Lys-3]-GHRP-6) administration, which reduced DNA synthesis index in early-weaned rats (P < 0.05) as determined by bromodeoxyuridine incorporation.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrated that ghrelin and GHS-R are distributed in gastric mucosa during the postnatal development, indicating that they can signal and function in epithelial cells. We concluded that early weaning increased ghrelin levels in the stomach, and it takes part of cell proliferation control that is essential for stomach growth. Therefore, among the many effects previously described for early weaning, this abrupt nutrient transition also changed ghrelin levels, which might represent an additional element in the complex mechanism that coordinates stomach development.

Brain development in male rats subjected to early weaning and treated with diet containing flour or flaxseed oil after 21 days until 60 days

The precocious interruption of lactation is a prime factor for developmental plasticity. Here we analyzed whether flour or flaxseed oil treatment contributes to body and brain mass in male rats subjected to early weaning. Pups were weaned for separation from their mother at 14 (early weaning, EW) and 21 days (control, C). At 21 days, some of the pups were evaluated (C21 v. EW21). After 21 days, control pups (C60) were fed a control diet. EW pups were divided into those fed a control diet (EWC60), those given flaxseed flour (EWFF60), and those given flaxseed oil (EWFO60) until 60 days. EW21 showed lower body and absolute brain mass and higher relative brain mass. At 60 days, EWC60 and EWFO60 had lower body mass. With regard to relative brain mass, EWC60 was heavier; EWFO60 had lower values compared with EWC60 and higher values compared with C60 and EWFF60. These results indicated that flaxseed flour, in comparison with flaxseed oil, contributes to brain development after EW.

Anti-obesogenic effects of calcium prevent changes in the GLP-1 profile in adult rats primed by early weaning

SCOPE

Gut peptides regulate appetite and adipogenesis. Early weaning (EW) leads to later development of obesity that can be prevented by calcium supplementation. We evaluated gut peptides that may have a role in the establishment of this dysfunction.

METHODS AND RESULTS

At birth, lactating Wistar rats were separated in: EW, lactating rats involved with a bandage interrupting the lactation during the last 4 days of standard lactation, and C (control) dams whose pups had free access to milk during throughout lactation. At 120 days old, half of EW group received calcium supplementation (EWCa); EW and C received standard diet. At 21 days old, EW presented higher glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) in plasma and glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (GLP1-R) in adipose tissue and hypothalamus, but lower GLP-1 and GLP1-R in the gut. At 180 days old, GLP-1 response to food intake was blunted in EW and restored by calcium. GLP-1 in the gut was lower in EW and its receptor was lower in adipose tissue, and GLP1-R was higher in the gut of calcium EW group.

CONCLUSION

Thus, EW had short- and long-term effects upon GLP-1 profile, which may have contributed to obesity development, hyperphagia, and insulin resistance due to its adipogenic and appetite control roles. Calcium supplementation was able to prevent most of the changes in GLP-1 caused by EW.

Early weaning by maternal prolactin inhibition leads to higher neuropeptide Y and astrogliosis in the hypothalamus of the adult rat offspring

The suppression of prolactin production with bromocriptine (BRO) in the last 3 d of lactation reduces milk yield (early weaning) and increases the transfer of leptin through the milk, causing hyperleptinaemia in pups. In adulthood, several changes occur in the offspring as a result of metabolic programming, including overweight, higher visceral fat mass, hypothyroidism, hyperglycaemia, insulin resistance, hyperleptinaemia and central leptin resistance. In the present study, we investigated whether overweight rats programmed by early weaning with maternal BRO treatment have hypothalamic alterations in adulthood. We analysed the expression of neuropeptide Y (NPY), cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) by immunohistochemistry in the following hypothalamic nuclei: medial and lateral arcuate nucleus (ARC); paraventricular nucleus (PVN); lateral hypothalamus (LH). Additionally, we sought to determine whether these programmed rats exhibited hypothalamic inflammation as indicated by astrogliosis. NPY immunostaining showed a denser NPY-positive fibre network in the ARC and PVN (+82 % in both nuclei) of BRO offspring. Regarding the anorexigenic neuropeptides, no difference was found for CART, POMC and α-MSH. The number of astrocytes was higher in all the nuclei of BRO rats. The fibre density of glial fibrillary acidic protein was also increased in both medial and lateral ARC (6·06-fold increase and 9·13-fold increase, respectively), PVN (5·75-fold increase) and LH (2·68-fold increase) of BRO rats. We suggest that early weaning has a long-term effect on the expression of NPY as a consequence of developmental plasticity, and the presence of astrogliosis indicates hypothalamic inflammation that is closely related to overweight and hyperleptinaemia observed in our model.

