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Hegde ST, Khan AI, Perez-Saez J, Khan II, Hulse JD, Islam MT, Khan ZH, Ahmed S, Bertuna T, Rashid M, Rashid R, Hossain MZ, Shirin T, Wiens KE, Gurley ES, Bhuiyan TR, Qadri F, Azman AS. Clinical surveillance systems obscure the true cholera infection burden in an endemic region. Nat Med 2024; 30:888-895. [PMID: 38378884 PMCID: PMC10957480 DOI: 10.1038/s41591-024-02810-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Our understanding of cholera transmission and burden largely relies on clinic-based surveillance, which can obscure trends, bias burden estimates and limit the impact of targeted cholera-prevention measures. Serological surveillance provides a complementary approach to monitoring infections, although the link between serologically derived infections and medically attended disease incidence-shaped by immunological, behavioral and clinical factors-remains poorly understood. We unravel this cascade in a cholera-endemic Bangladeshi community by integrating clinic-based surveillance, healthcare-seeking and longitudinal serological data through statistical modeling. Combining the serological trajectories with a reconstructed incidence timeline of symptomatic cholera, we estimated an annual Vibrio cholerae O1 infection incidence rate of 535 per 1,000 population (95% credible interval 514-556), with incidence increasing by age group. Clinic-based surveillance alone underestimated the number of infections and reported cases were not consistently correlated with infection timing. Of the infections, 4 in 3,280 resulted in symptoms, only 1 of which was reported through the surveillance system. These results impart insights into cholera transmission dynamics and burden in the epicenter of the seventh cholera pandemic, where >50% of our study population had an annual V. cholerae O1 infection, and emphasize the potential for a biased view of disease burden and infection risk when depending solely on clinical surveillance data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia T Hegde
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MA, USA
| | - Ashraful Islam Khan
- Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b (International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Javier Perez-Saez
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MA, USA
- Unit of Population Epidemiology, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
- Geneva Centre for Emerging Viral Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ishtiakul Islam Khan
- Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b (International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Juan Dent Hulse
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MA, USA
| | - Md Taufiqul Islam
- Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b (International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Zahid Hasan Khan
- Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b (International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Shakeel Ahmed
- Bangladesh Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Taner Bertuna
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MA, USA
| | - Mamunur Rashid
- Bangladesh Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Rumana Rashid
- Bangladesh Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Md Zakir Hossain
- Bangladesh Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Tahmina Shirin
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Kirsten E Wiens
- Department of Epidemiology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Emily S Gurley
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MA, USA
| | - Taufiqur Rahman Bhuiyan
- Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b (International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Firdausi Qadri
- Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b (International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh), Dhaka, Bangladesh.
| | - Andrew S Azman
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MA, USA.
- Geneva Centre for Emerging Viral Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.
- Division of Tropical and Humanitarian Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.
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2
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Hegde S, Khan AI, Perez-Saez J, Khan II, Hulse JD, Islam MT, Khan ZH, Ahmed S, Bertuna T, Rashid M, Rashid R, Hossain MZ, Shirin T, Wiens K, Gurley ES, Bhuiyan TR, Qadri F, Azman AS. Estimating the gap between clinical cholera and true community infections: findings from an integrated surveillance study in an endemic region of Bangladesh. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2023:2023.07.18.23292836. [PMID: 37502941 PMCID: PMC10371108 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.18.23292836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Our understanding of cholera transmission and burden largely rely on clinic-based surveillance, which can obscure trends, bias burden estimates and limit the impact of targeted cholera-prevention measures. Serologic surveillance provides a complementary approach to monitoring infections, though the link between serologically-derived infections and medically-attended disease - shaped by immunological, behavioral, and clinical factors - remains poorly understood. We unravel this cascade in a cholera-endemic Bangladeshi community by integrating clinic-based surveillance, healthcare seeking, and longitudinal serological data through statistical modeling. We found >50% of the study population had a V. cholerae O1 infection annually, and infection timing was not consistently correlated with reported cases. Four in 2,340 infections resulted in symptoms, only one of which was reported through the surveillance system. These results provide new insights into cholera transmission dynamics and burden in the epicenter of the 7th cholera pandemic and provide a framework to synthesize serological and clinical surveillance data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Hegde
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Javier Perez-Saez
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Unit of Population Epidemiology, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Juan Dent Hulse
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | - Shakeel Ahmed
- Bangladesh Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Taner Bertuna
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Mamunur Rashid
- Bangladesh Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Rumuna Rashid
- Bangladesh Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Md Zakir Hossain
- Bangladesh Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Tahmina Shirin
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Kirsten Wiens
- Department of Epidemiology, Temple University, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Emily S Gurley
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | - Andrew S Azman
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Geneva Centre for Emerging Viral Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
- Division of Tropical and Humanitarian Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
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3
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Russini V, Giancola ML, Brunetti G, Calbi C, Anzivino E, Nisii C, Scaramella L, Dionisi AM, Faraglia F, Selleri M, Villa L, Lovari S, De Marchis ML, Bossù T, Vairo F, Pagnanelli A, Nicastri E. A Cholera Case Imported from Bangladesh to Italy: Clinico-Epidemiological Management and Molecular Characterization in a Non-Endemic Country. Trop Med Infect Dis 2023; 8:tropicalmed8050266. [PMID: 37235314 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8050266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the number of cholera outbreaks reported worldwide, only a few cases are recorded among returning European travellers. We describe the case of a 41-year-old male, returning to Italy after a stay in Bangladesh, his origin country, who presented with watery diarrhoea. Vibrio cholerae and norovirus were detected in the patient's stools via multiplex PCR methods. Direct microscopy, Gram staining, culture and antibiotic susceptibility tests were performed. The isolates were tested using end-point PCR for the detection of potentially enteropathogenic V. cholera. Serotype and cholera toxins identification were carried out. Whole genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were performed, and antimicrobial resistance genes identified. A phylogenetic tree with the most similar genomes of databases previously described was built. Sample of the food brought back by the patient were also collected and analysed. The patient was diagnosed with V. cholerae O1, serotype Inaba, norovirus and SARS-CoV-2 concomitant infection. The isolated V. cholerae strain was found to belong to ST69, encoding for cholera toxin, ctxB7 type and was phylogenetically related to the 2018 outbreak in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Adopting a multidisciplinary approach in a cholera non-endemic country ensured rapid and accurate diagnosis, timely clinical management, and epidemiological investigation at national and international level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Russini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana "M. Aleandri"-Sezione di Roma, 00178 Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Letizia Giancola