Effects of Ilex paraguariensis (yerba mate) treatment on leptin resistance and inflammatory parameters in obese rats primed by early weaning

AIMS

We evaluated the effects of yerba mate treatment over 30 days on body weight, food intake, hypothalamic leptin action and inflammatory profile in adult rats that were weaned early.

MAIN METHODS

To induce early weaning, the teats of lactating rats were blocked with a bandage to interrupt milk access for the last 3 days of lactation (EW group). Control offspring had free access to milk throughout lactation. On postnatal day (PN) 150, EW offspring were subdivided into: EW and M groups were treated with water and mate aqueous solution (1g/kg BW/day, gavage), respectively, for 30 days. Control offspring received water by gavage. On PN180, offspring were killed.

KEY FINDINGS

EW group presented hyperphagia; higher adiposity; higher NPY and TNF-α expression in the ARC nucleus; higher TNF-α and IL-1β levels in the adipose tissue; and lower IL-10 levels in the adipose tissue. These characteristics were normal in M group. As expected, the leptin injection in control offspring caused lower food intake. However, EW group exhibited no change in food intake after the leptin injection, indicating leptin resistance. In contrast, M group had a normal response to the leptin injection.

SIGNIFICANCE

Thirty days of mate treatment prevented the development of hyperphagia, overweight, visceral obesity and central leptin resistance. This beneficial effect on the satiety of M offspring most likely occurred after the improvement of inflammatory markers in the hypothalamus and adipocytes, which suggests that Ilex paraguariensis plays an important role in the management of obesity by acting on the inflammatory profile.

Bone metabolism in obese rats programmed by early weaning

OBJECTIVE

Obesity and osteoporosis seem to have a common pathogenesis, especially because bone and adipose tissue have common origins. Since early weaning (EW) decreases adipogenesis and osteogenesis in neonate, further programming for obesity and hyperleptinemia, we hypothesized that these changes in adipogenesis could affect bone metabolism.

MATERIALS/METHODS

Lactating rats were separated into 3 groups: control - dams whose pups ate milk throughout lactation; mechanical EW (MEW) - dams were involved with a bandage interrupting suckling in the last 3days of lactation; pharmacological EW (PEW) - dams were bromocriptine-treated (0.5mg/twice a day via intraperitoneal injection) 3days before weaning. The adult offspring was subjected to dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and bone tissue was also evaluated by computed tomography, microcomputed tomography and biomechanical tests, beyond serum analyses.

RESULTS

MEW and PEW presented higher total bone mineral density (BMD), total bone mineral content, spine BMD and bone area in postnatal day 150 (PN150). In PN180, both groups also presented increase of these parameters and higher femur BMD and fourth lumbar vertebra (LV4) BMD, femoral head radiodensity and LV4 vertebral body radiodensity, trabecular number, stiffness and break load; lower trabecular separation, maximal deformation and break deformation, and also hyperleptinemia and higher visceral fat mass and 25-hydroxivitamin D, whereas parathyroid hormone was unchanged. Serum C-terminal cross-linked telopeptide of type I collagen was lower for both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Since both models program for obesity and increased bone mass, and leptin increases plasma vitamin D levels, probably leptin is the link between obesity and higher bone mass.

Short- and long-term effects of maternal perinatal undernutrition are lowered by cross-fostering during lactation in the male rat

Undernutrition exposure during the perinatal period reduces the growth kinetic of the offspring and sensitizes it to the development of chronic adult metabolic diseases both in animals and in humans. Previous studies have demonstrated that a 50% maternal food restriction performed during the last week of gestation and during lactation has both short- and long-term consequences in the male rat offspring. Pups from undernourished mothers present a decreased intrauterine (IUGR) and extrauterine growth restriction. This is associated with a drastic reduction in their leptin plasma levels during lactation, and exhibit programming of their stress neuroendocrine systems (corticotroph axis and sympatho-adrenal system) in adulthood. In this study, we report that perinatally undernourished 6-month-old adult animals demonstrated increased leptinemia (at PND200), blood pressure (at PND180), food intake (from PND28 to PND168), locomotor activity (PND187) and altered regulation of glycemia (PND193). Cross-fostering experiments indicate that these alterations were prevented in IUGR offspring nursed by control mothers during lactation. Interestingly, the nutritional status of mothers during lactation (ad libitum feeding v. undernutrition) dictates the leptin plasma levels in pups, consistent with decreased leptin concentration in the milk of mothers subjected to perinatal undernutrition. As it has been reported that postnatal leptin levels in rodent neonates may have long-term metabolic consequences, restoration of plasma leptin levels in pups during lactation may contribute to the beneficial effects of cross-fostering IUGR offspring to control mothers. Collectively, our data suggest that modification of milk components may offer new therapeutic perspectives to prevent the programming of adult diseases in offspring from perinatally undernourished mothers.