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI) "Lazzaro Spallanzani", IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | | | - Carmela Calbi
- Policlinico Casilino General Hospital, 00169 Rome, Italy
| | - Elena Anzivino
- Policlinico Casilino General Hospital, 00169 Rome, Italy
| | - Carla Nisii
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI) "Lazzaro Spallanzani", IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | - Lucia Scaramella
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana "M. Aleandri"-Sezione di Roma, 00178 Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Dionisi
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Faraglia
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI) "Lazzaro Spallanzani", IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | - Marina Selleri
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI) "Lazzaro Spallanzani", IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Villa
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Sarah Lovari
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana "M. Aleandri"-Sezione di Roma, 00178 Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Laura De Marchis
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana "M. Aleandri"-Sezione di Roma, 00178 Rome, Italy
| | - Teresa Bossù
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana "M. Aleandri"-Sezione di Roma, 00178 Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Vairo
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI) "Lazzaro Spallanzani", IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | | | - Emanuele Nicastri
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI) "Lazzaro Spallanzani", IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
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4
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Kanungo S, Azman AS, Ramamurthy T, Deen J, Dutta S. Cholera. Lancet 2022; 399:1429-1440. [PMID: 35397865 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(22)00330-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cholera was first described in the areas around the Bay of Bengal and spread globally, resulting in seven pandemics during the past two centuries. It is caused by toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O1 or O139 bacteria. Cholera is characterised by mild to potentially fatal acute watery diarrhoeal disease. Prompt rehydration therapy is the cornerstone of management. We present an overview of cholera and its pathogenesis, natural history, bacteriology, and epidemiology, while highlighting advances over the past 10 years in molecular epidemiology, immunology, and vaccine development and deployment. Since 2014, the Global Task Force on Cholera Control, a WHO coordinated network of partners, has been working with several countries to develop national cholera control strategies. The global roadmap for cholera control focuses on stopping transmission in cholera hotspots through vaccination and improved water, sanitation, and hygiene, with the aim to reduce cholera deaths by 90% and eliminate local transmission in at least 20 countries by 2030.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Kanungo
- National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | - Andrew S Azman
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; Institute of Global Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Jaqueline Deen
- Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, University of the Philippines-Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Shanta Dutta
- National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India.
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5
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Sarker MHR, Moriyama M, Rahman MM, Das SK, Uzzaman MN, Das J, Uddin A, Banu S, Khan SH, Shahid ASMSB, Shahunja KM, Chisti MJ, Faruque ASG, Ahmed T. Characteristics of Rotavirus, ETEC, and Vibrio Cholerae Among Under 2-year Children Attending an Urban Diarrheal Disease Hospital in Bangladesh. J Prim Care Community Health 2021; 12:21501327211049118. [PMID: 34632833 PMCID: PMC8512248 DOI: 10.1177/21501327211049118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Information on comparative clinical and host characteristics of under-2
children with watery diarrhea caused by rotavirus, Enterotoxigenic
Escherichia coli (ETEC), and Vibrio cholerae
as single pathogens is lacking. We sought to investigate the
sociodemographic, clinical, and host characteristics of under-2 children
hospitalized due to these pathogens. Methodology We conducted a hospital-based case-control study using the icddr,b Diarrheal
Diseases Surveillance System. Children of either sex, <2 years with
diarrhea, who attended the hospital during 2014 to 2018, constituted the
study population. Stool specimens having a single pathogen like rotavirus,
ETEC, or Vibrio cholerae constituted the cases and stool
specimens having no detectable common enteropathogens comprised the
controls. Multinomial logistic regression analysis was done where control
was the reference group. Results A total of 14 889 patients were enrolled, 6939 of whom were under-2 children,
and 5245 (76%) constituted our study population. Among them 48% (n = 2532),
3% (n = 148) and 1% (n = 49) had rotavirus, ETEC, and Vibrio
cholera, respectively. A control group (diarrhea without these
3 or Shigella, Salmonella,
Aeromonas) accounted for 48% (n = 2516). In multinomial
regression model, children with rotavirus (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.36;
95% confidence interval [95% CI], 1.19-1.55) less often presented with
dehydrating diarrhea compared to those with ETEC (aOR, 1.54; 95% CI,
1.05-2.26) and cholera (aOR, 2.25; 95% CI, 1.11-4.57). Rotavirus diarrhea
was associated (aOR, 1.25; 95% CI, 1.07-1.46) with those who received
antimicrobials prior to hospital admission and protectively associated with
drinking tap water (aOR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.73-0.95); however, ETEC diarrhea
had protective association (aOR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.43-0.92) with children who
received antimicrobials prior to hospital admission and was associated with
drinking tap water (aOR, 1.78; 95% CI, 1.19-2.66). Use of intravenous fluid
was associated with cholera (aOR, 10.36; 95% CI, 4.85-22.16) and had
protective association with rotavirus episodes (aOR, 0.64; 95% CI,
0.45-0.91). Conclusions Clinical presentations and host characteristics of rotavirus, ETEC, and
Vibrio cholerae diarrhea differed from each other and
the information may be helpful for clinicians for better understanding and
proper management of these children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Habibur Rahman Sarker
- Hiroshima University, Hiroshima,
Japan
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr, b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | | | | | - Md Nazim Uzzaman
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr, b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Jui Das
- The University of Queensland, Brisbane,
Australia
| | - Aftab Uddin
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr, b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Shakila Banu
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr, b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Soroar Hossain Khan
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr, b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Abu SMSB Shahid
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr, b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | - Mohammod Jobayer Chisti
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr, b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Mohammod Jobayer Chisti, Nutrition and
Clinical Services Division (NCSD), 68, Shaheed Tajuddin Ahmed Sarani Mohakhali,
Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh.
| | - Abu S. G. Faruque
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr, b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Tahmeed Ahmed
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr, b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
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6
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Flaherty KE, Grembi JA, Ramachandran VV, Haque F, Khatun S, Rahman M, Maples S, Becker TK, Spormann AM, Schoolnik GK, Hryckowian AJ, Nelson EJ. High-throughput low-cost nl-qPCR for enteropathogen detection: A proof-of-concept among hospitalized patients in Bangladesh. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0257708. [PMID: 34597302 PMCID: PMC8486112 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0257708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Diarrheal disease is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally, especially in low- and middle-income countries. High-throughput and low-cost approaches to identify etiologic agents are needed to guide public health mitigation. Nanoliter-qPCR (nl-qPCR) is an attractive alternative to more expensive methods yet is nascent in application and without a proof-of-concept among hospitalized patients. Methods A census-based study was conducted among diarrheal patients admitted at two government hospitals in rural Bangladesh during a diarrheal outbreak period. DNA was extracted from stool samples and assayed by nl-qPCR for common bacterial, protozoan, and helminth enteropathogens as the primary outcome. Results A total of 961 patients were enrolled; stool samples were collected from 827 patients. Enteropathogens were detected in 69% of patient samples; More than one enteropathogen was detected in 32%. Enteropathogens most commonly detected were enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (26.0%), Shiga toxin-producing E.coli (18.3%), enterotoxigenic E. coli (15.5% heat stable toxin positive, 2.2% heat labile toxin positive), Shigella spp. (14.8%), and Vibrio cholerae (9.0%). Geospatial analysis revealed that the median number of pathogens per patient and the proportion of cases presenting with severe dehydration were greatest amongst patients residing closest to the study hospitals.” Conclusions This study demonstrates a proof-of-concept for nl-qPCR as a high-throughput low-cost method for enteropathogen detection among hospitalized patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katelyn E. Flaherty
- Department Environmental and Global Health, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Jessica A. Grembi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Vasavi V. Ramachandran
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Farhana Haque
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Selina Khatun
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Mahmudu Rahman
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Stace Maples
- Geospatial Center, Branner Library, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Torben K. Becker
- Department Environmental and Global Health, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Alfred M. Spormann
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Gary K. Schoolnik
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Andrew J. Hryckowian
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Eric J. Nelson
- Department Environmental and Global Health, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
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7
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Parvin I, Shahid ASMSB, Das S, Shahrin L, Ackhter MM, Alam T, Khan SH, Chisti MJ, Clemens JD, Ahmed T, Sack DA, Faruque ASG. Vibrio cholerae O139 persists in Dhaka, Bangladesh since 1993. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009721. [PMID: 34473699 PMCID: PMC8443037 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND After a multi-country Asian outbreak of cholera due to Vibrio cholerae serogroup O139 which started in 1992, it is rarely detected from any country in Asia and has not been detected from patients in Africa. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We extracted surveillance data from the Dhaka and Matlab Hospitals of International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b) to review trends in isolation of Vibrio cholerae O139 in Bangladesh. Data from the Dhaka Hospital is a 2% sample of > 100,000 diarrhoeal patients treated annually. Data from the Matlab Hospital includes all diarrhoeal patients who hail from the villages included in the Matlab Health and Demographic Surveillance System. Vibrio cholerae O139 was first isolated in Dhaka in 1993 and had been isolated every year since then except for a gap between 2005 and 2008. An average of thirteen isolates was detected annually from the Dhaka Hospital during the last ten years, yielding an estimated 650 cases annually at this hospital. During the last ten years, cases due to serogroup O139 represented 0.47% of all cholera cases; the others being due to serogroup O1. No cases with serogroup O139 were identified at Matlab since 2006. Clinical signs and symptoms of cholera due to serogroup O139 were similar to cases due to serogroup O1 though more of the O139 cases were not dehydrated. Most isolates of O139 remained sensitive to tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, and azithromycin, but they became resistant to erythromycin starting in 2009. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Cholera due to Vibrio cholerae serogroup O139 continues to cause typical cholera in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irin Parvin
- Nutrition and Clinical Services Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | - Subhasish Das
- Nutrition and Clinical Services Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Lubaba Shahrin
- Nutrition and Clinical Services Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Mst. Mahmuda Ackhter
- Nutrition and Clinical Services Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Tahmina Alam
- Nutrition and Clinical Services Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Soroar Hossain Khan
- Nutrition and Clinical Services Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammod Jobayer Chisti
- Nutrition and Clinical Services Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - John D. Clemens
- Office of the Executive Director, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
- UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Tahmeed Ahmed
- Office of the Executive Director, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - David A. Sack
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DAS); (ASGF)
| | - Abu Syed Golam Faruque
- Nutrition and Clinical Services Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
- * E-mail: (DAS); (ASGF)
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8
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Khan AI, Rashid MM, Islam MT, Afrad MH, Salimuzzaman M, Hegde ST, Zion MMI, Khan ZH, Shirin T, Habib ZH, Khan IA, Begum YA, Azman AS, Rahman M, Clemens JD, Flora MS, Qadri F. Epidemiology of Cholera in Bangladesh: Findings From Nationwide Hospital-based Surveillance, 2014-2018. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 71:1635-1642. [PMID: 31891368 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciz1075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite advances in prevention, detection, and treatment, cholera remains a major public health problem in Bangladesh and little is known about cholera outside of limited historical sentinel surveillance sites. In Bangladesh, a comprehensive national cholera control plan is essential, although national data are needed to better understand the magnitude and geographic distribution of cholera. METHODS We conducted systematic hospital-based cholera surveillance among diarrhea patients in 22 sites throughout Bangladesh from 2014 to 2018. Stool specimens were collected and tested for Vibrio cholerae by microbiological culture. Participants' socioeconomic status and clinical, sanitation, and food history were recorded. We used generalized estimating equations to identify the factors associated with cholera among diarrhea patients. RESULTS Among 26 221 diarrhea patients enrolled, 6.2% (n = 1604) cases were V. cholerae O1. The proportion of diarrhea patients positive for cholera in children <5 years was 2.1% and in patients ≥5 years was 9.5%. The proportion of cholera in Dhaka and Chittagong Division was consistently high. We observed biannual seasonal peaks (pre- and postmonsoon) for cholera across the country, with higher cholera positivity during the postmonsoon in western regions and during the pre-monsoon season in eastern regions. Cholera risk increased with age, occupation, and recent history of diarrhea among household members. CONCLUSIONS Cholera occurs throughout a large part of Bangladesh. Cholera-prone areas should be prioritized to control the disease by implementation of targeted interventions. These findings can help strengthen the cholera-control program and serve as the basis for future studies for tracking the impact of cholera-control interventions in Bangladesh.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashraful Islam Khan