Feed your head: neurodevelopmental control of feeding and metabolism

During critical periods of development early in life, excessive or scarce nutritional environments can disrupt the development of central feeding and metabolic neural circuitry, leading to obesity and metabolic disorders in adulthood. A better understanding of the genetic networks that control the development of feeding and metabolic neural circuits, along with knowledge of how and where dietary signals disrupt this process, can serve as the basis for future therapies aimed at reversing the public health crisis that is now building as a result of the global obesity epidemic. This review of animal and human studies highlights recent insights into the molecular mechanisms that regulate the development of central feeding circuitries, the mechanisms by which gestational and early postnatal nutritional status affects this process, and approaches aimed at counteracting the deleterious effects of early over- and underfeeding.

Effects of running wheel training on adult obese rats programmed by maternal prolactin inhibition

The inhibition of maternal prolactin production in late lactation leads to metabolic syndrome and hypothyroidism in adult offspring. Physical training is a therapeutic strategy that could prevent or reverse this condition. We evaluated the effects of a short-duration low-intensity running wheel training program on the metabolic and hormonal alterations in rats. Lactating Wistar rats were treated with bromocriptine (Bro, 1 mg twice a day) or saline on days 19, 20, and 21 of lactation, and the training of offspring began at 35 days of age. Offspring were divided into sedentary and trained controls (C-Sed and C-Ex) and sedentary and trained Bro-treated rats (Bro-Sed and Bro-Ex). Chronic exercise delayed the onset of weight gain in Bro-Ex offspring, and the food intake did not change during the experimental period. At 180 days, visceral fat mass was higher (+46%) in the Bro-Sed offspring than in C-Sed and Bro-Ex rats. As expected, running capacity was higher in trained animals. Most parameters observed in the Bro-Sed offspring were consistent with hypothyroidism and metabolic syndrome and were reversed in the Bro-Ex group. Chronic exercise did not influence the muscle glycogen in the C-Ex group; however, liver glycogen was higher (+30%) in C-Ex group and was unchanged in both Bro offspring groups. Bro-Ex animals had higher plasma lactate dehydrogenase levels, indicating skeletal muscle damage and intolerance of the training program. Low-intensity chronic training is able to normalize many clinical aspects in Bro animals; however, these animals might have had a lower threshold for exercise adaptation than the control rats.

Nutritional programming of insulin resistance: causes and consequences

Strong evidence indicates that adverse prenatal and early postnatal environments have a significant long-term influence on risk factors that result in insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and cardiovascular disease later in life. Here we discuss current knowledge of how maternal and neonatal nutrition influence early growth and the long-term risk of developing insulin resistance in different organs and at the whole-body level. Accumulating evidence supports a role for epigenetic mechanisms underlying this nutritional programming, consisting of heritable changes that regulate gene expression which in turn shapes the phenotype across generations. Deciphering these molecular mechanisms in key tissues and discovering key biological markers may provide valuable insight towards the development of effective intervention strategies.

Changes in plasma adipokines in prepubertal children with a history of extrauterine growth restriction

OBJECTIVE

Because nutritional support in perinatal life has been associated with metabolic programming, children with a history of extrauterine growth restriction (EUGR) might display alterations in the adipocyte and in the secretion of adipokines. The aim of this study was to assess adiponectin, resistin, and leptin concentrations in prepubertal children with a history of EUGR, and to determine the potential correlation between these adipokines and metabolic parameters.

METHODS

This case-control study sample included 38 prepubertal children with a history of EUGR and a control group of 123 healthy children of similar age and sex. Anthropometric measures and blood pressure were assessed. Biochemical markers and blood adipokine concentrations (adiponectin, resistin, and leptin) were evaluated.

RESULTS

Adiponectin concentration was significantly lower in the EUGR group compared with controls (EUGR: 11.49 ± 6.07 versus control: 25.72 ± 10.13 μg/mL), and resistin concentration was higher (EUGR: 20332.95 ± 6401.25 versus control: 8056.31 ± 3823.63 pg/mL), even after adjustment for gestational age, weight, and size at birth. Systolic blood pressure was associated with adipokines concentrations in the EUGR group (P < 0.001). In EUGR children adiponectin was associated with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (P = 0.042), whereas resistin was associated with carbohydrate metabolism parameters (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Early postnatal malnutrition in EUGR children could program adipose tissue. Plasma adipokines can be measured in childhood to identify precocious changes that may be associated with a higher risk for metabolic syndrome or cardiovascular disease later in life.