- International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Md Mahbubur Rashid
- International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Md Taufiqul Islam
- International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Mokibul Hassan Afrad
- International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - M Salimuzzaman
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control, and Research (IEDCR), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Sonia Tara Hegde
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Md Mazharul I Zion
- International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Zahid Hasan Khan
- International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Tahmina Shirin
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control, and Research (IEDCR), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Zakir Hossain Habib
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control, and Research (IEDCR), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Iqbal Ansary Khan
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control, and Research (IEDCR), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Yasmin Ara Begum
- International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Andrew S Azman
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Mahmudur Rahman
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control, and Research (IEDCR), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - John David Clemens
- International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | - Firdausi Qadri
- International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
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9
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Bin-Hameed EA, Joban HA. Cholera Outbreak in Hadhramout, Yemen: The Epidemiological Weeks 2019. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGIC RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.34172/ijer.2021.07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and aims: Cholera is a disease of acute watery diarrhea caused by Vibrio cholerae usually transmitted through contaminated water. In this study, we collected and analyzed the related epidemiological data to determine cholera outbreak in Hadhramout, Yemen during the disease epidemic in 2019. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted according to screening rapid diagnostic and confirmatory laboratory culture testing methods for diagnosing clinically cholera cases. Results: Suspected cholera cases were tested by rapid diagnostic test (RDT) and 399 (50.5%) out of 794 cases were determined positive, and 76(9.6%) of them were confirmed by laboratory culture test (LCT) with statistically significant difference. Serotype V. cholerae O1 was also detected in patients’ diarrhea. Females were the most affected by the disease manifested in 201 (25.3%) and 43 (5.4%) when tested by RDT and LCT, respectively, with no statistically significant difference. The highest proportion of cholera cases (224) were reported in the age group less than 15 years (56.1%) with statistically significant difference when tested by RDT, and 45(13.3%) when tested by LCT with insignificant statistics difference. Hajr directorate was revealed to be the most affected with 242 (30.47%) followed by Mukalla city directorate with 108 (13.60%) when the cases were tested by RDT; while Hajr and Mukalla city directorates reported 55 (7.0%) and 15 (2.0%), respectively, when it was confirmed by LCT with a statistically significant difference. Conclusion: Severe cholera outbreak occurred during the epidemiological weeks in 2019 in Hadhramout coast. V. cholerae O1 serotype was the causative agent of cholera. Females and age group less than 15 years were the most affected by the disease. Hajr and Mukalla city directorates reported serious outbreak cholera cases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Huda Ameen Joban
- The National Center of Public Health Laboratories, Hadhramout Coast Branch, Yemen
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10
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Foster T, Falletta J, Amin N, Rahman M, Liu P, Raj S, Mills F, Petterson S, Norman G, Moe C, Willetts J. Modelling faecal pathogen flows and health risks in urban Bangladesh: Implications for sanitation decision making. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2021; 233:113669. [PMID: 33578186 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Faecal-oral infections are a major component of the disease burden in low-income contexts, with inadequate sanitation seen as a contributing factor. However, demonstrating health effects of sanitation interventions - particularly in urban areas - has proved challenging and there is limited empirical evidence to support sanitation decisions that maximise health gains. This study aimed to develop, apply and validate a systems modelling approach to inform sanitation infrastructure and service decision-making in urban environments by examining enteric pathogen inputs, transport and reduction by various sanitation systems, and estimating corresponding exposure and public health impacts. The health effects of eight sanitation options were assessed in a low-income area in Dhaka, Bangladesh, with a focus on five target pathogens (Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella Typhi, norovirus GII and Giardia). Relative to the sanitation base case in the study site (24% septic tanks, 5% holding tanks and 71% toilets discharging directly to open drains), comprehensive coverage of septic tanks was estimated to reduce the disease burden in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) by 48-72%, while complete coverage of communal scale anaerobic baffled reactors was estimated to reduce DALYs by 67-81%. Despite these improvements, a concerning health risk persists with these systems as a result of effluent discharge to open drains, particularly when the systems are poorly managed. Other sanitation options, including use of constructed wetlands and small bore sewerage, demonstrated further reductions in local health risk, though several still exported pathogens into neighbouring areas, simply transferring risk to downstream communities. The study revealed sensitivity to and a requirement for further evidence on log reduction values for different sanitation systems under varying performance conditions, pathogen flows under flooding conditions as well as pathogen shedding and human exposure in typical low-income urban settings. Notwithstanding variability and uncertainties in input parameters, systems modelling can be a feasible and customisable approach to consider the relative health impact of different sanitation options across various contexts, and stands as a valuable tool to guide urban sanitation decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Foster
- Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology Sydney, 235 Jones St, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia.
| | - Jay Falletta
- Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology Sydney, 235 Jones St, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia.
| | - Nuhu Amin
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh.
| | - Mahbubur Rahman
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh.
| | - Pengbo Liu
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Suraja Raj
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Freya Mills
- Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology Sydney, 235 Jones St, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia.
| | - Susan Petterson
- Water & Health Pty Ltd., 13 Lord St, North Sydney, NSW, 2060, Australia; School of Medicine, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Southport, QLD, 4222, Australia.
| | - Guy Norman
- Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor, 10 Queen Street Place, London, EC4R 1BE, UK.
| | - Christine Moe
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Juliet Willetts
- Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology Sydney, 235 Jones St, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia.
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11
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Azman AS, Lauer SA, Bhuiyan TR, Luquero FJ, Leung DT, Hegde ST, Harris JB, Paul KK, Khaton F, Ferdous J, Lessler J, Salje H, Qadri F, Gurley ES. Vibrio cholerae O1 transmission in Bangladesh: insights from a nationally representative serosurvey. THE LANCET. MICROBE 2020; 1:e336-e343. [PMID: 33345203 PMCID: PMC7738617 DOI: 10.1016/s2666-5247(20)30141-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pandemic Vibrio cholerae from cholera-endemic countries around the Bay of Bengal regularly seed epidemics globally. Without reducing cholera in these countries, including Bangladesh, global cholera control might never be achieved. Little is known about the geographical distribution and magnitude of V cholerae O1 transmission nationally. We aimed to describe infection risk across Bangladesh, making use of advances in cholera seroepidemiology, therefore overcoming many of the limitations of current clinic-based surveillance. METHODS We tested serum samples from a nationally representative serosurvey in Bangladesh with eight V cholerae-specific assays. Using these data with a machine-learning model previously validated within a cohort of confirmed cholera cases and their household contacts, we estimated the proportion of the population with evidence of infection by V cholerae O1 in the previous year (annual seroincidence) and used Bayesian geostatistical models to create high-resolution national maps of infection risk. FINDINGS Between Oct 16, 2015, and Jan 24, 2016, we obtained and tested serum samples from 2930 participants (707 households) in 70 communities across Bangladesh. We estimated national annual seroincidence of V cholerae O1 infection of 17·3% (95% CI 10·5-24·1). Our high-resolution maps showed large heterogeneity of infection risk, with community-level annual infection risk within the sampled population ranging from 4·3% to 62·9%. Across Bangladesh, we estimated that 28·1 (95% CI 17·1-39·2) million infections occurred in the year before the survey. Despite having an annual seroincidence of V cholerae O1 infection lower than much of Bangladesh, Dhaka (the capital of Bangladesh and largest city in the country) had 2·0 (95% CI 0·6-3·9) million infections during the same year, primarily because of its large population. INTERPRETATION Serosurveillance provides an avenue for identifying areas with high V cholerae O1 transmission and investigating key risk factors for infection across geographical scales. Serosurveillance could serve as an important method for countries to plan and monitor progress towards 2030 cholera elimination goals. FUNDING The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, National Institutes of Health, and US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew S Azman
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Stephen A Lauer
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Francisco J Luquero
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Epicentre, Paris, France
| | - Daniel T Leung
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Division of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Sonia T Hegde
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jason B Harris
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Division of Global Health, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Justin Lessler
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Henrik Salje
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | - Emily S Gurley
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
- icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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12
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Pathogen flows from on-site sanitation systems in low-income urban neighborhoods, Dhaka: A quantitative environmental assessment. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2020; 230:113619. [PMID: 32942223 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Revised: 08/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite wide usage of on-site sanitation, there is limited field-based evidence on the removal or release of pathogens from septic tanks and other primary treatment systems, such as anaerobic baffled reactors (ABR). In two low-income areas in Dhaka, we conducted a cross-sectional study to explore pathogen loads discharged from commonly used on-site sanitation-systems and their transport in nearby drains and waterways. METHODS We collected samples of drain water, drain sediment, canal water, and floodwater from April-October 2019. Sludge, supernatant, and effluent samples were also collected from septic tanks and ABRs. We investigated the presence and concentration of selected enteric pathogens (Shigella, Vibrio cholerae (V. cholerae), Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi), Norovirus Genogroup-II (NoV-GII), and Giardia) and presence of Cryptosporidium in these samples using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR).The equivalent genome copies (EGC) of individual pathogens were estimated in each sample by interpolation of the mean Ct value to the corresponding standard curve and the dilution factor for each sample type. Absolute quantification was expressed as log10 EGC per 100 mL for the water samples and log10 EGC per gram for the sediment samples. RESULTS Among all samples tested (N = 151), 89% were contaminated with Shigella, 68% with V. cholerae and NoV-GII, 32% with Giardia, 17% with S. Typhi and 6% with Cryptosporidium. A wide range of concentration of pathogens [range: mean log10 concentration of Giardia = 0.74 EGC/100 mL in drain ultrafiltration samples to mean log10 concentration of NoV-GII and Giardia = 7.11 EGC/100 mL in ABR sludge] was found in all environmental samples. The highest pathogen concentrations were detected in open drains [range: mean log10 concentration = 2.50-4.94 EGC/100 mL], septic tank effluent [range: mean log10 concentration = 3.32-4.65 EGC/100 mL], and ABR effluent [range: mean log10 concentration = 2.72-5.13 EGC/100 mL]. CONCLUSIONS High concentrations of pathogens (particularly NoV-GII, V.cholerae and Shigella) were frequently detected in environmental samples from two low-income urban neighbourhoods of Dhaka city. The numerous environmental exposure pathways for children and adults make these findings of public health concern. These results should prompt rethinking of how to achieve safe sanitation solutions that protect public health in dense low-income areas. In particular, improved management and maintenance regimes, further treatment of liquid effluent from primary treatment processes, and appropriate application of onsite, decentralised and offsite sanitation systems given the local context.
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13
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Ryckman T, Luby S, Owens DK, Bendavid E, Goldhaber-Fiebert JD. Methods for Model Calibration under High Uncertainty: Modeling Cholera in Bangladesh. Med Decis Making 2020; 40:693-709. [PMID: 32639859 DOI: 10.1177/0272989x20938683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Background. Published data on a disease do not always correspond directly to the parameters needed to simulate natural history. Several calibration methods have been applied to computer-based disease models to extract needed parameters that make a model's output consistent with available data. Objective. To assess 3 calibration methods and evaluate their performance in a real-world application. Methods. We calibrated a model of cholera natural history in Bangladesh, where a lack of active surveillance biases available data. We built a cohort state-transition cholera natural history model that includes case hospitalization to reflect the passive surveillance data-generating process. We applied 3 calibration techniques: incremental mixture importance sampling, sampling importance resampling, and random search with rejection sampling. We adapted these techniques to the context of wide prior uncertainty and many degrees of freedom. We evaluated the resulting posterior parameter distributions using a range of metrics and compared predicted cholera burden estimates. Results. All 3 calibration techniques produced posterior distributions with a higher likelihood and better fit to calibration targets as compared with prior distributions. Incremental mixture importance sampling resulted in the highest likelihood and largest number of unique parameter sets to better inform joint parameter uncertainty. Compared with naïve uncalibrated parameter sets, calibrated models of cholera in Bangladesh project substantially more cases, many of which are not detected by passive surveillance, and fewer deaths. Limitations. Calibration cannot completely overcome poor data quality, which can leave some parameters less well informed than others. Calibration techniques may perform differently under different circumstances. Conclusions. Incremental mixture importance sampling, when adapted to the context of high uncertainty, performs well. By accounting for biases in data, calibration can improve model projections of disease burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Ryckman
- Center for Health Policy and Center for Primary Care & Outcomes Research, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Stephen Luby
- Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Douglas K Owens
- VA Palo Alto Healthcare System, Palo Alto, CA, USA.,Center for Health Policy and Center for Primary Care & Outcomes Research, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Eran Bendavid
- Division of Primary Care and Population Health, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.,Center for Health Policy and Center for Primary Care & Outcomes Research, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jeremy D Goldhaber-Fiebert
- Center for Health Policy and Center for Primary Care & Outcomes Research, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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14
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Billah SM, Raihana S, Ali NB, Iqbal A, Rahman MM, Khan ANS, Karim F, Karim MA, Hassan A, Jackson B, Walker N, Hossain MA, Sarker S, Black RE, El Arifeen S. Bangladesh: a success case in combating childhood diarrhoea. J Glob Health 2019; 9:020803. [PMID: 31673347 PMCID: PMC6816141 DOI: 10.7189/jogh.09.020803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bangladesh had a large reduction in childhood deaths due to diarrhoeal disease in recent decades. This paper explores the preventive, promotive, curative and contextual drivers that helped Bangladesh achieve this exemplary success. METHODS Primary and secondary data collection approaches were used to document trends in reduction of Diarrhoea Specific Mortality Rate (DSMR) between 1980 and 2015, understand what policies and programmes played key roles, and estimate the contribution of specific interventions that were implemented during the period. Data acquisition involved relevant document reviews and in-depth interviews with key stake-holders. A systematic search of literature was undertaken to explore socio-economic, aetiological, behavioural, and nutritional drivers of diarrhoeal disease reduction in Bangladesh. Finally, we used LiST (Lives Saved Tool) to model the contributions of the relevant interventions during three time periods (1980-2015, 1980-2000 and 2000-2015), and to project the number of lives saved in 2030 (compared to 2015) if these interventions were implemented at near universal coverage (90%). RESULTS The factors which likely had the most impact on DSMR were the coordinated efforts of the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) with non-government organizations (NGOs) and the private sector that enabled swift implementation, at scale, of interventions like oral rehydration solution (ORS) and zinc, promotion of breastfeeding, handwashing and sanitary latrines (WASH), as well as improvements in female education and nutrition. Compared to 1980, we found ORS and reduction in stunting prevalence had the greatest impact on DSMR, saving roughly 70 000 lives combined in 2015. Until 2000, ORS had a higher contribution to DSMR reduction than reduction in stunting prevalence. This proportionate contribution was reversed during 2000-2015. At near universal coverage (90%) of combined direct diarrhoeal disease, nutrition and WASH interventions, we project that an additional 5356 deaths due to diarrhoea could be averted in 2030. CONCLUSION Bangladesh's achievement in reduction of DSMR highlights the important role of an enabling policy environment that fostered coordinated efforts of the public and private sectors and NGOs for maximal impact. To maintain this momentum, evidence-based interventions should be scaled up at universal coverage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sk Masum Billah
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Shahreen Raihana
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Nazia Binte Ali
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Afrin Iqbal
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammad Masudur Rahman
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Abdullah Nurus Salam Khan
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Farhana Karim
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Mohd Anisul Karim
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Aniqa Hassan
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Bianca Jackson
- Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of International Health, Institute for International Programs, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Neff Walker
- Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of International Health, Institute for International Programs, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - M Altaf Hossain
- Directorate General for Health Services, Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | - Robert E Black
- Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of International Health, Institute for International Programs, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Shams El Arifeen
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
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15
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Paul RC, Gidding HF, Nazneen A, Banik KC, Sumon SA, Paul KK, Luby SP, Gurley ES, Hayen A. A Low-Cost, Community Knowledge Approach to Estimate Maternal and Jaundice-Associated Mortality in Rural Bangladesh. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2019; 99:1633-1638. [PMID: 30298803 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.17-0974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In the absence of a civil registration system, a house-to-house survey is often used to estimate cause-specific mortality in low- and middle-income countries. However, house-to-house surveys are resource and time intensive. We applied a low-cost community knowledge approach to identify maternal deaths from any cause and jaundice-associated deaths among persons aged ≥ 14 years, and stillbirths and neonatal deaths in mothers with jaundice during pregnancy in five rural communities in Bangladesh. We estimated the method's sensitivity and cost savings compared with a house-to-house survey. In the five communities with a total of 125,570 population, we identified 13 maternal deaths, 60 deaths among persons aged ≥ 14 years associated with jaundice, five neonatal deaths, and four stillbirths born to a mother with jaundice during pregnancy over the 3-year period before the survey using the community knowledge approach. The sensitivity of community knowledge method in identifying target deaths ranged from 80% for neonatal deaths to 100% for stillbirths and maternal deaths. The community knowledge approach required 36% of the staff time to undertake compared with the house-to-house survey. The community knowledge approach was less expensive but highly sensitive in identifying maternal and jaundice-associated mortality, as well as all-cause adult mortality in rural settings in Bangladesh. This method can be applied in rural settings of other low- and middle-income countries and, in conjunction with hospital-based hepatitis diagnoses, used to monitor the impact of programs to reduce the burden of cause-specific hepatitis mortality, a current World Health Organization priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Repon C Paul
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, UNSW Medicine, Sydney, Australia.,International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Heather F Gidding
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, UNSW Medicine, Sydney, Australia
| | - Arifa Nazneen
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Kajal C Banik
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Shariful A Sumon
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Kishor K Paul
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Stephen P Luby
- Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Emily S Gurley
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland.,International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Andrew Hayen
- Australian Centre for Public and Population Health, Research, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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16
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Luby SP, Davis J, Brown RR, Gorelick SM, Wong THF. Broad approaches to cholera control in Asia: Water, sanitation and handwashing. Vaccine 2019; 38 Suppl 1:A110-A117. [PMID: 31383486 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.07.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cholera has been eliminated as a public health problem in high-income countries that have implemented sanitation system separating the community's fecal waste from their drinking water and food supply. These expensive, highly-engineered systems, first developed in London over 150 years ago, have not reached low-income high-risk communities across Asia. Barriers to their implementation in communities at highest risk for cholera include the high capital and operating costs for this technological approach, limited capacity and perverse incentives of local governments, and a decreasing availability of water. Interim solutions including household level water treatment, constructing latrines and handwashing promotion have only marginally reduced the risk of cholera and other fecally transmitted diseases. Increased research to develop and policy flexibility to implement a new generation of solutions that are designed specifically to address the physical, financial and political constraints of low-income communities offers the best prospect for reducing the burden of cholera across Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P Luby
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States.
| | - Jennifer Davis
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | - Rebekah R Brown
- Monash Sustainable Development Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Steven M Gorelick
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | - Tony H F Wong
- Cooperative Research Centre for Water Sensitive Cities, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
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17
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Ateudjieu J, Yakum MN, Goura AP, Nafack SS, Chebe AN, Azakoh JN, Chukuwchindun BA, Bayiha EJ, Kangmo C, Tachegno GVB, Bissek ACZK. Health facility preparedness for cholera outbreak response in four cholera-prone districts in Cameroon: a cross sectional study. BMC Health Serv Res 2019; 19:458. [PMID: 31286934 PMCID: PMC6615310 DOI: 10.1186/s12913-019-4315-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The risk of cholera outbreak remains high in Cameroon. This is because of the persistent cholera outbreaks in neighboring countries coupled with the poor hygiene and sanitation conditions in Cameroon. The objective of this study was to assess the readiness of health facilities to respond to cholera outbreak in four cholera-prone districts in Cameroon. Methodology A cross-sectional study was conducted targeting all health facilities in four health districts, labeled as cholera hotspots in Cameroon in August 2016. Data collection was done by interview with a questionnaire and by observation regarding the availability of resources and materials for surveillance and case management, access to water, hygiene, and sanitation. Data analysis was descriptive with STATA 11. Principal findings A total of 134 health facilities were evaluated, most of which (108/134[81%]) were urban facilities. The preparedness regarding surveillance was limited with 13 (50%) health facilities in the Far North and 22(20%) in the Littoral having cholera case definition guide. ORS for Case management was present in 8(31%) health facilities in the Far North and in 94(87%) facilities in the littoral. Less than half of the health facilities had a hand washing protocol and 7(5.1%) did not have any source of drinking water or relied on unimproved sources like lake. A total of 4(3.0%) health facilities, all in the Far North region, did not have a toilet. Conclusions The level of preparedness of health facilities in Cameroon for cholera outbreak response presents a lot of weaknesses. These are present in terms of lack of basic surveillance and case management materials and resources, low access to WaSH. If not addressed now, these facilities might not be able to play their role in case there is an outbreak and might even turn to be transmission milieus. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12913-019-4315-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome Ateudjieu
- M.A. SANTE (Meilleur accès aux soins de Santé), P.O. Box 33490, Yaoundé, Cameroon.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Dschang, P.O. Box 067, Dschang, Cameroon
| | | | - Andre Pascal Goura
- M.A. SANTE (Meilleur accès aux soins de Santé), P.O. Box 33490, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Sonia Sonkeng Nafack
- M.A. SANTE (Meilleur accès aux soins de Santé), P.O. Box 33490, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | | | | | | | - Eugene Joel Bayiha
- M.A. SANTE (Meilleur accès aux soins de Santé), P.O. Box 33490, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Corine Kangmo
- M.A. SANTE (Meilleur accès aux soins de Santé), P.O. Box 33490, Yaoundé, Cameroon
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review describes the basic epidemiologic, clinical, and microbiologic aspects of cholera, highlights new developments within these areas, and presents strategies for applying currently available tools and knowledge more effectively. RECENT FINDINGS From 1990 to 2016, the reported global burden of cholera fluctuated between 74,000 and 595,000 cases per year; however, modeling estimates suggest the real burden is between 1.3 and 4.0 million cases and 95,000 deaths yearly. In 2018, the World Health Assembly endorsed a new initiative to reduce cholera deaths by 90% and eliminate local cholera transmission in 20 countries by 2030. New tools, including localized GIS mapping, climate modeling, whole genome sequencing, oral vaccines, rapid diagnostic tests, and new applications of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions, could support this goal. Challenges include a high proportion of fragile states among cholera-endemic countries, urbanization, climate change, and the need for cholera treatment guidelines for pregnant women and malnourished children. SUMMARY Reducing cholera morbidity and mortality depends on real-time surveillance, outbreak detection and response; timely access to appropriate case management and cholera vaccines; and provision of safe water, sanitation, and hygiene.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Davis
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Mailstop H24-9, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Rupa Narra
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Mailstop H24-9, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Eric D. Mintz
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Mailstop H24-9, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
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19
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Andrews JR, Leung DT, Ahmed S, Malek MA, Ahmed D, Begum YA, Qadri F, Ahmed T, Faruque ASG, Nelson EJ. Determinants of severe dehydration from diarrheal disease at hospital presentation: Evidence from 22 years of admissions in Bangladesh. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005512. [PMID: 28448489 PMCID: PMC5423662 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background To take advantage of emerging opportunities to reduce morbidity and mortality from diarrheal disease, we need to better understand the determinants of life-threatening severe dehydration (SD) in resource-poor settings. Methodology/findings We analyzed records of patients admitted with acute diarrheal disease over twenty-two years at the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (1993–2014). Patients presenting with and without SD were compared by multivariable logistic regression models, which included socio-demographic factors and pathogens isolated. Generalized additive models evaluated non-linearities between age or household income and SD. Among 55,956 admitted patients, 13,457 (24%) presented with SD. Vibrio cholerae was the most common pathogen isolated (12,405 patients; 22%), and had the strongest association with SD (AOR 4.77; 95% CI: 4.41–5.51); detection of multiple pathogens did not exacerbate SD risk. The highest proportion of severely dehydrated patients presented in a narrow window only 4–12 hours after symptom onset. Risk of presenting with SD increased sharply from zero to ten years of age and remained high throughout adolescence and adulthood. Adult women had a 38% increased odds (AOR 1.38; 95% CI: 1.30–1.46) of SD compared to adult men. The probability of SD increased sharply at low incomes. These findings were consistent across pathogens. Conclusions/significance There remain underappreciated populations vulnerable to life-threatening diarrheal disease that include adult women and the very poor. In addition to efforts that address diarrheal disease in young children, there is a need to develop interventions for these other high-risk populations that are accessible within 4 hours of symptom onset. To best help patients with diarrheal disease, we need to better understand what causes patients to tip from mild disease to severe disease. In this study, we analyzed records of patients presenting to one of the largest hospitals in the world dedicated to the management of diarrheal diseases. Patients with and without severe dehydration (SD) were compared at multiple-levels. We found that: (i) Patients presented with SD after only 4 to 12 hours of symptoms. (ii) The risk of presenting with SD was higher in older children and adult women; suggesting that people might seek help differently based on age and gender. (iii) The extreme poor had a dramatically increased risk of presenting with SD. In summary, these findings highlight the need for rapid interventions that target older children and adult women in addition to ongoing efforts focused on young children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason R. Andrews
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States of America
| | - Daniel T. Leung
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America
| | - Shahnawaz Ahmed
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammed Abdul Malek
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Dilruba Ahmed
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Yasmin Ara Begum
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Firdausi Qadri
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Tahmeed Ahmed
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Abu Syed Golam Faruque
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Eric J. Nelson
- Emerging Pathogens Institute and Child Health Research Institute, Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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20
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Haque F, Ball RL, Khatun S, Ahmed M, Kache S, Chisti MJ, Sarker SA, Maples SD, Pieri D, Vardhan Korrapati T, Sarnquist C, Federspiel N, Rahman MW, Andrews JR, Rahman M, Nelson EJ. Evaluation of a Smartphone Decision-Support Tool for Diarrheal Disease Management in a Resource-Limited Setting. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005290. [PMID: 28103233 PMCID: PMC5283765 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Revised: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of mobile technology offers new opportunities to improve clinical guideline adherence in resource-limited settings. We conducted a clinical pilot study in rural Bangladesh to evaluate the impact of a smartphone adaptation of the World Health Organization (WHO) diarrheal disease management guidelines, including a modality for age-based weight estimation. Software development was guided by end-user input and evaluated in a resource-limited district and sub-district hospital during the fall 2015 cholera season; both hospitals lacked scales which necessitated weight estimation. The study consisted of a 6 week pre-intervention and 6 week intervention period with a 10-day post-discharge follow-up. Standard of care was maintained throughout the study with the exception that admitting clinicians used the tool during the intervention. Inclusion criteria were patients two months of age and older with uncomplicated diarrheal disease. The primary outcome was adherence to guidelines for prescriptions of intravenous (IV) fluids, antibiotics and zinc. A total of 841 patients were enrolled (325 pre-intervention; 516 intervention). During the intervention, the proportion of prescriptions for IV fluids decreased at the district and sub-district hospitals (both p < 0.001) with risk ratios (RRs) of 0.5 and 0.2, respectively. However, when IV fluids were prescribed, the volume better adhered to recommendations. The proportion of prescriptions for the recommended antibiotic azithromycin increased (p < 0.001 district; p = 0.035 sub-district) with RRs of 6.9 (district) and 1.6 (sub-district) while prescriptions for other antibiotics decreased; zinc adherence increased. Limitations included an absence of a concurrent control group and no independent dehydration assessment during the pre-intervention. Despite limitations, opportunities were identified to improve clinical care, including better assessment, weight estimation, and fluid/ antibiotic selection. These findings demonstrate that a smartphone-based tool can improve guideline adherence. This study should serve as a catalyst for a randomized controlled trial to expand on the findings and address limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhana Haque
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control, and Research (IEDCR), Bangladesh Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Infectious Diseases Division (IDD), International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Robyn L. Ball
- Quantitative Sciences Unit, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Selina Khatun
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control, and Research (IEDCR), Bangladesh Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Mujaddeed Ahmed
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control, and Research (IEDCR), Bangladesh Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Saraswati Kache
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Mohammod Jobayer Chisti
- Nutrition and Clinical Services Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Shafiqul Alam Sarker
- Nutrition and Clinical Services Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Stace D. Maples
- Geospatial Center, Stanford University Libraries, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Dane Pieri
- Independent Technology Developer, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | | | - Clea Sarnquist
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Nancy Federspiel
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Muhammad Waliur Rahman
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control, and Research (IEDCR), Bangladesh Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Infectious Diseases Division (IDD), International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Jason R. Andrews
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Mahmudur Rahman
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control, and Research (IEDCR), Bangladesh Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Eric Jorge Nelson
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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